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Docre 2

Uploaded by

Long Ngo Duy
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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using this technique; otherwise, the controller loses its physical meaning

and can never be designed for the intended control tasks. This issue will be
revisited later within the context of feedback controllers design.

Theorem 1.2. If x (t) is a solution of the autonomous system ẋ=f (x) , then so
is the trajectory x (t+ a), for any real constant a . Moreover, these two
solutions are the same, except that they may pass the same point on the
phase plane at two different time instants.

The last statement of the theorem describes the inherent time-invariant


property of autonomous systems.

d
Proof. Because x (t)=f (x (t)), for any real constant τ , one has
dt

d
dt | d
x (t +a) = x (s)
t =τ ds |
s= τ+a
=f (x (s))|s=τ +a= f (x (t +a))|t=τ

Since this holds for all real τ , it implies that x (t+ a) is a solution of the
equation ẋ=f (x) . Moreover, the value assumed by x (t) at time instant t=t ¿ is
the same as that assumed by x (t+ a) at time instant t=t ¿−a. Hence, these two
solutions are identical, in the sense that they have the same trajectory if
they are both plotted on the same phase plane.

Example 1.7. The autonomous system ẋ (t)=x (t) has a solution x (t)=¿ e t . It is
easy to verify that e t +a is also a solution of this system for any real constant a .
These two solutions are the same, in the sense that they have the same
trajectory if they are plotted on the x− ẋ phase plane, except that they pass
the same point at two different time instants; for instance, the first one
passes the point (x , ẋ )=(1, 1) at t=0 but the second, at t=−a . Example 1.2.
For $f(x)=x(1-x)$ with $x_0=1 / 2$ and $n=3$, one has

$$

f^{\prime}(x)=1-2 x, \quad x_1=f\left(x_0\right)=1 / 4, \quad \text { and } \


quad x_2=f\left(x_1\right)=3 / 16

$$

so that

$$
\begin{aligned}

\left(f^3\right)^{\prime}(1 / 2) & =f^{\prime}(3 / 16) f^{\prime}(1 / 4)


f^{\prime}(1 / 2) \\

& =(1-2(3 / 16))(1-2(1 / 4))(1-2(1 / 2)) \\

& =0

\end{aligned}

$$

Finally, consider a function or map f given by either (1.13) or (1.14).

Definition 1.1. For a positive integer $n$, a point $\mathbf{x}^*$ is called a


periodic point of period $n$, or an $n$-periodic point, of $\mathbf{f}$, if it
satisfies

$$

\mathbf{f}^n\left(\mathrm{x}^*\right)=\mathrm{x}^* \quad \text { but } \


quad \mathbf{f}^k\left(\mathrm{x}^*\right) \neq \mathrm{x}^* \quad \text
{ for } \quad 0<k<n .

$$

If $\mathbf{x}^*$ is of period one $(n=1)$, then it is also called a fixed


point, or an equilibrium point, which satisfies

$$

\mathbf{f}\left(\mathrm{x}^*\right)=\mathrm{x}^*

$$
Moreover, a point $\mathbf{x}^*$ is said to be eventually periodic of period
$n$ if there is an integer $m>0$ such that

$$

\mathbf{f}^m\left(\mathbf{x}^*\right) \text { is a periodic point and } \


mathbf{f}^{m+n}\left(\mathbf{x}^*\right)=\mathbf{f}^m\left(\
mathrm{x}^*\right) .

$$

Consequently,

$$

\mathbf{f}^{n+q}\left(\mathbf{x}^*\right)=\mathbf{f}^q\left(\
mathbf{x}^*\right) \quad \text { for all } q \geq m \text {. }

$$

This justifies the name "eventually".

Example 1.3. The map $f(x)=x^3-x$ has three fixed points: $x_1^*=0$ and
$x_{1,2}^*= \pm \sqrt{2}$, which are solutions of the equation $f\left(x^*\
right)=x^*$. It has two eventually fixed points of period one: $x_{1,2}^*= \
pm 1$, since their first iterates go to the fixed point 0 . Example 1.2. For
$f(x)=x(1-x)$ with $x_0=1 / 2$ and $n=3$, one has

$$

f^{\prime}(x)=1-2 x, \quad x_1=f\left(x_0\right)=1 / 4, \quad \text { and } \


quad x_2=f\left(x_1\right)=3 / 16

$$
so that

$$

\begin{aligned}

\left(f^3\right)^{\prime}(1 / 2) & =f^{\prime}(3 / 16) f^{\prime}(1 / 4)


f^{\prime}(1 / 2) \\

& =(1-2(3 / 16))(1-2(1 / 4))(1-2(1 / 2)) \\

& =0

\end{aligned}

$$

Finally, consider a function or map f given by either (1.13) or (1.14).

Definition 1.1. For a positive integer $n$, a point $\mathbf{x}^*$ is called a


periodic point of period $n$, or an $n$-periodic point, of $\mathbf{f}$, if it
satisfies

$$

\mathbf{f}^n\left(\mathrm{x}^*\right)=\mathrm{x}^* \quad \text { but } \


quad \mathbf{f}^k\left(\mathrm{x}^*\right) \neq \mathrm{x}^* \quad \text
{ for } \quad 0<k<n .

$$

If $\mathbf{x}^*$ is of period one $(n=1)$, then it is also called a fixed


point, or an equilibrium point, which satisfies

$$

\mathbf{f}\left(\mathrm{x}^*\right)=\mathrm{x}^*
$$

Moreover, a point $\mathbf{x}^*$ is said to be eventually periodic of period


$n$ if there is an integer $m>0$ such that

$$

\mathbf{f}^m\left(\mathbf{x}^*\right) \text { is a periodic point and } \


mathbf{f}^{m+n}\left(\mathbf{x}^*\right)=\mathbf{f}^m\left(\
mathrm{x}^*\right) .

$$

Consequently,

$$

\mathbf{f}^{n+q}\left(\mathbf{x}^*\right)=\mathbf{f}^q\left(\
mathbf{x}^*\right) \quad \text { for all } q \geq m \text {. }

$$

This justifies the name "eventually".

Example 1.3. The map $f(x)=x^3-x$ has three fixed points: $x_1^*=0$ and
$x_{1,2}^*= \pm \sqrt{2}$, which are solutions of the equation $f\left(x^*\
right)=x^*$. It has two eventually fixed points of period one: $x_{1,2}^*= \
pm 1$, since their first iterates go to the fixed point 0 .

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