ELECTROMAGNETIC CIRCUITS :

The region around a magnet where its poles exhibit a force of attraction or repulsion is called
magnetic field.

The closed path followed by magnetic flux is called a magnetic circuit

Magnetic flux (si): The amount of magnetic lines of force set-up in a magnetic circuit is called
magnetic flux. Its unit is weber (Wb). It is analogous to electric current I in electric circuit.
Flux = mmf/reluctance
= NI / l/a Mo Mr
Flux density in the core material, B = si/a,Its unit is Wb/m2 or Tesla.

Permeability: The ability of a material to conduct magnetic lines of force through it is called the
permeability of that material. It is generally represented by μ.The greater the permeability of a
material, the greater is its conductivity for the magnetic lines of force and vice-versa.
Hence, the ratio of the permeability of material μ to the permeability of air or vacuum μ0 is called
the relative permeability μr of the material.
μr = μ/ μo or μ = μ0 μr

A magnetic circuit which has two or more than two paths for the magnetic flux is called a
parallel
magnetic circuit.

The magnetic flux which does not follow the intended path in a magnetic circuit is called leakage
flux.

Leakage co-efficient or leakage factor: The ratio of total flux () produced by the solenoid to the
useful flux (u ) set-up in the air gap is known as leakage co-efficient. It is generally represented by
Leakage co-efficient, = Total flux/ Useful Flux= SI/ SIu

The phenomenon of flux density B lagging behind the magnetising force H in a magnetic
material is called magnetic hysteresis.

Define hytheresis loss.

When the magnetising force in a magnetic material is reversed, the internal friction
of the molecular magnets opposes the reversal of magnetism, resulting in hysteresis. To
overcome this internal friction of the molecular magnets, a part of the magnetising force is used.
The work done by the magnetising force against this internal friction of molecular magnets
produces heat. This energy, which is wasted in the form of heat due to hysteresis, is called
hysteresis loss.
Hysteresis loss occurs in all the magnetic parts of electrical machines where there is reversal of
magnetisation. This loss results in wastage of energy in the form of heat.

State ‘Ohms law’ of a magnetic circuit.

Ans. The ‘ohms law’ of a magnetic circuit is given by Flux = MMF / Reluctance = NI /S .
The above equation is similar to that of the ohm’s law in electric circuit.

What is magnetic fringing?

Ans. The magnetic lines of force repel each other when passing through non-magnetic material.
This phenomenon is known as fringing.

What is hysteresis in a magnetic material?

Ans. The phenomenon due to which magnetic flux density (B) lags behind the magnetic field
intensity (H) in a magnetic material is called magnetic hysteresis.

The phenomenon by which an emf is induced in a circuit (and hence current flows when the
circuit is closed) when magnetic flux linking with it changes is called electro-magnetic
induction.
FARADAYS LAWS :
First Law: This law states that “Whenever a conductor cuts across the magnetic field, an emf is
induced in the conductor.” or “Whenever the magnetic flux linking with any circuit (or coil) changes,
an emf is induced in the circuit.”
Second Law: This law states that “The magnitude of induced emf in a coil is directly proportional
to the rate of change of flux linkages.
Rate of change of flux linkages = N(Si2 - Si1)/t (Wb-turns/s)
where,
N = No. of turns of the coil;
(Si2 – Si1 ) = change of flux in Wb
t = time in second for the change
According to Faraday’s second law of electro-magnetic induction;
Induced emf,
e directly proportional to N(Si2 - Si1)/t
e = N/ (Si2- Si1)/t
In differential form, E = N (dsi/dt)

The direction of induced emf and hence current in a conductor or coil can be determined by
either of the following two methods:
1. Fleming’s Right Hand Rule:
“Stretch, first finger, second finger, and thumb of your right hand mutually perpendicular to
each other. If first finger indicates the direction of magnetic field, thumb indicates the direction
of motion of conductor then second finger will indicate the direction of induced emf in the
conductor.”
2. Lenz’s Law:
“In effect, electro-magnetically induced emf and hence current flows in a coil or circuit in such
a direction that the magnetic field set up by it, always opposes the very cause which produces it.”

INDUCED EMF
When flux linking with a conductor (or coil) changes, an emf is induced in it. This change in flux
linkages can be obtained in the following two ways:
(i) By either moving the conductor and keeping the magnetic field system stationary or moving
the magnetic field system and keeping the conductor stationary, in such a way that conductor
cuts across the magnetic field (as in case of DC and AC generators). The emf induced in this
way is called dynamically induced emf
(ii) By changing the flux linking with the coil (or conductor) without moving either coil or field
system. However, the change of flux produced by the field system linking with the coil is obtained
by changing the current in the field system (solenoid), as in transformers. The emf induced in
this way is called statically induced emf

The statically induced emf may be: (i) Self induced emf (ii) Mutually induced emf
(i) Self induced emf:
The emf induced in a coil due to the change of flux produced by it linking with its own turns is
called self induced emf
e directly proportional to di/ dt or e = L di/dt
where L is a constant of proportionality and is called self inductance or co-efficient of self
inductance or inductance of the coil.
(ii) Mutually induced emf :
The emf induced in a coil due to the change of flux produced by another (neighbouring) coil,
linking with it is called mutually induced emf.
em directly proportional to dI1/ dt
em = M d I1/d t
where M is a constant of proportionality and is called mutual inductance or co-efficient of
mutual inductance.

The property of a coil due to which it opposes the change of current flowing through itself is
called self inductance or inductance of the coil.
The property of one coil due to which it opposes the change of current in the other
(neighbouring)
coil is called mutual-inductance between the two coils.

The fraction of magnetic flux produced by the current in one coil that links with the other
is known as co-efficient of coupling (k) between the two coils.

Inductances in series: The two coils may be connected in series in the following two ways:
(i) When their fields (or mmfs.) are additive i.e., their fluxes are set-up in the same direction, the
inductance of each coil is increased by M i.e.,
Total inductance, LT = (L1 + M) + (L2 + M) = L1 + L2 + 2 M
(ii) When their fields (or mmfs.) are subtractive i.e., their fluxes are set-up in opposite direction
as
shown in Fig. 1.36. In this case, the inductance of each coil is decreased by M, i.e.,
Total inductance, LT = (L1 – M) + (L2 – M) = L1 + L2 – 2 M

Inductances in parallel: The two coils may be connected in parallel in the following two ways:
(i) When the fields (or mmfs.) produced by them are in the same direction as shown in Fig. 1.37.
Total inductance, LT = L1L2 - M^2/ L1 +L2 - 2M

When a magnetic material is subjected to a changing (or alternating) magnetic field, an emf is
induced in the magnetic material itself according to Faraday’s laws of electro-magnetic induction.
Since the magnetic material is also a conducting material, these emfs. circulate currents within
the body of the magnetic material. These circulating currents are known as eddy currents. As
these currents are not used for doing any useful work, therefore, these currents produce a loss
(I^2 R loss) in the magnetic material called eddy current loss.

The hysteresis and eddy current losses in a magnetic material are called iron losses or core
losses or magnetic losses

Mathematical Expression for Eddy Current Loss

The eddy current power loss in a magnetic material can be
expressed as:
Pe = Ke Bm^2t^2 f^2 V watt
where, Ke = co-efficient of eddy current, its value depends upon the nature of
magnetic material;
Bm = maximum value of flux density in Wb/m^2;
t = thickness of lamination in m;
f = frequency of reversal of magnetic field in Hz;
V = volume of magnetic material in m^3.

What is a short circuit?

Ans. If the supply mains are connected directly by a piece of wire without any load, it is known as
short circuit. In these circuits, the value of the current is much greater than in the closed circuit.
So the fuse melts.

Motor: An electro-mechanical device (electrical machine) which converts electrical energy or

power (EI) into mechanical energy or power ( T) is called a motor.
Electric motors are used for driving industrial machines e.g., hammer presses, drilling machines,
lathes, shapers, blowers for furnaces etc., and domesticappliances e.g., refrigerators, fans, water
pumps, toys, mixers etc

Generator: An electro-mechanical device (electrical machine) which converts mechanical energy

or power ( T) into electrical energy or power (EI) is called generator.Generators are used in
hydro-electric power plants, steam power plants, diesel power plants, nuclear power plants and
in automobiles

Transformer is considered to be a backbone of a power system.

A transformer is a static device that transfers AC electrical power from one circuit to the other at
the same frequency but the voltage level is usually changed.
When the voltage is raised on the output side (V2 > V1 ), the transformer is called a step up
transformer, whereas, the transformer in which the voltages is lowered on the output side
(V2 < V1 ) is called a step down transformer.
Applications
Main applications of the transformers are given below:
(a) To change the level of voltage and current in electric power systems.
(b) As impedance-matching device for maximum power transfer in low-power electronic and
control circuits.
(c) As a coupling device is electronic circuits
(d) To isolate one circuit from another, since primary and secondary are not electrically
connected.
(e) To measure voltage and currents; these are known as instrument transformers.

Working Principle of a Transformer

The basic principle of a transformer is electromagnetic induction.
A single-phase transformer consists of two windings placed over a laminated silicon steel core.
The winding having less number of turns is called low-voltage winding and the winding having
more number of turns is called high voltage winding.
Also, the winding to which AC supply is connected is called a primary winding and the other one
is called a secondary winding to which load is connected.
Once AC supply of voltage V1 is given to primary winding, an alternating flux is set-up in the
magnetic core which links with the primary and secondary winding.
Consequently, self-induced emf E1 and mutually-induced emf E2 are induced in primary and
secondary, respectively.The self-induced emf in the primary is also called back emf since it acts
in opposite direction to the applied voltage.

Although, there is no electrical connection between primary and secondary winding, still electric
power is transferred from one circuit (primary side) to the other circuit (secondary side). It is all
because of magnetic coupling,

The magnitude of induced emf in primary and secondary will depend upon their number of turns,
i.e., primary induced emf E1 directly proportional to N1 and secondary induced emf E2 directly
proportional to N2. When N2 > N1 , the transformer is called a step-up transformer,
on the other hand, when N2< N1 the transformer is called step-down transformer.

Turn ratio: The ratio of primary to secondary turns is called turn ratio, i.e., turn ratio = N1/ N2.
Transformation ratio: The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is called voltage
transformation ratio of the transformer. It is represented by K.
K = E2/E2 = N2/N1

TRANSFORMATION RATIO :
Transformer on No-load :
A transformer is said to be on no-load when its secondary winding is kept open and no-load is
connected across it. As such, no current flows through the secondary i.e., I2 = 0. Hence, the
secondary winding is not causing any effect on the magnetic flux set-up in the core or on the
current drawn by the primary.
The no-load current Io has two components;
(i) One, Iw in phase with the applied voltage V1 , called active or working component. It supplies
the iron losses and a small primary copper losses.
(ii) The other, I mag in quadrature with the applied voltage V1, called reactive of magnetising
component. It produces flux in the core and does not consume any power.
What is doubling effect in transformer core?
Ans. When a transformer is initially energised, there is a sudden inrush of primary current. The
maximum value attained by the flux may reach to twice the normal flux. This condition is known
as doubling effect and the core goes into deep saturation.

Transformer on Load

When a certain load is connected across the secondary, a current I2 flows through it. The
magnitude of current I2 depends upon terminal voltage V2 and impedance of the load. The phase
angle of secondary current I2 with respect to V2 depends upon the nature of load i.e., whether
the load is resistive, inductive or capacitive.
When the transformer is loaded, current I2 flows in the secondary winding. This secondary
current I2 produces an mmf N2 I2 which sets up flux si2 in the core. As per Lenz’s law this flux
opposes the main flux .

Losses in a Transformer

The losses which occur in an actual transformer are:

(i) Core or iron losses (ii) Copper losses

(i) Core or iron losses: When AC supply is given to the primary winding of a transformer an
alternating flux is set up in the core, therefore, hysteresis and eddy current losses occur in the
magnetic core.
(a) Hysteresis loss: When the magnetic material is subjected to reversal of magnetic flux, it
causes a continuous reversal of molecular magnets. This effect consumes some electric
power which is further dissipated in the form of heat as loss. This loss is known as hysteresis
loss. (Ph = Kh V f Bm 2.6). This loss can be minimised by using silicon steel material for the
construction of core.
(b) Eddy current loss: Since flux in the core of a transformer is alternating, it links with the
magnetic material of the core itself also. This induces an emf in the core and circulates
eddy currents. Power is required to maintain these eddy currents. This power is dissipated
in the form of heat and is known as eddy current loss (Pe = Ke V f^2 t^2 Bm^2
m). This loss can be minimised by making the core of thin laminations.
.
(ii) Copper losses: Copper losses occur in both the primary and secondary windings due to their
ohmic resistance. If I 1 , I2 are the primary and secondary currents and R1 , R2 are the primary
and secondary resistances, respectively.
Then, total copper losses = I^2R1 + I^2R2 = I^2Rep = I^2Res
The currents in the primary and secondary winding vary according to the load, therefore, these
losses vary according to the load and are known as variable loss.
Short Circuit Test
This test is carried out to determine the following:
(i) Copper losses at full load (or at any desired load). These losses are required for the
calculations of efficiency of the transformer.
(ii) Equivalent impedance (Zes or Z ep), resistance (Res or R ep) and leakage reactance (Xes
or Xep) of the transformer referred to the winding in which the measuring instruments are
connected. Knowing equivalent resistance and reactance, the voltage drop in the transformer can
be calculated and hence regulation of transformer is determined.
TRANSFORMER CLASSIFICATION :
(i) Power Transformers: These transformers are used to step up the voltage at the generating
station for transmission purposes and then to step down the voltage at the receiving stations.
These transformers are of large capacity (generally above 500 kVA). These transformers usually
operate at high average load, which would cause continuous capacity copper loss, thus affecting
their efficiency. To have minimum losses during 24 hours, such transformers are designed with
low copper losses.
(ii) Distribution Transformers: These transformers are installed at the distribution sub-
stations to step down the voltage. These transformers are continuously energised causing the
iron losses for all the 24 hours, Generally the load on these transformers fluctuate from no-load
to full load during this period. To obtain high efficiency, such transformers are designed with low
iron losses.
(iii) Instrument Transformers: To measure high voltages and currents in power system
potential transformer (P.T.) and current transformer (C.T.) are used, respectively. The potential
transformers are used to decrease the voltage and current transformers are used to decrease the
current up to measurable value. These are also used with protective devices.
(iv) Testing transformers: These transformers are used to step up voltage to a very high value
for carrying out the tests under high voltage, e.g., for testing the dielectric strength of
transformer
oil.
(v) Special purpose transformer: The transformers may be designed to serve special purposes,
these may be used with furnaces, rectifiers, welding sets etc.
(vi) Auto-transformers: These are single winding transformers used to step down the voltages
for starting of large three-phase squirrel cage induction motors.
(vii) Isolation transformer: These transformers are used only to isolate (electrically) the
electronic circuits from the main electrical lines, therefore, their transformation ratio is usually
one.
(viii) Impedance matching transformer: These transformers are used at the output stage of
the amplifier for impedance matching to obtain maximum output from the amplifiers.

PARALLEL OPERATION :

When the primaries and secondaries of the two or more transformers are connected separately to
the same incoming and outgoing lines to share the load, the transformers are said to be connected
in parallel.