EARTH SCIENCE-STEM

describe how rocks undergo

EARTH SCIENCE-STEM
weathering Weathering is crucial for soil formation, nutrient
SS11/12ES-IIa-22 cycling, and landscape evolution. It contributes
to the development of habitats and influences
erosion and sediment transport processes.
Weathering is the process by which rocks break Understanding these processes is essential for
down into smaller pieces or change in geology, ecology, and environmental science.
composition due to various environmental
factors. It can be categorized into two main
types: mechanical (physical) weathering and
chemical weathering. explain how the products of
weathering are carried away by
erosion and deposited elsewhere
Mechanical Weathering S11/12ES-IIa-b 23

This type involves the physical breakdown of erosion is the process that transports the
rocks without changing their chemical products of weathering—such as soil, rock
composition. Key processes include: fragments, and dissolved minerals—from their
1. Frost Wedging: Water seeps into cracks original location to new sites. This process is
in rocks. When it freezes, it expands, crucial in shaping landscapes and redistributing
causing the rock to fracture further. materials. Here’s how it works:
2. Thermal Expansion: Changes in Erosion Processes
temperature can cause rocks to expand 1. Water Erosion:
and contract, leading to cracking. o Rainfall: When it rains, water can
3. Exfoliation: Layers of rock peel away due wash away loose particles from
to pressure release when overlying the soil and rock surfaces. This
materials are removed. runoff can carry sediments into
4. Biological Activity: Roots of plants can streams and rivers.
grow into cracks, exerting pressure and o River Flow: Moving water in
breaking the rock apart. rivers and streams can pick up
Chemical Weathering and transport sediments
This involves changes in the mineral downstream. The energy of the
composition of rocks due to chemical reactions. water determines how much
Key processes include: material can be moved.
1. Hydrolysis: Water reacts with minerals, o Ocean Waves: Coastal areas
leading to the formation of new minerals experience erosion from waves,
and solutes (e.g., feldspar turning into which can erode cliffs and
clay). transport sediment along the
2. Oxidation: Reaction with oxygen, often shoreline.
affecting iron-rich minerals, leading to 2. Wind Erosion:
rusting and weakening of the rock. o In dry, sandy environments, wind
3. Carbonation: Carbon dioxide from the
can lift and carry fine particles
atmosphere or soil reacts with water to
over long distances. This is
form carbonic acid, which can dissolve
especially common in deserts,
minerals like calcite in limestone.
where vegetation is sparse.
Factors Influencing Weathering
3. Glacial Erosion:
 Climate: Warm, wet conditions promote
o Glaciers can erode rock and soil
chemical weathering, while cold climates
as they move. The ice scrapes
favor mechanical processes.
against the bedrock, picking up
 Rock Type: Different minerals weather at
debris that is then transported as
different rates; for example, granite
the glacier advances and melts.
weathers more slowly than limestone.
4. Gravity Erosion:
 Surface Area: Smaller rock pieces have
o Gravity causes materials to move
more surface area exposed, leading to
downhill through processes like
faster weathering.
landslides and mudflows. This
Importance of Weathering
type of erosion can transport
large amounts of material quickly.
EARTH SCIENCE-STEM
Transportation and Deposition holding it in place, the object will
Once the products of weathering are eroded, begin to move downslope.
they are transported by these processes. The 2. Types of Mass Wasting: Mass wasting
materials can be deposited in various can occur in various forms, depending on
environments: the type of material, the slope's angle,
1. Riverbanks and Floodplains: When and moisture content. Here are some
rivers slow down, they lose energy and common types:
deposit sediments along their banks or in o Rock Falls: Individual rocks
the floodplain, creating fertile areas for break off from cliffs and fall freely
agriculture. due to gravity. This often occurs
2. Lakes and Oceans: Sediments can in steep, rocky areas.
settle at the bottom of lakes and oceans, o Landslides: Larger masses of
forming layers over time. This process rock or soil move down a slope
contributes to the formation of quickly. This can happen after
sedimentary rocks. heavy rainfall, earthquakes, or
3. Deltas: At river mouths, where human activity that destabilizes
freshwater meets saltwater, rivers can the slope.
slow down significantly and deposit large o Mudflows: When soil becomes
amounts of sediment, forming deltas. saturated with water, it can flow
4. Sand Dunes: Wind-blown sediments down a slope as a thick, muddy
can accumulate in areas sheltered from mixture. This often occurs in hilly
the wind, forming sand dunes in desert or mountainous regions.
and coastal environments. o Slumps: A section of soil or rock
Importance of Erosion and Deposition moves down a slope in a
 Soil Formation: Erosion and deposition rotational manner, creating a
contribute to soil formation and nutrient concave surface. This is common
distribution, supporting ecosystems. in saturated soils.
 Landscape Changes: These processes o Creep: This is a slow, gradual
shape landscapes, creating features such movement of soil and rock down
as valleys, canyons, and deltas. a slope, often caused by freeze-
 Nutrient Cycling: The transport of thaw cycles and the expansion
sediments can carry nutrients essential and contraction of materials.
for plant growth to new areas. 3. Factors Influencing Downslope
Overall, the processes of erosion and deposition Movement:
play a vital role in the Earth's geology, ecology, o Slope Angle: Steeper slopes are
and land use. more prone to mass wasting. As
the slope increases, the force of
gravity acting on materials also
increases.
o Moisture Content: Water can
explain how rocks and soil move reduce friction between particles,
downslope due to direct action of making it easier for soil and rocks
gravity to move. Saturated soils are
S11/12ES-IIb-22 particularly susceptible to
landslides and mudflows.
Rocks and soil move downslope primarily due to o Vegetation: Roots of plants can
the direct action of gravity, a process known as help stabilize soil and rock,
mass wasting or gravitational erosion. Here’s reducing the likelihood of
how it works: downslope movement. However,
Mechanisms of Downslope Movement deforestation or loss of
1. Gravity's Role: vegetation can increase erosion
o Gravity pulls all materials towards risk.
the Earth's center. When the o Human Activity: Construction,
gravitational force acting on an mining, and road building can
object (like a rock or soil mass) destabilize slopes and increase
exceeds the frictional forces the likelihood of landslides.
EARTH SCIENCE-STEM
Importance of Downslope Movement interior is lost very slowly to the surface.
 Ecosystem Changes: Mass wasting This means that the heat generated from
contributes to the reshaping of radioactive decay and primordial heat
landscapes and can create new habitats. continues to accumulate.
 Soil Formation: As materials move, 4. Mantle Convection
they contribute to soil development and  Heat Transfer: The movement of
nutrient cycling. molten rock (magma) within the mantle
 Hazard Awareness: Understanding transfers heat towards the surface. As
these processes is crucial for predicting this material rises, it cools and
and managing landslides and other eventually sinks back down, creating
geological hazards. convection currents that help
Overall, the direct action of gravity plays a redistribute heat within the Earth.
fundamental role in the movement of rocks and 5. Formation of the Core
soil, significantly shaping our environment.  Differentiation: During the Earth’s
formation, heavier elements sank
towards the center, forming the core,
while lighter materials rose to form the
mantle and crust. The formation of the
solid inner core and liquid outer core
explain why the Earth’s interior is hot involves the release of latent heat,
S11/12ES-IIb-c 23 further contributing to the overall heat of
the Earth’s interior.
Summary
The Earth’s interior is hot for several reasons, The combination of primordial heat from the
primarily due to the processes that have Earth's formation, ongoing radioactive decay,
occurred since its formation and ongoing gravitational compression, slow heat loss, and
geological activity. Here are the main factors mantle convection all contribute to the high
contributing to the high temperatures within the temperatures in the Earth's interior. This heat
Earth: plays a crucial role in driving geological
1. Primordial Heat processes, including plate tectonics, volcanic
 Formation of the Earth: When the activity, and the formation of various geological
Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago, features.
it was a molten mass of material. As
particles collided and merged to form
the planet, kinetic energy was converted
into heat, raising the internal describe how magma is formed
temperature. S11/12ES-IIc-24
 Radioactive Decay: Elements such as
uranium, thorium, and potassium-40 Magma is formed through several geological
present in the Earth's interior undergo processes that involve the melting of rocks
radioactive decay, releasing heat over within the Earth. Here’s a breakdown of how
geological timescales. This process this occurs:
contributes significantly to the Earth's 1. Temperature Increase
internal heat.  Geothermal Gradient: As you go
2. Gravitational Compression deeper into the Earth, temperature
 Pressure Increases: As materials increases due to the geothermal
accumulate in the Earth’s core, the gradient, which is typically about 25-
immense pressure from the overlying 30°C per kilometer of depth. At sufficient
layers causes the temperature to rise. depths, rocks can reach temperatures
The deeper you go, the greater the high enough to melt.
pressure, which increases the 2. Pressure Release
temperature due to the compression of  Decompression Melting: In certain
materials. tectonic settings, such as mid-ocean
3. Thermal Conductivity and Insulation ridges and hot spots, rocks in the mantle
 Slow Heat Loss: The Earth acts as an can experience a decrease in pressure as
insulator, and heat generated in the they rise towards the surface. This
EARTH SCIENCE-STEM
reduction in pressure allows the rocks to igneous rocks. The rate of cooling affects
melt, forming magma without requiring the rock's texture:
an increase in temperature. o Slow Cooling (Intrusive):
3. Addition of Water Magma that cools slowly
 Flux Melting: The presence of water underground forms coarse-
(and other volatiles) lowers the melting grained rocks like granite.
point of rocks. This is particularly o Rapid Cooling (Extrusive):
important in subduction zones, where Magma that erupts and cools
oceanic plates descend into the mantle, quickly at the surface forms fine-
bringing water and other materials that grained rocks like basalt or glassy
facilitate melting of the overlying mantle rocks like obsidian.
rocks. 3. Volcanic Eruption
4. Composition of Rocks  Eruption Events: If pressure builds up,
 Different Rock Types: The mineral magma can erupt through volcanic
composition of the rocks affects their vents. Eruptions can be:
melting points. For example, basaltic o Effusive: Gentle lava flows that
rocks have a lower melting point create shield volcanoes.
compared to granitic rocks. When rocks o Explosive: Violent eruptions that
of different compositions are subjected produce ash, gases, and
to the right conditions of temperature, pyroclastic materials, forming
pressure, and fluid content, they can stratovolcanoes.
partially melt to form magma. 4. Formation of Intrusive Features
5. Magma Generation in the Mantle  Plutonic Structures: If magma doesn't
 Mantle Sources: Most magma reach the surface, it can cool and
originates from the upper mantle. When crystallize underground, creating
the mantle rocks melt, they form mafic structures like:
magma, which is rich in iron and o Batholiths: Large, deep-seated
magnesium. This magma can then rise bodies of magma.
through the crust due to its lower density o Sills and Dikes: Horizontal or
compared to the surrounding rocks. vertical intrusions that cut
Summary through or between rock layers.
Magma is generated primarily through a 5. Metamorphism
combination of increased temperature,  Contact Metamorphism: The heat
decreased pressure, and the addition of water. from the cooling magma can alter
These processes occur in various tectonic nearby rocks, changing their mineral
environments, such as mid-ocean ridges, composition and structure.
subduction zones, and hot spots, leading to the 6. Erosion and Weathering
formation of different types of magma with  Surface Processes: Once igneous rocks
varying compositions. are exposed at the surface, they are
subject to weathering and erosion,
breaking them down into sediments that
can be transported and deposited
describe what happens after magma is elsewhere.
formed S11/12ES-IIc-25 Summary
After magma is formed, it can rise, cool to form
fter magma is formed, several key processes igneous rocks, erupt as lava, create intrusive
occur: features, cause metamorphic changes in
1. Magma Movement surrounding rocks, and eventually undergo
 Rising Through the Crust: Magma is weathering and erosion. These processes are
less dense than the surrounding solid essential to the rock cycle and shape the Earth's
rock, so it rises toward the Earth's geology.
surface through cracks and fractures in
the crust.
2. Cooling and Crystallization describe the changes in mineral
 Igneous Rock Formation: As magma components and texture of rocks due
rises and cools, it solidifies to form
EARTH SCIENCE-STEM
to changes in pressure and are subjected to high pressure and
temperature (metamorphism) temperature over extensive areas. This
S11/12ES-IIc-d 26 typically results in foliation and the
formation of foliated metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphism is the process by which rocks Summary
change in mineral composition and texture due During metamorphism, changes in pressure and
to increases in pressure and temperature over temperature lead to alterations in mineral
time. Here’s how these changes occur: composition and texture. Recrystallization and
1. Changes in Mineral Composition neocrystallization can produce new minerals,
 Recrystallization: During while foliation and grain size changes can alter
metamorphism, minerals can change the rock's overall appearance. These processes
into more stable forms. For example, the play a crucial role in the rock cycle and the
mineral calcite (in limestone) can formation of various metamorphic rock types.
recrystallize to form marble, which is
composed of larger calcite crystals.
 Neocrystallization: New minerals may
form from the original minerals due to describe how rocks behave under
chemical reactions caused by increased different types of stress such as
temperature and pressure. For instance, compression, pulling apart, and
shale can metamorphose into schist, shearing
where new minerals like garnet and S11/12ES-IId-27
biotite develop.
 Phase Changes: Some minerals may
transform into different structural forms Rocks respond to different types of stress in
(phases) under changing conditions. For specific ways, leading to various geological
example, graphite can transform into features and structures. Here’s how rocks
diamond under extreme pressure. behave under compression, tension (pulling
2. Changes in Texture apart), and shearing:
 Foliation: This is the alignment of 1. Compression
minerals under directed pressure,  Definition: Compression occurs when
leading to a layered or banded rocks are squeezed together, typically at
appearance. Rocks like schist and gneiss convergent plate boundaries.
exhibit foliation due to the parallel  Behavior:
alignment of platy or elongated o Shortening and Thickening:
minerals. Rocks tend to shorten and thicken
 Non-foliated Textures: In some cases, under compressive stress.
rocks do not exhibit foliation but develop o Folding: This stress can lead to
a more granular texture. For example, the formation of folds in
marble (from limestone) and quartzite sedimentary rocks, creating
(from sandstone) are non-foliated and structures like anticlines (upward
show interlocking grains. folds) and synclines (downward
 Increase in Grain Size: As rocks folds).
undergo metamorphism, the crystals can o Fracturing: If the stress exceeds
grow larger, especially in high- the rock’s strength, it can lead to
temperature and high-pressure faulting. This results in fractures,
conditions, leading to a coarser texture. such as thrust faults, where one
3. Types of Metamorphism block of rock is pushed over
 Contact Metamorphism: Occurs when another.
rocks are heated by nearby molten 2. Tension (Pulling Apart)
magma or lava. The resulting rocks often  Definition: Tension occurs when rocks
show localized changes in mineral are pulled apart, typically at divergent
composition and texture, typically plate boundaries.
resulting in non-foliated rocks.  Behavior:
 Regional Metamorphism: Associated o Lengthening and Thinning:
with large-scale geological processes,
Rocks tend to elongate and thin
such as mountain building, where rocks
under tensile stress.
EARTH SCIENCE-STEM
o Faulting: If the stress exceeds o Oceanic Crust: Thinner (about 5-
the rock’s ability to withstand it, 10 km) and primarily composed
normal faults can form, where of denser basaltic rocks.
one block of rock moves 2. Mantle
downward relative to another.  Description: The layer beneath the
o Basin Formation: Tension can crust, extending to about 2,900 km
create rift valleys or basins, deep. It is composed of semi-solid rock
where the Earth's crust sinks. that can flow slowly over time.
3. Shearing  Subdivisions:
 Definition: Shearing stress occurs when o Upper Mantle: Includes the
rocks are pushed in opposite horizontal lithosphere (which consists of the
directions, often found at transform plate crust and the uppermost part of
boundaries. the mantle) and the
 Behavior: asthenosphere (a more ductile
o Lateral Displacement: Rocks region that allows for movement).
can slide past each other o Lower Mantle: More rigid than
horizontally. This movement does the upper mantle, extending
not involve vertical displacement. down to the outer core.
o Fault Formation: Strike-slip 3. Outer Core
faults develop under shearing  Description: A liquid layer located
stress, where rocks on either side beneath the mantle, extending from
of the fault move laterally (e.g., about 2,900 km to 5,150 km deep.
the San Andreas Fault).  Composition: Mainly composed of
o Deformation: Rocks may molten iron and nickel, contributing to
undergo ductile deformation, the Earth's magnetic field through its
bending and twisting without convective movements.
breaking, or brittle deformation, 4. Inner Core
resulting in fractures.  Description: The innermost layer of the
Summary Earth, extending from about 5,150 km to
Rocks behave differently under compression the center of the Earth (about 6,371 km).
(leading to folding and thrust faults), tension  Composition: Composed primarily of
(resulting in elongation and normal faults), and solid iron and nickel, it is extremely hot
shearing (causing lateral movement and strike- (temperatures can reach up to 5,700°C)
slip faults). These stress types play a crucial role and under immense pressure, which
in shaping the Earth's crust and forming various keeps it solid despite the high
geological features. temperatures.
Summary
The Earth consists of four main layers: the
crust (outer layer), the mantle (semi-solid
layer beneath the crust), the outer core (liquid
identify the layers of the Earth layer), and the inner core (solid center). Each
S11/12ES-IId-28 layer has distinct physical and chemical
properties that contribute to the Earth’s geology
The Earth is composed of several distinct layers, and dynamics.
each with unique characteristics. Here’s a
breakdown of these layers from the outermost
to the innermost:
1. Crust
 Description: The outermost layer of the
Earth, consisting of solid rock.
 Types:
o Continental Crust: Thicker
(averaging about 30-50 km) and
primarily composed of lighter differentiate the layers of the Earth
granitic rocks. from each other
S11/12ES-IIe-29
EARTH SCIENCE-STEM
 Outer Core: Liquid layer composed
The layers of the Earth can be differentiated mainly of molten iron and nickel; very
based on their composition, physical state, hot.
thickness, and temperature. Here’s a  Inner Core: Solid, dense center made of
breakdown of each layer: iron and nickel; extremely high
1. Crust temperatures and pressures.
 Composition: Composed primarily of These differences in composition, physical
solid rocks, including granitic state, thickness, and temperature contribute to
(continental) and basaltic (oceanic) the dynamic processes that shape the Earth's
materials. geology and internal behavior.
 Physical State: Solid.
 Thickness: Varies, averaging about 30-
50 km for continental crust and 5-10 km
for oceanic crust.
 Temperature: Relatively cool compared
to deeper layers, generally increasing describe the continental drift theory
with depth. S11/12ES-IIe-30
2. Mantle
 Composition: Made up of silicate
minerals rich in iron and magnesium, The continental drift theory, proposed by Alfred
such as olivine and pyroxene. Wegener in the early 20th century, suggests
 Physical State: Semi-solid, behaving that the continents were once part of a single
like a viscous fluid over geological supercontinent called Pangaea, which gradually
timescales (especially in the drifted apart over geological time. Here are the
asthenosphere). key aspects of the theory:
 Thickness: About 2,900 km, making it Key Concepts
the thickest layer of the Earth. 1. Pangaea:
 Temperature: Ranges from about o Wegener theorized that around
500°C near the upper boundary to 300 million years ago, all the
around 4,000°C at the lower boundary. continents were joined together
3. Outer Core in a massive landmass called
 Composition: Primarily composed of Pangaea.
molten iron and nickel, along with lighter o Over millions of years, Pangaea
elements such as sulfur and oxygen. began to break apart, leading to
 Physical State: Liquid. the formation of the continents as
 Thickness: About 2,300 km thick. we know them today.
 Temperature: Ranges from about 2. Evidence Supporting Continental
4,000°C to 6,000°C, hotter than the Drift:
mantle. o Fossil Evidence: Identical fossils
4. Inner Core of plants and animals, such as the
 Composition: Mostly solid iron and reptile Mesosaurus and the plant
nickel, with some lighter elements. Glossopteris, have been found on
 Physical State: Solid, despite widely separated continents,
extremely high temperatures due to suggesting these landmasses
immense pressure. were once connected.
 Thickness: About 1,200 km thick. o Geological Similarities:
 Temperature: Can reach temperatures
Mountain ranges and rock
up to 5,700°C, comparable to the
formations on different continents
surface of the sun.
(e.g., the Appalachian Mountains
Summary
in North America and the
 Crust: Solid, thin layer composed of
Caledonian Mountains in
rocks; cool temperatures.
Scotland) show similar ages and
 Mantle: Semi-solid, thick layer made of
types of rock, indicating they
silicate minerals; increasing
were once part of the same
temperatures with depth.
range.
EARTH SCIENCE-STEM
o Climatic Evidence: Patterns of o Glossopteris: A seed fern whose
past climatic conditions (such as fossils are found in Africa, South
glacial deposits found in currently America, Antarctica, India, and
warm regions) indicate that Australia, indicating these
continents have moved from landmasses were once part of the
different climate zones over time. same ecosystem.
3. Mechanism of Drift: 2. Geological Evidence
o Wegener proposed that  Matching Rock Formations:
continents drifted apart due to Geological features such as mountain
the motion of the Earth's crust. ranges and rock types show similarities
However, he could not provide a across continents. For instance:
convincing mechanism for how o The Appalachian Mountains in
this occurred, which led to North America and the
skepticism about his theory. Caledonian Mountains in Scotland
4. Plate Tectonics: share similar rock structures and
o The theory of continental drift laid ages, indicating they were once
the groundwork for the part of a larger mountain range.
development of plate tectonics in  Ancient Glacial Deposits: Glacial
the mid-20th century. This theory deposits and striations found in now-
explains the movement of the tropical regions (such as India, South
Earth's lithosphere on the more America, and Africa) suggest these areas
fluid asthenosphere beneath it were once positioned closer to the poles.
and provides mechanisms (such 3. Paleoclimatic Evidence
as seafloor spreading and  Past Climate Indicators: The
subduction) for how continents distribution of coal deposits, glacial
move. deposits, and desert sediments provides
Summary evidence of past climates that are
The continental drift theory posits that inconsistent with their current locations:
continents were once a single supercontinent o Coal deposits in Antarctica
(Pangaea) that gradually drifted apart due to suggest it was once a lush,
geological processes. Evidence from fossils, tropical region.
geology, and climate supports this theory, o Glacial deposits in Africa and
which eventually contributed to the broader South America indicate that these
understanding of plate tectonics. regions experienced cold
climates, supporting the idea that
they were once near the poles.
4. Fit of the Continents
 Geometric Fit: The coastlines of
discuss evidence that support continents, particularly South America
continental drift S11/12ES-IIe-31 and Africa, exhibit a noticeable fit,
resembling pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.
The continental drift theory, proposed by Alfred This visual similarity suggests that they
Wegener, is supported by several lines of were once joined.
evidence that demonstrate how continents were 5. Distribution of Earthquakes and
once connected and have since drifted apart. Volcanoes
Here are the key types of evidence:  Plate Boundaries: The locations of
1. Fossil Evidence earthquakes and volcanoes align with
 Identical Fossils Across Continents: the edges of tectonic plates. This
Similar fossils of plants and animals have distribution supports the idea that
been found on continents that are now continents are part of larger plates that
separated by vast oceans. For example: move over time.
o Mesosaurus: A freshwater Summary
reptile found in both South The evidence supporting the continental drift
America and Africa, suggesting theory includes fossil similarities across
these continents were once continents, matching geological formations,
joined. paleoclimatic indicators, the geometric fit of
EARTH SCIENCE-STEM
coastlines, and the distribution of seismic creating a pattern of magnetic stripes on
activity. Together, these lines of evidence either side of the ridge. These stripes
strongly suggest that the continents were once serve as a record of seafloor spreading
connected and have drifted apart over and indicate that new crust is
geological time, leading to the development of continuously being formed.
the theory of plate tectonics.  Age Distribution: The age of rocks on
the ocean floor increases with distance
from the mid-ocean ridge, confirming
that new material is constantly being
explain how seafloor spreads added at the ridge and pushing older
S11/12ES-IIf-32 material outward.
Summary
Seafloor spreading is a geological process that Seafloor spreading is the process by which new
occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic oceanic crust is formed at mid-ocean ridges as
crust is created as tectonic plates move apart. tectonic plates diverge. Magma rises, solidifies
Here’s how the process works: into new crust, and pushes older crust away,
1. Mid-Ocean Ridges leading to the continuous renewal of the ocean
 Formation: Seafloor spreading occurs at floor. Evidence such as magnetic reversals and
mid-ocean ridges, which are underwater age distribution of rocks supports this process,
mountain ranges formed by tectonic which is a key component of the theory of plate
activity. These ridges mark the tectonics.
boundaries between diverging tectonic
plates.
2. Magma Upwelling describe the structure and evolution of
 Mantle Melting: As tectonic plates pull ocean basins
apart, the pressure on the underlying S11/12ES-IIf-33
mantle decreases, causing mantle rocks
to partially melt. This creates magma. The structure and evolution of ocean basins are
 Upward Movement: The buoyant shaped by geological processes over millions of
magma rises towards the ocean floor, years. Here’s an overview of how ocean basins
accumulating at the mid-ocean ridge. form and evolve:
3. Creation of New Crust Structure of Ocean Basins
 Magma Solidification: When the 1. Continental Margins:
magma reaches the surface at the mid- o Shelf: The continental shelf is a
ocean ridge, it cools and solidifies, shallow area of the ocean floor
forming new oceanic crust. This process that extends from the coastline to
occurs continuously, leading to the the continental slope. It is
formation of new rock. typically rich in marine life and
4. Movement of Tectonic Plates sediments.
 Divergence: As new crust is formed, it o Slope: The continental slope is
pushes the older crust away from the the steep descent from the
ridge, causing the tectonic plates to continental shelf to the ocean
move apart. This movement is driven by floor. It marks the transition from
forces such as mantle convection and continental crust to oceanic crust.
gravity. o Rise: The continental rise
 Age of the Seafloor: As you move consists of accumulated
away from the mid-ocean ridge, the age sediments that have moved down
of the oceanic crust increases. The the continental slope, forming a
youngest crust is located at the ridge, gentle slope leading to the deep
while the oldest crust is farther away. ocean floor.
5. Evidence of Seafloor Spreading 2. Oceanic Crust:
 Magnetic Reversals: As magma o Basalt Composition: Oceanic
solidifies at the mid-ocean ridge, iron crust is primarily composed of
minerals within the rock align with the basalt and is thinner (about 5-10
Earth’s magnetic field. Over time, the km) than continental crust.
Earth's magnetic field has reversed,
EARTH SCIENCE-STEM
o Mid-Ocean Ridges: These are to evolve due to tectonic activity,
underwater mountain ranges sedimentation, and changes in
formed by tectonic activity, where sea level, affecting their structure
new oceanic crust is created and features.
through seafloor spreading. Summary
3. Deep Ocean Basins: Ocean basins are structured with continental
o Abyssal Plains: These flat, deep margins, oceanic crust, and deep ocean
areas of the ocean floor are features like abyssal plains and trenches. They
covered by sediments and are evolve through processes such as continental
among the flattest places on rifting and seafloor spreading, with sediment
Earth. They typically lie between accumulation and tectonic activity continually
the continental rise and mid- shaping their characteristics. The age
ocean ridges. distribution of ocean floor rocks illustrates the
o Trenches: Deep ocean trenches ongoing processes that define ocean basins.
are formed at convergent plate
boundaries, where one tectonic
plate is subducted beneath
another. They are the deepest
parts of the ocean.
Evolution of Ocean Basins
1. Formation:
o Rifting: Ocean basins begin to
form through the process of
continental rifting, where
continental crust stretches and
thins, leading to the formation of
a rift valley.
o Seafloor Spreading: As the rift
continues to evolve, magma rises
to form new oceanic crust at mid-
ocean ridges, creating a widening explain how the movement of plates
ocean basin. leads to the formation of folds, faults,
2. Development: trenches, volcanoes, rift valleys, and
o Sediment Accumulation: Over mountain ranges
time, sediments from rivers, S11/12ES-IIg-h 34
erosion, and marine life
accumulate in ocean basins, The movement of tectonic plates plays a crucial
contributing to the development role in shaping the Earth's surface, leading to
of abyssal plains and continental various geological features such as folds, faults,
margins. trenches, volcanoes, rift valleys, and mountain
o Tectonic Activity: The ranges. Here’s how these features form through
movement of tectonic plates different types of plate interactions:
continues to shape ocean basins, 1. Folds
causing features like trenches  Formation: Folds occur when tectonic
and mid-ocean ridges to develop plates collide or compress, causing the
as plates diverge or converge. crust to bend rather than break.
3. Age and Features:  Types:
o Age Distribution: The ocean o Anticlines: Upward folds in the
floor shows a distinct age pattern, rock layers.
with younger rocks found at mid- o Synclines: Downward folds in the
ocean ridges and older rocks rock layers.
found further away, indicating the  Mechanism: This bending usually
continuous process of seafloor happens over long periods, resulting in
spreading. complex patterns of rock layers that can
o Ongoing Changes: Ocean form mountain ranges.
basins are dynamic and continue 2. Faults
EARTH SCIENCE-STEM
 Formation: Faults are fractures in the  Examples: The East African Rift is a
Earth’s crust where blocks of rock have prominent example, where the African
moved due to stress from tectonic plate Plate is splitting into smaller plates.
movement. 6. Mountain Ranges
 Types:  Formation: Mountain ranges can form
o Normal Faults: Formed when at convergent plate boundaries,
plates pull apart (tension), primarily through the collision of two
causing one block to drop down. continental plates.
o Reverse (Thrust) Faults: Occur  Mechanism: When two continental
when plates push together plates collide, neither can subduct due to
(compression), causing one block their buoyancy, so they crumple and
to be forced over another. fold, creating uplifted mountain ranges.
o Strike-Slip Faults: Occur when  Examples: The Himalayas formed from
plates slide past each other the collision of the Indian Plate and the
horizontally (shearing). Eurasian Plate.
 Examples: The San Andreas Fault in Summary
California is a well-known strike-slip fault. The movement of tectonic plates leads to the
3. Trenches formation of various geological features through
 Formation: Trenches are formed at processes of compression, tension, and
convergent plate boundaries, where one shearing. Folds and faults develop from stress in
tectonic plate is subducted beneath the crust, while trenches and volcanoes form at
another. convergent boundaries, rift valleys arise at
 Mechanism: As the denser oceanic divergent boundaries, and mountain ranges are
plate is forced down into the mantle, it created through the collision of plates. Together,
creates a deep trench in the ocean floor. these processes shape the dynamic landscape
 Examples: The Mariana Trench is the of the Earth.
deepest oceanic trench, formed where
the Pacific Plate is subducting beneath
the Mariana Plate.
4. Volcanoes
 Formation: Volcanoes can form at both
convergent and divergent plate
boundaries.
 Types:
o Convergent Boundaries: When
an oceanic plate is subducted
under a continental plate, magma
rises to create volcanic arcs (e.g.,
the Andes Mountains).
o Divergent Boundaries: At mid-
ocean ridges, magma rises as
plates pull apart, forming new
crust and creating underwater
volcanoes (e.g., the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge).
 Mechanism: The movement of plates
creates pressure and heat, melting rock
to form magma, which can erupt to the
surface.
5. Rift Valleys
 Formation: Rift valleys form at
divergent plate boundaries where
continental plates are pulling apart.
 Mechanism: As the crust stretches and
thins, it can break and sink, creating a
low area or valley.