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Elements of Matrix
Modeling and
Computing
with
MATLAB ®
Elements of Matrix
Modeling and
Computing
with
MATLAB ®

Robert E. White

Boca Raton London New York

Chapman & Hall/CRC is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Contents

List of Figures vii

List of Tables xi

Preface xiii

Introduction xv

1 Vectors in the Plane 1

1.1 Floating Point and Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Complex Valued Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Vectors in R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4 Dot Product and Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.5 Lines and Curves in R2 and C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2 Vectors in Space 47
2.1 Vectors and Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2 Cross and Box Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3 Lines and Curves in R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.4 Planes in R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.5 Extensions to Rq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

3 Ax = d: Unique Solution 95
3.1 Matrix Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.2 Matrix Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.3 Special Cases of Ax = d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.4 Row Operations and Gauss Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.5 Inverse Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.6 OX Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.7 Determinants and Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

4 Ax = d: Least Squares Solution 171

4.1 Curve Fitting to Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.2 Normal Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

v
vi CONTENTS

4.3 Multilinear Data Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

4.4 Parameter Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

5 Ax = d: Multiple Solutions 209

5.1 Subspaces and Solutions in R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.2 Row Echelon Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
5.3 Nullspaces and Equilibrium Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

6 Linear Initial Value Problems 243

6.1 First Order Linear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
6.2 Second Order Linear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
6.3 Homogeneous and Complex Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
6.4 Nonhomogeneous Dierential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.5 System Form of Linear Second Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

7 Eigenvalues and Dierential Equations 281

7.1 Solution of x0 = Dx by Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.2 Real Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
7.3 Solution of x0 = Dx + f (w) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

8 Image Processing in Space Domain 311

8.1 Matrices and Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
8.2 Contrast and Histograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
8.3 Blurring and Sharpening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

9 Image Processing in Frequency Domain 343

9.1 Laplace and Fourier Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
9.2 Properties of DFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
9.3 DFT in Rq × Rq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
9.4 Frequency Filters in Rq × Rq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

A Solutions to Odd Exercises 381

Bibliography 397

Index 399
List of Figures

1.1.1 Complex Numbers as Arrows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.1.2 Norm(} 2 ) and Angle(} 2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 A!ne, Square and Square Root of z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.2 Solutions of } 12 = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.1 A Vector in the Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.2 f2 = d2 + e2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3.3 f2 = e2 + d2  2de cos() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
$
 $ $ 
 $ $

1.3.4 d + e >d  e and v e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4.1 Trigonometric Identity and Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.4.2 Area and Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.4.3 Linearly Independent Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.4.4 Work and a Ramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.4.5 Torque on a Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.4.6 Work with Independent Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.5.1 Line Given a Point and Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.5.2 Minimum Distance of Point to a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.5.3 Cycloid and Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.5.4 Cycloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.5.5 Two-tone Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

2.1.1 Point in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

2.1.2 Vector in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.1.3 Vector Addition in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.2.1 Unit Vector Cross Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.2.2 Projected Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.2.3 Box Product and Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.2.4 Determinant and Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.3.1 Vector Equation and Minimum Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.3.2 Distance between Two Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.3.3 Helix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.3.4 Projectile in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.4.1 Normal and Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.4.2 Three Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

vii
viii LIST OF FIGURES

2.4.3 Linear Combination of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

2.4.4 Minimum Distance to a Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.5.1 Mesh of Image Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.5.2 Imwrite of Image Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.5.3 Negative Image Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

3.1.1 Box with Fixed Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

3.1.2 Cost of a Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.1.3 Two-bar Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.1.4 Two-loop Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.2.1 Heat Conduction in a Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.2.2 Steady State Heat Diusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.3.1 Temperature in Wire with Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.4.1 Six-bar Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.5.1 Five-bar Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.6.1 Three-loop Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.6.2 Potential in a Single-loop Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.7.1 Three-tank Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

4.1.1 Sales Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

4.1.2 Least Squares Function for Sales Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4.1.3 Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.2.1 World Population Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.4.1 US Population and Logistic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
4.4.2 Temperature Data and Curve Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

5.3.1 Bar e with Four Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

5.3.2 Fluid Flow in Four Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

6.2.1 Mass-Spring System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

6.3.1 Variable Damped Mass-Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.4.1 Forced Mass-Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
6.5.1 Series LRC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
6.5.2 Tuned Circuit with Modulated Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

7.3.1 Heat Diusion in Thin Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

8.1.1 Pollen Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

8.1.2 Enhanced Pollen Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
8.1.3 Aerial Photo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
8.1.4 Enhanced Aerial Photo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
8.1.5 Mars Rover Photo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
8.1.6 Enhanced Mars Rover Photo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
8.1.7 Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
8.1.8 Sharper Moon Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
8.1.9 Plot of the Matrix C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
LIST OF FIGURES ix

8.1.10 Image of Letter C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

8.1.11 Negative Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
8.1.12 Matrix NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
8.1.13 Image of NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
8.1.14 Negative Image of NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
8.1.15 Center Grain in Pollen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
8.2.1 Histogram of Pollen Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
8.2.2 Histogram of Lighter Pollen Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
8.2.3 Lighter Pollen Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
8.2.4 Piecewise Linear Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
8.2.5 Histogram for Enhanced Pollen Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
8.2.6 Higher Contrast Pollen Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
8.2.7 Mars Rover Image Using Power 1/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
8.2.8 Mars Rover Image Using Power 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
8.3.1 Deblurred 1D Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
8.3.2 Original NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
8.3.3 Blurred NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
8.3.4 Deblurred NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
8.3.5 Increased Contrast Pollen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
8.3.6 Brighter and Sharper Pollen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
8.3.7 Original Moon Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
8.3.8 Brightened and Sharpened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

9.2.1 DFT of Sine and Cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

9.2.2 Noisy Sine Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
9.2.3 Filtered Sine Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
9.3.1 2D DFT of Sine and Cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
9.3.2 Noisy 2D Sine Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
9.3.3 Mesh Plot of Noisy Sine Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
9.3.4 DFT of Noisy Sine Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
9.3.5 Low-pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
9.3.6 Filtered DFT of Sine Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
9.3.7 Filtered Sine Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
9.4.1 Noisy NCSU Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
9.4.2 Low-pass Filtering of NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
9.4.3 Ideal Low-pass NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
9.4.4 Band-reject Filtering of NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
9.4.5 Band-reject Filtered NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
9.4.6 Light and Noisy Aerial Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
9.4.7 Filtering Aerial Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
9.4.8 Filtered Aerial Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
9.4.9 Micro Chip Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
9.4.10 Sharpening of Micro Chip Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
9.4.11 Sharpened Micro Chip Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
List of Tables

4.1.1 Computer Sales Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

4.1.2 World Population Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.1.3 Radioactive Decay Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
4.3.1 Multlinear Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.3.2 Price Data for Three Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.3.3 Home Appraisal Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.3.4 Three-tank Mixing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.4.1 US Population Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
4.4.2 Temperature Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

xi
Preface

An important objective of this book is to provide "math-on-time" for second

year students of science and engineering. The student should have had one
semester of calculus. The student most likely would take this matrix course
concurrently with the second semester of calculus or would use this text for in-
dependent study of these important topics. This text fills in often missed topics
in the first year of calculus including complex numbers and functions, matri-
ces, algebraic systems, curve fitting, elements of linear dierential equations,
transform methods and some computation tools.
Chapters one and two have introductory material on complex numbers, 2D
and 3D vectors and their products, which are often covered in the beginning of
multivariable calculus. Here a connection is established between the geometric
and algebraic approaches to these topics. This is continued into chapters three,
four and five where higher order algebraic systems are solved via row operations,
inverse matrices and LU factorizations. Linearly independent vectors and sub-
spaces are used to solve over and under determined systems. Chapters six and
seven describe first and second order linear dierential equations and introduce
eigenvalues and eigenvectors for the solution of linear systems of initial value
problems. The last two chapters use transform methods to filter distorted im-
ages or signals. The discrete Fourier transform is introduced via the continuous
versions of the Laplace and Fourier transforms. The discrete Fourier transform
properties are derived from the Fourier matrix representation and are used to
do image filtering in the frequency domain.
The first five chapters can be used as a two-credit course (28 50-minute
classes). Among the nine chapters there is more than enough material for a
three-credit course. This three-credit matrix course when coupled with a nine-
or ten-credit calculus sequence can serve as a more "diverse" alternative to the
traditional twelve-credit calculus sequence. The twelve-credit calculus sequence
can be adapted to this alternative by reducing the precalculus, moving some of
2D and 3D vectors and dierential equations into the matrix course, and using
computing tools to do the complicated computations and graphing.
Most sections have some applications, which should indicate the utility of the
mathematics being studied. Seven basic applications are developed in various
sections of the text and include circuits, trusses, mixing tanks, heat conduc-
tion, data modeling, motion of a mass and image filters. The applications are

xiii
xiv PREFACE

developed from very simple models to more complex models. The reader can
locate sections pretaining to a particular application by using the index.
°R
MATLAB is used to do some of the more complicated computations. Al-
though the primary focus is to develop by-hand calculation skills, most sec-
tions at the end have some MATLAB calculations. The MATLAB m-files used
in the text are listed in the index and are included in the book’s Web site:
http://www4.ncsu.edu/~white. The approach to using computing tools in-
cludes: first, learn the math and by-hand calculations; second, use a computing
tool to confirm the by-hand calculations; third, use the computing tool to do
more complicated calculations and applications.
I hope this book will precipitate discussions concerning the core mathemat-
ical course work that scientists and engineers are required to study. Discrete
models and computing have become more common, and this has increased the
need for additional study of matrix computation, and numerical and linear al-
gebra. The precise topics, skills, theory and appropriate times to teach these
are certainly open for discussion. The matrix algebra topics in this book are
a small subset of most upper level linear algebra courses, which should be en-
hanced and taken by a number of students. This book attempts to make a
bridge from two- and three-variable problems to more realistic problems with
more variables, but it emphasizes skills more than theory.
I thank my colleagues who have contributed to many discussions about the
content of this text. And, many thanks go to my personal friends and Liz White
who have listened to me emote during the last year.

Bob White
MATLAB is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product
information, please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.mathworks.com ?http://www.mathworks.com/A.
Introduction

One can view an p×q matrix as a table of objects with p rows and q columns.
The objects are usually real or complex numbers, but they could be characters
or records of information. A simple example is data for the last 12 months of
car sales where there are p = 12 rows and q = 2 columns. The first column
will have the month’s number and the second column will have the number of
cars sold in the corresponding month. By examining the data one would like
to make a prediction about futures sales. This is where the modeling enters.
If the graph of the sales versus months "looks" like a straight line, then the
data may be modeled by a linear function of time | = pw b + f. The slope p b
and intercept f must be chosen so that the computed sales are "close" to the
car sales data. This is done by appropriate manipulations of the two column
vectors and computing a solution of the resulting system of algebraic equations.
Once p b and f have been found, the predicted sales for w larger than 12 can
easily be calculated by evaluating the linear function. The modeling process is
complicated by incorrect sales data, changing prices and other models such as
a parabolic function of time.
This text examines a variety of applications, which have matrix models and
often have algebraic systems that must be solved either by-hand calculations
or using a computing tool. Applications to projectiles, circuits, mixing tanks,
trusses, heat conduction, motion of a mass, curve fitting and image enhancement
will be initially modeled in very simple ways and then revisited so as to make
the model more accurate. This is typical of the modeling process where there is
an application, a model, mathematical method, computations and assessment
of the results. Then this cycle is repeated so as to enhance the application’s
model.
The first two chapters deal with problems in two- and three-dimensional
space where the matrices have no more than three rows or columns. Here
geometric insight can be used to understand the models. In Section 2.5 the
extension to higher dimensions is indicated for vectors and matrices, solution
to larger algebraic systems, more complicated curve fitting, time dependent
problems with systems of dierential equations and image modeling. Chapters
three, four and five have the basic matrix methods that are required to solve
systems in higher dimensions. Chapters six and seven contain time dependent
models and introduce linear systems of dierential equations. The last two

xv
xvi INTRODUCTION

chapters are an introduction to image and signal processing.

Most sections have some by-hand matrix calculations in the numbered ex-
amples, some applications and some MATLAB computations, see [4] and [6].
The focus is on the by-hand calculations, and one should carefully study the
numbered examples. Each numbered example usually has two exercises associ-
ated with it. There are also additional exercises, which may fill in some parts of
the text, be related to applications or use MATLAB. This text is not intended to
be a tutorial on MATLAB, but there are a number of short codes that may help
you understand the topics being discussed. The by-hand calculations should be
done, and MATLAB should be used to confirm these calculations. This will give
you confidence in both your understanding of the by-hand matrix computation
and the use of MATLAB. Larger dimensional problems can easily be done using
MATLAB or other computer software.
The following matrices are used in Chapters 3, 4, 5 and 9, and they can
be generalized to larger matrices enabling one to cross the bridge from models
with few variables to many variables.
5 6 5 6
0 0 0 1 0 0
]=7 0 0 0 8 L=7 0 1 0 8
0 0 0 0 0 1
5 6 5 6
1 0 0 1 7 10
H32 (3) = 7 0 1 0 8 X =7 0 2 4 8
0 3 1 0 0 3
5 6 5 6
2 1 0 200 1 1 0 200
[D g] = 7 1 2 1 0 8 b = 7 0 3@2 1
[X g] 100 8
0 1 2 70 0 0 4@3 410@3
5 6 5 6
2 1 0 0 8 6 4 2
9 1 2 1 0 : 9 6 12 8 4 :
D=9 7 0 1 2 1 8
: D1 = (1@10) 9
7 4 8 12
:
6 8
0 0 1 2 2 4 6 8
5 6
1 1 5 6
9 2 1 : 1 2 3 4 5
OV = 97 3 1 8
: UHI = 7 0 0 1 2 1 8
0 0 0 0 0
4 1
5 6
1 1 1 1
9 1 } }2 }3 :
F4 = 9
7 1 }2 1 }2 8
:

1 }3 }2 }
Chapter 1

Vectors in the Plane

This chapter contains geometric and algebraic descriptions of objects in two

dimensional space, R2 > and in the complex plane, C. The objects include vec-
tors, lines, complex valued functions and some curves. Fundamental operations
include vector addition and dot product. The basic properties of complex num-
bers and complex valued functions are introduced. Applications to navigation,
work, torque, areas and signal representation via phasors are given.

1.1 Floating Point and Complex Numbers

In this section we first discuss the integers and rational numbers. The floating
point numbers, which are used in computers, are a finite subset of the rational
numbers. The real and complex numbers are natural extensions of these. The
complex numbers also can be represented by directed line segments or vectors in
the plane. Although initially complex numbers may appear to be of questionable
value, they will be used extensively in the chapters on dierential equations and
image processing.

1.1.1 Rational Numbers

The integers are the set of whole numbers and include both positive, negative
and zero
Z  {· · ·  2> 1> 0> 1> 2> · · · }=
The addition and product of two integers are also integers. Any integer can
be uniquely factored into a product of prime numbers (an integer that is only
divisible by itself and one). For example, 90 = 51 32 21 =
The rational numbers are fractions of integers p@q where q is not zero and
p and q are integers

Q  {p@q : p> q 5 Z> q 6= 0}=

1
2 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN THE PLANE

The set of rational numbers has a countable but infinite number of elements.
Also, the addition and product of two rational numbers are rational numbers.

1.1.2 Real Numbers

Any real number is approximated by a sequence of rational numbers. Tradi-
tionally, one uses a base ten decimal expansion with {l > h 5 Z and 0  {l ? 10

{ = ±(={1 · · · {g · · · )10h
 ±({1 @10 + · · · + {g @10g + · · · )10h =

This expansion is either a bounded increasing or decreasing sequence of rational

numbers and, therefore, by the completeness axiom for the real numbers it must
converge.

R  {±({1 @10 + · · · + {g @10g + · · · )10h : {l > h 5 Z> 0  {l ? 10}=

Real numbers contain the rational numbers, but not all real numbers are
rational. For example, consider { = 31@2 where 3 is a prime number. If { were
a rational number, then { = p@q giving 3 = p2 @q2 and 31 q2 = p2 . The
left side has an odd number of prime factors 3, and the right side has an even
number of prime factors 3. This contradicts the unique factorization property
and, hence, { cannot be a rational number.

1.1.3 Floating Point Numbers

Computers use a finite subset of the rational numbers to approximate any real
number. This set of numbers may depend on the computer being used. How-
ever, they do have the same general form and are called floating point num-
bers. Any real number { can be represented by an infinite decimal expansion
{ = ±(={1 · · · {g · · · )10h , and by truncating this we can define the chopped
floating point numbers.
Let { be any real number and denote a floating point number by

i o({) = ±={1 · · · {g 10h

 ±({1 @10 + · · · + {g @10g )10h =

This is a floating point number with base equal to 10 where {1 is not equal
to zero, {l are integers between 0 and 9, the exponent h is an integer between
given integers i and j and g is a positive integer called the precision of the
floating point system

F  {±({1 @10 + · · · + {g @10g )10h : {1 6= 0> 0  {l ? 10> 0 ? g}=

Associated with each real number, {, and its floating point approximate
number, i o({), is the floating point error, i o({)  {. This error decreases as
the precision, g, increases. Each computer calculation has some floating point
1.1. FLOATING POINT AND COMPLEX NUMBERS 3

error. Moreover, as additional floating point calculations are done, there may
be an accumulation of these floating point errors.
Example 1.1.1. Let { = 1=5378 and i o({) = 0=154 101 where g = 3. The
floating point error is
i o({)  { = =0022=
The error will accumulate with any further operations containing i o({), for
example, i o({)2 = =237 101 and

i o({)2  {2 = 2=37  2=36482884 = =00517116=

Repeated calculations using floating point numbers can accumulate to signifi-

cant errors.

1.1.4 Complex Numbers

Any real number times itself must be positive unless it is zero. The square root
of any negative number cannot be positive and, therefore, not a real number!
The set of complex numbers is defined to be real numbers plus another real
number times l  (1)1@2

C  {d + el : d> e 5 R and l = (1)1@2 }=

If } 5 C> then real(}) = d is called the real part and imag(}) = e is called the
imaginary part. Two complex numbers are equal if and only if both the real
and imaginary parts are equal.
Complex numbers are often represented graphically where the real part is
located on the horizontal axis and the imaginary part is located on the vertical
axis. The complex number is then either viewed as point in the complex plane
or as directed line segment or arrow from the origin 0 + l0 to the complex point
} = d + el= Figure 1.1.1 illustrates this for } = 2 + 1l= One point of confusion
concerns the starting point of the arrow, which is the origin, but often the arrow
is moved parallel to its original position, as is illustrated by the top dashed arrow
in Figure 1.1.1 that is parallel to }= This is done to depict addition of two arrows
by placing the beginning of the arrow at the end of another arrow.
There are several important operations: conjugate of }, modulus of }, addi-
tion, subtraction, product and division. The conjugate of } is another complex
number formed by the reflection of } about the real axis. The modulus of } is
the length of the vector. The algebraic operations are defined in the natural
way by using l2 = 1=
Definitions 1.1.1. Attributes of complex numbers } = d + el and z = f + gl=

}  z if and only if d = f and e = g>

}  d  el or frqm(})  d  el,
|}|  (d2 + e2 )1@2 or norm or modulus of } and
arg(})  arctan(e@d) or argument or angle of }=
4 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN THE PLANE

Figure 1.1.1: Complex Numbers as Arrows

Definition 1.1.2. The polar representation of a complex number with  =

arg(}) is
} = |}| (cos() + l sin()=
s
Example 1.1.2.sLet } = 3 +s l. Then
1@2
} = 3  l, 3} = 3 3 + 3l s and |}| = 4 = 2.
Also, duj(}) = arctan(1@ 3) = @6 and
} = 2(cos(@6) + l sin(@6))=
Solving equations with unknown complex numbers } = { + l| requires one
to find two real numbers { and |= So, there must be two real equations, which
can be found by setting equal the real and imaginary parts of a given complex
equation. For example, consider the linear complex equation

} + 7 + 2l = 3 + 4l=

This is equivalent to equating the real and imaginary parts

real(} + 7 + 2l) = 3 and

imag (} + 7 + 2l) = 4=

Addition of complex numbers is defined by adding the real and imaginary parts,
} + 7 + 2l = ({ + l|) + 7 + 2l = ({ + 7) + (| + 2)l and, then, the above two real
1.1. FLOATING POINT AND COMPLEX NUMBERS 5

equations are
{ + 7 = 3 and
| + 2 = 4=
Thus, the complex solution of } + 7 + 2l = 3 + l4 is } = 4 + 2l=
Definitions 1.1.3. Operations with complex numbers } = d+el and z = f+gl=
}±z  (d ± f) + (e ± g)l
}z  (d + el)(f + gl) = (df  eg) + (ef + dg)l and
d + el d + el f  gl df + eg ef  dg
}@z  = = 2 + 2 l=
f + gl f + gl f  gl f + g2 f + g2

Example 1.1.3. Let } = 2 + l and z = 1 + 3l= Then

}z = 1 + 7l, }@z = 5@101@2  5@101@2 l and
2}  5z = (4 + 2l)  (5 + 15l) = 1  13l=
Example 1.1.4. Let } = frv(2@3) + l sin(2@3)= Note the modulus is one so
that the angle between thes} vector and the real axis is 2@3= Compute } 3
} 3 = (1@2 + s 3@2 l)3 s
= (1@2 + s3@2 l)2 (1@2 +s 3@2 l)
= (1@2  3@2 l)(1@2 + 3@2 l)
= 1=
Example 1.1.5. The modulus can be computed as the square root of the
product of the complex number and the conjugate of the complex number
|}|2 = }} = (d + el)(d  el) = d2 + e2 =
This is useful in expressing ratios of complex number in terms of real and
imaginary parts
1+l 1 + l 3  2l
=
3 + 2l 3 + 2l 3  2l
(3 + 2) + (3  2)l
=
32 + 22
5 1
= + l=
14 14
The zero complex number has a zero real and imaginary parts, and we
simply write 0 = 0 + l0= The unit complex number has real part equal to one,
imaginary part equal to zero, and we write 1 = 1+l0= The multiplicative inverse
of a non-zero complex number } = d + el is another complex number
1 d  el
} 1 =
d + el d  el
d e
= + l=
d2 + e2 d2 + e2
6 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN THE PLANE

The following eleven algebraic properties are easily established. The first five
properties are the additive group properties, the next five are the multiplicative
group properties for non-zero complex numbers and the last is the distributive
property.

Theorem 1.1.1 (Field Properties of Complex Numbers) Let }> z> z1 > z2 5 C=
Then

} + z 5 C, } + 0 = }, } + (}) = 0, } + z = z + },
} + (z1 + z2 ) = (} + z1 ) + z2 ;
}z 5 C, }1 = }, }(} 1 ) = 1 when } 6= 0, }z = z},
}(z1 z2 ) = (}z1 )z2 ;
}(z1 + z2 ) = }z1 + }z2 =
Example 1.1.6. This example illustrates how one can solve complex algebraic
equations where we must solve for both the real and imaginary parts of an
unknown complex number } = { + l|= Here we use the above field properties
1 + 4l
= 2+l
}+1
1 + 4l = (2 + l)(} + 1)
= (2 + l)} + (2 + l)=

Now solve for }

(1 + 4l)  (2 + l)
} =
(2 + l)
1 + 3l 2  l
=
2+l 2l
1 7
= +l =
5 5
So, { = 1@5, | = 7@5, which is easy to verify

1 + 4l 5 + 20l
=
(1@5 + (7@5)l) + 1 6 + 7l
5 + 20l 6  7l
=
6 + 7l 6  7l
170 + 85l
=
85
= 2 + l=

The complex numbers are extensions of the real numbers, and many of
the algebraic and absolute value properties extend to the complex numbers.
For example, if d and f are real numbers and |d| is the absolute value, then
|df| = |d| |f|. When d and f are extended to complex numbers and absolute
value is extended to the modulus of a complex number, then one can show
1.1. FLOATING POINT AND COMPLEX NUMBERS 7

Figure 1.1.2: Norm(} 2 ) and Angle(} 2 )

|}z| = |}| |z| = In order to see this is true, let } = d + el and z = f + gl and
show |}z|2 = |}|2 |z|2 :

}z = (d + el)(f + gl) = (df  eg) + (ef + dg)l

2
|}z| = (df  eg)2 + (ef + dg)2
= (df)2  2(df)(eg) + (eg)2 +
(ef)2 + 2(ef)(dg) + (dg)2
= d2 (f2 + g2 ) + e2 (f2 + g2 )
¡ ¢
= d2 + e2 (f2 + g2 )
2 2
= |}| |z| =

¯ ¯
If } = z, then we could write this as ¯} 2 ¯ = |}|
2

Another property of the product }z is arg(}z) = arg(}) + arg(z), and

this with } = z is illustrated in Figure 1.1.2= Figure 1.1.2 was generated by
the MATLAB code complex_prod.m and command quiver.m to generate the
vectors. The proof follows from the trigonometric identities

cos( + *) = cos() cos(*)  sin() sin(*) and

sin( + *) = sin() cos(*) + cos() sin(*)=
8 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN THE PLANE

Let } = |}| (cos() + l sin()) and z = |z| (cos(*) + l sin(*)) so that

}z = |}| (cos() + l sin()) |z| (cos(*) + l sin(*))
= |}| |z| (cos() cos(*)  sin() sin(*)) +
l(sin() cos(*) + cos() sin(*))
= |}z| (cos( + *) + l sin( + *))=
Additional properties are summarized in the following theorem.
Theorem 1.1.2 (Norm Properties of Complex Numbers) Let }> z 5 C= Then
|}z| = |}| |z| > arg(}z) = arg(}) + arg(z)>
|} + z|  |}| + |z| and
|}| = 0 if and only if } = 0 + l0=

1.1.5 Complex Operations Using MATLAB

MATLAB also uses i to represent the square root of minus one. The following
are some complex numbers and operations:
AA z = 1 + i*2
z=
1.0000 + 2.0000i
AA w = 2*z +1
w=
3.0000 + 4.0000i
AA z^2
ans =
-3.0000 + 4.0000i
AA w*z
ans =
-5.0000 +10.0000i
AA z/w
ans =
0.4400 + 0.0800i.
The MATLAB command quiver(x,y,dx,dy,s) produces a plot of a vector that
begins at the point (x,y) and ends at the point (x+dx,y+dy), see Figure 1.1.2.
The following graphs a vector representation of a complex number:
z=
1.0000 + 2.0000i
AA plot(z,’*’)
AA hold on
AA quiver(0,0,real(z),imag(z),1)
This produces a graph with the complex number marked by a *, and then
inserts an arrow from the origin to the complex number. The MATLAB code
complex_prod.m also illustrates this.
1.1. FLOATING POINT AND COMPLEX NUMBERS 9

1.1.6 Exercises
1. Consider the real number 1@3.
(a). Find i o(1@3) with base 10 and three digits, g = 3.
2 2
(b). Compute (i o(1@3)) and the error = (i o(1@3))  (1@3)2 =
1@2
2. Let s be prime number. Show s is not a rational number.
3. Let } = 7  l and z = 2 + 3l=
(a). Graph }, z, z and 2z + 3}=
(b). Compute }z and }@z=
4. Let } = 2 + 3l and z = 2  3l=
(a). Graph }, z, z and 2z + 3}=
(b). Compute }z and }@z=
5. For } = cos(2@3) + l sin(2@3) compute 1 + } + } 2 =
6. For } = cos(2@4) + l sin(2@4) compute 1 + } + } 2 + } 3 =
7. Use the properties in Theorem 1.1.1 to solve for the complex number
} = { + |l
} + 7 + 2l = 3 + 4l=
8. Prove the remaining properties in Theorem 1.1.1.
9. Find the real and imaginary parts of
2+l
=
3  7l
10. Find the real and imaginary parts of
2+l
+ 5=
10 + 7l
11. Solve for the complex number } = { + |l
2 + 4l
= 7 + l=
}+l
12. Solve for the complex number } = { + |l
2 + 4l
= 1 + l=
2}  l
13. Prove the remaining properties in Theorem 1.1.2.
14. Does the quadratic formula hold when the coe!cients d> e and f are
complex numbers? You may wish to consider some special cases such as d =
1> e = 0 and f = l= One needs to be able to define the square root of a complex
number!
15. Use MATLAB and enter } = 2 + 3l and z = 2  3l=
(a). Graph } and z=
(b). Compute }z and }@z=
(c). Use quiver() to plot the vectors for } and z=
16. Consider the calculations
s in Figure 1.1.2 given by the MATLAB code
complex_prod.m. Let } = 3 + 1l=
(a). Use by-hand calculations to find } 2 , } 3 , their norms and arguments.
(b). Modify complex_prod.m to confirm your by-hand calculations.
10 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN THE PLANE

1.2 Complex Valued Functions

Mappings from the complex numbers into the complex numbers can be viewed
as functions from the plane into the plane. Several examples such as d} + e or
} 2 were introduced in the previous section and here additional functions will
be described. An important objective is to develop the Euler formula for the
exponential function of an imaginary number

hl| = cos(|) + l sin(|)=

This formula is extremely useful and has applications to trigonometric iden-

tities, the solution of algebraic and dierential equations, circuits and signal
processing.

1.2.1 Linear and Power Functions

The linear complex function is

i (}) = d} + e=

The constants d and e are given complex numbers, and } = {+l| is any complex
number where { and | are real numbers. This means

i (}) = x({> |) + ly({> |) where

the functions x({> |) and y({> |) have real values. The solution of i (}) = g =
g1 + lg2 is equivalent to equating the real and imaginary parts and reduces to
solving two real equations for { and |

x({> |) = g1 and y({> |) = g2 = (1.2.1)

Example 1.2.1. Consider solving i (}) = (1 + l)} + 3  l = 7l= Let } = { + l|

so that

i (}) = (1 + l)({ + l|) + 3  l

= ({  | + 3) + l({ + |  1)=

Thus, x({> |) = {  | + 3 and y({> |) = { + |  1= In order to solve i (}) = 7l =

0 + 7l> equate the real and imaginary parts as in equation (1.2.1)

{  | + 3 = 0 and { + |  1 = 7=

This algebraic system can be solved by adding the two equations 2{ + 2 = 7 so

that { = 5@2 and | = 11@2= Thus, the solution of i (}) = (1 + l)} + 3  l = 7l
is } = 5@2 + (11@2)l= The solution can also be found by using the properties in
Theorem 1.1.1
ge 7l  (3  l) 3 + 8l 3 + 8l 1  l 5 + 11l
}= = = = = =
d 1+l 1+l 1+l 1l 2
1.2. COMPLEX VALUED FUNCTIONS 11

The linear rational complex function is

d} + e
i (}) =
f} + g
where constants d> e> f and g are complex numbers.
Example 1.2.2. Let d = 1> e = l> f = 1 and g = l giving
}+l
i (}) = =
}l
This function can be represented by two real valued functions x({> |) and y({> |)
}+l
i (}) =
}l
({ + l|) + l
=
({ + l|)  l
{ + l(| + 1) {  l(|  1)
=
{ + l(|  1) {  l(|  1)
{2 + | 2  1 2{
= +l 2
{2 + (|  1)2 { + (|  1)2
= x({> |) + ly({> |)=

The solution of i (}) = 2 + l can be found by equating the real and imaginary
parts x({> |) = 2, y({> |) = 1 and solving for { and |= Or, one can use the
properties in Theorem 1.1.1 to find } as follows:
}+l
= 2+l
}l
}+l = (2 + l)(}  l) = (2 + l)}  (2 + l)l
}(1  (2 + l)) = (2 + l)l  l
}(1  l) = 3l + 1
1 + 3l 1  l 2 + 4l
} = = = 1 + 2l=
1+l 1l 2
A quadratic complex function is

i (}) = d} 2 + e} + f=

The coe!cients d, e and f are given complex numbers, and one would like to
solve i (}) = d} 2 + e} + f = 0= In order to generalize the quadratic formula
to the complex case, the square root of a complex number needs to be defined.
Since the square root function is the inverse of the square function, let us focus
on
i (}) = } 2 =
12 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN THE PLANE

In Section 1.1 we used the polar representation } = |}| (cos() + l sin()) and
Theorem 1.1.2 with } = z to obtain

} 2 = |}|2 (cos(2) + l sin(2))=

This suggests that the square root of complex number should be

} 1@2  |}|1@2 (cos(@2) + l sin(@2))= (1.2.2)

s
A complex square root function i (}) = } = x + ly must have complex
values so that its square is }
s
( })2 = (x + ly)2
{ + l| = (x2  y 2 ) + l2xy=

Thus, one must choose x and y such that { = x2  y 2 and | = 2xy= The use of
trigonometric identities confirms
1@2 1@2
x = |}| cos(@2) and y = |}| sin(@2)

are the solution of these two equations and, hence, equation (1.2.2) is correct
for the definition of square root of }=
s
Example 1.2.3. Use equation (1.2.2) to find the square root of } = 1 + 3l.
The modulus of } is 2 and the angle is @3 or 60 degrees so that } = 2(cos(@3)+
l sin(@3))= Equation (1.2.2) gives
s 1@2
(1 + 3l) = 21@2 (cos(@6) + l sin(@6))
s s
= 2( 3@2 + l(1@2))
p s
= 3@2 + l(1@ 2)=
s
Note the solution of the complex quadratic equation } 2 = 1 + 3l is plus or
minus this square root.

Figure 1.2.1 illustrates the linear, square and square root functions of a
complex variable; this was generated by the MATLAB code complex_power.m.
The complex numbers in the domain correspond to the domain semicircle with
radius equal to three. The linear function has values in the complex plane where
the domain semicircle has been doubled in radius and shifted to the right. The
square function has values in the complex plane where the domain semicircle
has been expanded in both the radial direction and in an angular direction to
one complete circle of radius equal to three squared. The smallest curve depicts
the square root function. Now, the domain semicircle has been contracted in
both the radial and angular components to one half of the semicircle and with
radius equal to the square root of three.
1.2. COMPLEX VALUED FUNCTIONS 13

Figure 1.2.1: A!ne, Square and Square Root of z

1.2.2 Exponential Function e}

The exponential function of a complex variable } = { + l| at first look is
h} = h{+l| = h{ hl| . But, what is the meaning of hl| ? Find functions x(|) and
y(|) such that
hl| = x(|) + ly(|)
has properties similar to the exponential function of a real variable. Two prop-
erties that one would like to hold are

hl0 = 1 and (1.2.3)

g l|
h = lhl| = (1.2.4)
g|
By equating the real and imaginary parts in equations (1.2.3) and (1.2.4) we
have

x(0) = 1 and y(0) = 0 and (1.2.5)

gx gy
= y and = x= (1.2.6)
g| g|
Note the x(|) = cos(|) and y(|) = sin(|) satisfy these equations.
In order to justify using the exponential function to represent this complex
valued function, use the power series expansions, which are studied in the second
14 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN THE PLANE

semester of calculus,
{2 {3 {4 {5
h{ = 1+{+ + + + + ··· >
2! 3! 4! 5!
{2 {4
cos({) = 1  +  · · · and
2! 4!
{3 {5
sin({) = {  +  ··· =
3! 5!
Extend the exponential function’s domain from the real numbers to the complex
numbers by replacing { by l|
(l|)2 (l|)3 (l|)4 (l|)5
hl| = 1 + l| + + + + + ···
2! 3! 4! 5!
|2 |3 |4 |5
= 1 + l|  l + + l + ···
2! 3! 4! 5!
|2 |4 |3 |5
= [1  +  · · · ] + l[|  +  ···]
2! 4! 3! 5!
= cos(|) + l sin(|)=

Definition 1.2.1. Euler’s Formula is

hl| = cos(|) + l sin(|)=

The general complex exponential function is

i (}) = h} = h{+l| = h{ hl| = h{ (cos(|) + l sin(|))=

Also, any complex variable } = { + l| can be represented by using hl =

cos()+l sin() where  = arctan(|@{)= This gives the exponential representation
of a complex variable

} = { + l|
= |}| (cos() + l sin ())
= |}| hl =

1.2.3 Application to Trigonometric Identities

Four consequences of Euler’s formula are presented. First, since the cosine is
an even function and the sine function is an odd function,

hl{ = cos({) + l sin({)

= cos({)  l sin({)
= hl{ =
1.2. COMPLEX VALUED FUNCTIONS 15

Second, this leads to the representation of the cosine and sine functions

cos({) = (hl{ + hl{ )@2 and (1.2.7)

sin({) = (hl{  hl{ )@(2l). (1.2.8)

Third, consider the product of hl{ and hl| and use the trigonometric identities
for the sum of angles

hl{ hl| = (cos({) + l sin({))(cos(|) + l sin(|))

= [cos({) cos(|)  sin({) sin(|)]
+l[sin({) cos(|) + cos({) sin(|)]
= cos({ + |) + l sin({ + |)
= hl({+|) =

Fourth, another identity, which follows from the repeated use of hl{ hl| = hl({+|)
with | = {> is de Moivre’s formula

(cos({) + l sin({))q = (hl{ )q

= hl{q
= cos(q{) + l sin(q{)= (1.2.9)

This formula for dierent choice of q leads to a variety of trigonometric identi-

ties. Equation (1.2.9) can be used to reduce computations with large exponents.
Example 1.2.4. Use de Moivre’s formula to evaluate (3 + 4l)10 . First, write
3 + 4l in exponential form 3 + 4l = 5hl where  = tan1 (4@3)= Second, use
equation (1.2.9) with q = 10 on the second factor

(3 + 4l)10 = (5hl )10

= 510 (hl )10
= 510 hl10
= 510 (cos(10) + l sin(10))
= 510 (0=9885 + 0=1512l)=

1.2.4 Application to Solution of } q = g

Consider the case q = 2 where the solution of } 2 = g is plus or minus the square
root of g= Let g = |g| hl and
1@2 l@2
(|g| hl )1@2 = |g| h =

The second solution is  |g|1@2 hl@2 = |g|1@2 hl@2 hl2@2 =

There should be q solutions of } q = 1= In order to discover these, represent
one by 1 = hl2 and, hence,

11@q = (hl2 )1@q = hl2@q =

16 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN THE PLANE

This leads to all q solutions } = (hl2@q )m = hl(2@q)m where m = 0> 1> ===> q  1=
They are solutions because
}q = (hl(2@q)m )q
= hl(2)m
= cos((2)m) + l sin((2)m)
= 1=
Definition 1.2.2. Let m = 0> 1> · · · > q1= Then hl(2@q)m are solutions to } q = 1
and are called the qwk roots of unity.
Example 1.2.5. Let q = 3 and find the three solutions of } 3 = 1= Here
2@q = 2@3 or 120 degrees. The three solutions are
hl(2@3)0 = cos((2@3)0) + l sin((2@3)0) = 1
hl(2@3)1 = cos((2@3)1) + l sin((2@3)1) = 0=5000 + 0=8660l
hl(2@3)2 = cos((2@3)2) + l sin((2@3)2) = 0=5000  0=8660l=
Another special case with q = 12 is illustrated in Figure 1.2.2 where the 12
vectors with radius equal to one are the solutions. The other 12 vectors have
increasing moduli and have staggered angles
(1=05h(l2(1+=05)@q) )m =
The figure was generated by the MATLAB code euler_form.m.
The solution of the more general problem } q = g is straightforward once
the complex number g is written in polar form
g = |g| hl = |g| hl hl2
1@q
} = g1@q = |g| (hl hl2 )1@q
= |g|1@q hl@q hl2@q = (1.2.10)
l2@q m q
Define z  h and use the fact (z ) = 1 to obtain all q solutions } =
g1@q zm where m = 0> 1> ===> q1= A summary of the above is given in the following
theorem.
Theorem 1.2.1 (Solutions of } q = g)= Let z  hl2@q and g = |g| hl = Then
z satisfies z = z1 > zq = 1 and 1+z+· · ·+zq1 = 0= Moreover, the solutions
1@q l@q m
of } q = g are given by } = |g| h z = g1@q zm where m = 0> 1> · · · > q  1=
Example 1.2.6. Let q = 3 and find the three solutions of } 3 = 1 + l= Here
2@q = 2@3 and g = 1 + l = 21@2 hl@4 = The three solutions are
21@6 hl@12 hl(2@3)0 = 21@6 (cos(@12 + (2@3)0) + l sin(@12 + (2@3)0))
= 1=0842 + 0=2905l
21@6 hl@12 hl(2@3)1 = 21@6 (cos(@12 + (2@3)1) + l sin(@12 + (2@3)1))
= 0=7937 + 0=7937l
21@6 hl@12 hl(2@3)2 = 21@6 (cos(@12 + (2@3)2) + l sin(@12 + (2@3)2))
= 0=2905  1=0842l=
1.2. COMPLEX VALUED FUNCTIONS 17

Figure 1.2.2: Solutions of } 12 = 1

1.2.5 Complex Functions Using MATLAB

Complex functions are evaluated using MATLAB as are real functions. The
computations in Example 1.2.6 are easy to do. The second solution is
AA a = exp(i*2*pi/3)
a=
-0.5000 + 0.8660i
AA b = 2^(1/6)*exp(i*pi/12)
b=
1.0842 + 0.2905i
AA a*b
ans =
-0.7937 + 0.7937i
AA z = a*b
z=
-0.7937 + 0.7937i
AA z^3
ans =
1.0000 + 1.0000i.
The MATLAB code complex_power.m, see Figure 1.2.1, uses an implied loop
to generate a row vector of values for the parameter w= Then a row vector of
complex values is computed to form the semicircle, which is to be the domain
of three functions. Array operations given by }=ˆs are used to compute the
18 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN THE PLANE

square and square root functions. An array operation on a row vector produces
another row vector whose components are given by the operation. For example,
if d = [2 3]> then d=ˆ2 = [22 32 ]=
The MATLAB code euler_form.m, see Figure 1.2.2, uses a for-loop to gen-
erate a sequence of vectors associated with the complex exponential function
raised to a variety of powers. The vectors are created by the MATLAB com-
mand quiver(x,y,dx,dy,1), which graphs a vector beginning at the point ({> |)
and ending at ({ + g{> | + g|).

1.2.6 Exercises
1. Let i (}) = (2 + l)} + 7 + l where } = { + l|
(a). Find x({> |) and y({> |) such that i (}) = x + ly=
(b). Find the solution of i (}) = 10  2l=
2. Let i (}) = (3 + l)} + 1 + 2l where } = { + l|
(a). Find x({> |) and y({> |) such that i (}) = x + ly=
(b). Find the solution of i (}) = 1  2l=
3. Let i (}) = (} + 2l)@(}  l) where } = { + l|
(a). Find x({> |) and y({> |) such that i (}) = x + ly=
(b). Find the solution of i (}) = 1  2l=
4. Let i (}) = (2} + l)@(} + l) where } = { + l|
(a). Find x({> |) and y({> |) such that i (}) = x + ly=
(b). Find the solution of i (}) = 1 + 2l=
5. Use equation (1.2.2) to find the square root of 1 + l= s
6. Use equation (1.2.2) to find the square root of 1 + 3l=
7. Use the complex quadratic formula to solve d} 2 + e} + f = 0=
(a). Solve the quadratic equation } 2 + 2}  l = 0=
(b). Check your answer.
8. Consider the completing square method of developing the quadratic for-
mula.
(a). Prove: if } and z are complex numbers and }z = 0> then either
} = 0 or z = 0=
(b). Use this fact to derive the quadratic formula for complex numbers.
9. Use de Moivre’s formula in equation (1.2.9) to compute (1 + l)10 =
10. Use de Moivre’s formula in equation (1.2.9) to compute (3 + 2l)7 =
11. Use Theorem 1.2.1 to find all three solutions to } 3 = 3 + 4l=
s
12. Use Theorem 1.2.1 to find all four solutions to } 4 = 1 + 3l=
13. Let z  hl2@q = Show z satisfies z = z1 > zq = 1 and 1 + z + · · · +
q1
z = 0=
14. Use MATLAB to verify the third equation in Example 1.2.6.
15. Use MATLAB to experiment with dierent size semicircles in the code
complex_power.m.
16. Use MATLAB to experiment with powers q = 3> 6 and 12 in the code
euler_form.m.
1.3. VECTORS IN R2 19

1.3 Vectors in R2
Complex numbers are represented either by ordered pairs of real numbers or as
directed line segments. The first number in the pair is the real part and the
second number is the imaginary part. The directed line segment or arrow starts
at the origin and ends at the complex point. There are a number of important
similar examples such as displacement in the plane of a mass, force acting on
a mass as well as the velocity and acceleration of a mass. As in the complex
numbers, these quantities can be added, subtracted and scaled, and have length
and angles.

1.3.1 Vector Definition and Notations

$ 
 $
There are a number of notations of vectors. One is the l > m unit vectors often
used in physics textbooks. Other notations list the components in either a row
or a column. There is also some confusion about the dierence between a point
in a plane and a vector in a plane; often the notation is the same! Part of the
problem is the need to have vectors with more than two or three components,
which will be considered after the first two chapters.
Definition 1.3.1. A vector in R2 is an ordered list of two real numbers  $d =
[d1 d2 ]. One can visualize this by forming the directed line segment from the
origin point (0> 0) to the point (d1 > d2 )=
Notation. Points in the plane R2 will be denoted by (d1 > d2 )> and vectors will
be considered as either row or column vectors:

$
d = [d1 d2 ] denotes a row vector >
 ¸
d1
a = denotes a column vector =
d2

aW = [d1 d2 ] is called the transpose of the column vector a so that aW = 

$
d=
Example 1.3.1. The standard unit basis vectors are
 ¸
$
 1
l = [1 0] or e1 = and
0
 ¸
$
 0
m = [0 1] or e2 = =
1

Any vector can be represented as a linear combination of unit vectors. For

example, if 
$
d = [2 3], then either by row vectors

$ $
 $

d = 2 l + 3 m or by column vectors
a = 2e1 + 3e2 =

These vectors are illustrated in Figure 1.3.1.

20 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN THE PLANE

Figure 1.3.1: A Vector in the Plane

Movement of a mass in a plane involves displacement, velocity and force

vectors. If one moves a mass from the origin to a point (g1 > g2 )> then there is
displacement in both the horizontal and the vertical directions. This requires
two numbers, and we agree to list the horizontal term first so that

$
g = [g1 g2 ] = displacement vector.

In order to move an object, a force must be exerted on the mass, and this
will also have horizontal and vertical components. By adjusting the size of the
components, the direction and magnitude of the force can be determined to
obtain the desired motion. Let i1 be the force in the horizontal direction, i2
be the vertical force and denote the force vector as

$
i = [i1 i2 ] = force vector.

The resulting motion will have speeds in the horizontal and vertical directions.
The velocity vector lists these speeds so that the velocity vector also has a
direction and magnitude. The speed in the horizontal direction is y1 and when
this is coupled with the vertical speed y2 we get a velocity vector

$
y = [y1 y2 ] = velocity vector.

Newton’s law of motion can be applied in both the horizontal and vertical
directions
gy1 gy2
i1 = p and i2 = p =
gw gw
1.3. VECTORS IN R2 21

Figure 1.3.2: f2 = d2 + e2

The vector notation for Newton’s law of motion is

$

i = [i1 i2 ]
gy1 gy2
= [p p ]
gw gw
= p $
d where
$
 gy 1 gy2
d = [ ] = acceleration vector.
gw gw
As in complex vectors there are operations with vectors such as addition,
length and angles. Two very useful theorems are related to the length of a
side of a triangle, which is opposite one of the angles. When the angle is 90
degrees, the Pythagorean theorem gives a very useful relationship between the
three sides. There are number of proofs for the Pythagorean theorem, but the
following is a very nifty proof that is based on geometry. Consider Figure 1.3.2
where the right triangle has sides of length d> e and f with f being opposite the
90 degree angle. The figure is drawn with d larger than e. The area of the big
square is f squared, and it is the union of four identical triangles and a small
square
f2 = 4(de@2) + (d  e)2
= 2de + d2  2de + e2
= d2 + e2 =

Theorem 1.3.1 (Pythagorean) Consider a right triangle with sides a, b and

c. If c is opposite the right angle, then
f2 = d2 + e2 =
22 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN THE PLANE

Figure 1.3.3: f2 = e2 + d2  2de cos()

An important consequence of the above, where sin() = e@f and cos() =

d@f> is the trigonometric identity

1 = sin2 () + cos2 ()=

Another result pertains to the case when the angle is not 90 degrees as is
illustrated in the triangle in Figure 1.3.3 where the triangle with sides d> e and
f is a union of two right triangles. The left right triangle has base equal to
e cos() and height equal to e sin()= The other right triangle has the same
height, but the base is d  e cos() (assuming d A e)= Therefore, applying the
Pythagorean theorem to the right triangle on the right side gives

f2 = (e sin())2 + (d  e cos())2
= e2 sin2 () + d2  2de cos() + e2 cos2 ()
= e2 (sin2 () + cos2 ()) + d2  2de cos()
= e2 + d2  2de cos()=

Theorem 1.3.2 (Cosine Law) Consider a triangle with sides a, b and c. If c

is opposite the angle , then

f2 = e2 + d2  2de cos()=

1.3.2 Vector Operations

Vectors can be scaled, added and subtracted by either viewing the vectors
geometrically or as symbolic objects. Figure 1.3.4 illustrates vector scaling by
$
 $

either elongating or shrinking the vector e . Two vectors  $
d and e can be
$

added by moving vector e parallel to its original position so that its beginning
point is the end point of vector 
$d . The addition corresponds to the diagonal
$
 $

of the parallelogram formed by vectors  $
d and e . If $d is added to e , then
$

the subtraction is the other diagonal from the end of $
d to the end of e =
 Another Random Document on
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things attempted and dropt! what hopes, fears, cares, and follies of
every kind!
 CHAP. VIII.
Compensations.

W hat you tell me (says I) is very extraordinary. But I cannot see

why the elementary spirits raise and cultivate this plant with so
great care. They who wish us so much good, in this respect do us very
little. To behold men, stung to the quick, acting like madmen, losing
their senses for chimeras, is a thing, in my opinion, deserving pity;
but perhaps it may be an amusement to the elementary spirits.
Like many others (replied the Prefect) thou judgest and seest
things but in one view. The itches have their inconveniences; but that
is nothing in comparison of their advantages. Without the itch of
talking and writing, would eloquence be known? Would the sciences
have been transmitted and improved from generation to generation?
Would not you be like so many untaught children, without ideas,
without knowledge, without principles? Was it not for the itch of
being known, who would take the pains to amuse you, to instruct
you, to be useful to you by the most interesting discoveries? Without
the itch of ruling, who would busy themselves in unravelling the
chaos of the laws, in hearing and judging your quarrels, in watching
for your safety? Without the itch of shining, in what kingdom would
policy find a vent for those respectable knick-knacks wherewith she
adorns those she is pleased to distinguish? And yet, this kind of
nothings are, for the good of the state, to be acquired at the price
even of blood. Thanks to our flies, there are some mad enough to
sacrifice all for their sake, and others fools enough to behold them
with veneration.
Take away our insects, and men stand stupidly ranged by one
another, like so many statues; let our insects fly, and these statues
receive new life, and are as busy as bees. One sings, another dances,
this reads his verses and falls into an extasy, that hears him and is
tired: The Chymist is at his furnace, the Speculatist in his study, the
Merchant at sea, the Astronomer discovers a new satellite, the
Physician a new medicine, the soldier a new manœuvre; in fine, the
statues are men; and all this is owing to this plant and our care.
I beg (said I to the Prefect) we may stand at a distance from this
admirable plant; I dread more than I can express, the neighbourhood
of these volatiles. I rejoice much to see them authors of so many
benefits; but I fear still more, the uneasiness they create.
 CHAP. IX.
Nil Admirari.

Y our fearfulness, (says the Prefect) surprises me. Tell me, I pray,
what idea hast thou of what is called grandeur, dignities, and
high rank in a state?
I am in this world (answered I) like a traveller, who goes on his
way curiously observing the objects, but desiring none, because he is
but a passenger. Moreover, if things are estimated according to the
happiness they procure, I do not think that the highest places should
be much valued; for, I see, they make no man happy, and are a
misfortune to many.
What of riches? added the Prefect.
Pleasure (said I) is like a very rare commodity, which, however,
every one would fain purchase. Among those that succeed, the rich
buy it very dear, it comes cheap to the rest: One may as well be
among the last as the first. Of the few pleasures that exist, the lower
class enjoy as large a share as the highest.
What of wit, genius, talents? says the Prefect.
One half of the world, replied I, study to amuse the other. The first
class is formed of men of talents; whose brains are wound up by
nature higher than ordinary. They are incessantly striving to please:
If they fail, they waste away with grief; if they succeed, it is never
fully, and a single censure creates them more pain than all the
encomiums together give them pleasure. It is, therefore, better to be
of the second class, I mean among those who are amused by the
others.
As far as I see, said the Prefect, the aspect of the great and their
pomp, of the scholar and his extensive genius, of the rich and his vast
possessions, makes little or no impression on thy mind.
 I confess, replied I, that no man was ever less dazzled with all this
than myself. Wrapt in a certain coolness of sense, I am guarded
against all strong impressions. I behold with the same eye the
ignorant who know nothing, and the learned who know all, except
truth; the protector who plans, though he knows his weakness, and
the protected who cringes, though he perceives his superiority; the
peasant that is disgusted with the simplicity of his diet, and the rich
sensual, who with thirty niceties, can hardly make a dinner; the
duchess, loaded with diamonds, and the shepherdess decked with
flowers; vanity, which dwells in the cottage as well as in the palace,
and upholds the low as well as the high; care, which sits on the
throne by the king, or follows the philosopher in his retirement. All
the parts on the stage of this world, seem to me one no better than
another: but I do not desire to act any. I would observe all and be
taken up with nothing. Hence it is, that I dreaded the neighbourhood
of these restless flies....
And hence it is precisely, interrupted the Prefect, that thou hadst
nothing to fear from them. Thou admirest nothing; it is sufficient:
The flies can take no hold of thee. The first impression they must
make, is the impression of surprise and admiration; if they make not
that, they miss their aim. But the moment admiration is admitted, a
crowd of passions quickly follow. For, in the object of wonder, great
hurt or great good is expected. Hence Love or Aversion, and all their
attendants; restless Desire which never sleeps; Joy, which embraces
and devours its objects; Melancholy, which, at a distance, and with
weeping eyes, contemplates and calls for what it dreads: Confidence,
which walks with head erect, and often meets a fall; Despair, which is
preceded by fear and followed by madness, and a thousand others. If
thou wilt rest secure from their attacks, cherish thy coolness of sense,
and never lose sight of the grand principle,
Nil Admirari.
 CHAP. X.
The Fantastical Tree.

A fter having walked some time by the side of a rivulet, we came

into a beautiful and spacious meadow. It was enamelled with a
thousand sorts of flowers, whose various colours were, at a distance,
blended together and formed shining carpets, such as art has never
woven. The meadow was bounded by a piece of rock, like a wall;
against which grew a tree, like an espalier. It did not rise above a
man’s height, but spread itself to the right and left, the length of the
rock, above three hundred paces. Its leaves were very thin and very
narrow, but in such abundance, that it was not possible to see the
least part, either of the trunk or of the branches, or of the surface of
the rock.
Thou seest, said the Prefect, the product of the third and last
Kernel; we give it the name of the Fantastical Tree.
From this precious tree it is, that inventions, discoveries, arts and
sciences take their original; and that by a mechanism, which will
surprise thee.
Thou knowest that the fibres of the leaves of a tree, are ranged
uniformly on each of them; to see one, is to see all the rest. Here, this
uniformity has no place; each leaf has its fibres ranged in a particular
manner; there are not two alike in the Fantastical Tree. But, what is
most wonderful, the fibres, on each leaf, are ranged with symmetry,
and represent distinctly a thousand sorts of objects; one while a
colonnade, an obelisk, a decoration; another while mechanical
instruments; here, geometrical diagrams, algebraical problems,
astronomical systems; there, physical machines, chymical
instruments, plans of all kinds of works, verse, prose, conversation,
history, romances, songs, and the like.
 These leaves do not fade. When come to perfection they grow by
degrees prodigiously small, and roll themselves up in a thousand
folds. In this state, they are so light, that the wind blows them away;
and so small, that they enter through the pores of the skin. Once
admitted into the blood, they circulate with the humours, and
generally stop at the brain, where they cause a singular malady, the
progress of which is thus:
When one of the leaves is settled in the brain, it is imbibed,
dilated, opened, becomes such as it was on the Fantastical Tree, and
presents to the mind the images wherewith it is covered. During the
operation, the patient appears with his eyes fixed, and a pensive air.
He seems to hear and see what passes about him, but his thoughts
are otherways employed. He walks sometimes at a great rate, and
sometimes stands stock-still. He rubs his forehead, stamps with his
foot, and bites his nails. They who have seen a geometrician upon the
solution of a problem, or a naturalist on the first glimpse of a
physical explication, must have observed these symptoms.
This violent state proceeds from the efforts of the soul, to discern
what is traced on the leaf; it holds longer or shorter, according as the
leaf takes up more or less time in displaying, and aptly presenting
itself.
The abatement of the malady appears by light emanations from
the brain, such as some ideas suddenly conceived, some designs
hastily thrown upon paper, some scheme sketched in a hurry. The
soul begins to discern the objects, and contemplate at leisure the
Fantastical leaf.
These last symptoms declare an approaching crisis, which quickly
shows itself in a general evacuation of all that has been transmitted
to the brain. Then verses flow, difficulties are cleared, problems are
resolved, phenomena are explained, dissertations are multiplied,
chapters are heaped upon chapters; and the whole takes the form of
a book, and the patient is cured. Of all the accidents which afflicted
him, there only remains an immoderate affection for the offspring of
his brain, of which he was delivered with so much pain.
 CHAP. XI.
Predictions.

B ehold, added the Prefect, showing me the extent of the

Fantastical Tree, behold leaves for a century of designs, of
discoveries, and of writings. Thou mayest examine at thy leisure
what, during that space, will torment above a million of heads.
I drew near, and attentively viewed a good while the wonderful
tree, especially those branches on which the sciences vegetated; and
after having examined it to the last boughs with all the attention and
exactness I am capable of, I think myself qualified to make here some
Predictions.
The historical branch has an admirable effect; all the events are
painted like a camayeu[14], as by the hand of the greatest masters. So
many leaves, so many little pictures. What will most surprise, is, that
these pictures, seen in different points of view, represent the same
subject, but represent it very variously: And, according to the
manner of beholding it, the same action appears courageous or rash,
zealous or fanatical, rational or silly, proud or magnanimous. So,
according to the point of view, wherein these leaves present
themselves to the brain of an historian, he will see things in a good or
bad light, and will write accordingly. I would not have such works
entitled, The history of what passed in such a time, but rather, The
manner in which such an author saw what passed. Moreover this
branch is plentifully furnished, and should be so. As long as there are
men, there will be ambition, traitors, disturbers of the publick peace,
merit will be forgotten and the worthless preferred, virtue will be
oppressed, vice will be triumphant, countries will be ravaged, cities
will be sacked, and thrones will be dyed in blood; and these are the
food of history; excellent school, for youth to learn lessons of
humanity, candor, and sincerity!
 The metaphysical branch is almost equally furnished: But its
leaves are very thin, and their fibres so excessively small, that they
are hardly perceivable. I greatly pity the brains where they will settle.
I see but one way to give them ease: And that is, to treat the most
thorny questions after the modern manner; I mean to supply the
want of clear ideas and deep reflections, by bold and confident
assertions, which may serve to impose.
The moral branch droops, and receives scarce any sap; its withered
leaves declare an approaching decay; alas! it is dying. The plans on it
are quite effaced. This is too visible from the works that are
published of this kind. The ideas of good and evil are confounded;
virtue is so disguised as hardly to be known, nor is it easy to discern
what is to be called vice. And yet, the whole is not said. There
remains many arguments to be published against the obsolete notion
of justice; many jests to be passed upon those who still talk of probity
in the old fashioned stile; many fresh proofs to demonstrate, that
national, private, and especially personal interest, should be the sole
rule of conduct. At these so fine lessons, the Babylonians will clap
their hands and cry: “In truth, all the world was blind; and men did
not see clearly till this present time.”
The poetical branch is in a very bad state; there are only a few
boughs left, among others, the dramatic bough, and that so very
weak, it can hardly support itself. There will appear from time to
time at Babylon some tragic poets, but no comic. I suspect the
reason. Formerly the Babylonians were only ridiculous; they were
brought upon the stage and people laughed: Now, they are almost all
vicious, but vicious upon principle; and such objects by no means
raise laughter. The manners begin to be no longer theatrical.
The panegyrical branch is very considerable, and bends under its
load. There will be panegyricks applicable to a great man from whom
some favour is expected; to an author who having flattered, receives
homage for homage; to another, who is flattered, in order that he
may flatter again. There will be some commercial ones, which will be
sold, to one for his protection, to another for his table, to a third for
his money. There will be also some, and in great plenty for those,
who beg them: But there will be hardly any for those that deserve
them the most.
 With good-sense alone, and the simplest notions which a bough of
the philosophical branch furnishes, and which teach to estimate the
things of this life according to their value, there will be formed,
among the people, a number of practical philosophers; whilst, among
the men of letters, all the penetration imaginable, all the knowledge
they think they have, all the wit in the world will form only imperfect
philosophers. They will avoid praises, but so as to attain them by
some round-about way. They will profess the most ardent zeal for all
the citizens, nay, for all men in general; but they will care only for
themselves. They will decide upon the most complicated, the most
obscure, the most important questions, with an astonishing
confidence; but in deciding everything they will clear up nothing.
They will wear outwardly the most reserved modesty; inwardly they
will be eaten up by ambition. Now, shall we call such persons
philosophers? It is thus that we give the name of stars to those
meteors, which kindle sometimes in the upper region of the air,
make a blaze, and instantly vanish.
In general, I thought, I saw upon a great number of leaves, things
entirely contradictory. The century will slide away, and the
sentiments upon the same objects will not be reconciled. According
to custom, each will speak his opinion, and attack the rest. Disputes
will arise; and the most bitter ironies, the strongest invectives, the
most cutting railleries, nothing will be spared to raise the laughter of
the crowd, and the pity of the wise.
 CHAP. XII.
The System.

O f an infinite number of plans of different works, that I saw

drawn on the leaves of the Fantastical Tree, I remember three.
In the first, the point in question is very abstract, but treated in so
singular a manner, that perhaps it will not be disagreeable to give
here a slight sketch of it.
“When I have examined matter, it has appeared to me, that it
could not think, and I have readily admitted Beings purely spiritual.
It is true, the least ideas of such substances have never been formed.
This proves the sagacity of man does not reach very far: But does it
prove there is nothing beyond?
“When I have considered the animals, I have not been able to help
thinking them intelligent, and that so much ingenuity was not
without some understanding. They are, therefore, said I, provided
with a spiritual substance. But what! these insects, these worms,
these microscopical animals, who increase without number in the
shortest space, have they each a spiritual, that is to say, an
unchangeable, immortal soul? I do not imagine, any such thought
ever entered into a sound head.
“Then calling to mind that intelligent Being diffused through the
whole earth, and perhaps farther, that immense spirit of whom some
antient philosophers have talked, under the name of the universal
soul; I have thought that, without multiplying infinitely spiritual
substances, that soul was very proper to supply their place, and alone
sufficient to give life to all the animals. I have therefore embraced the
opinion of the antients, but with one restriction.
“They were persuaded that every thinking organized Being, is
animated by a particle of the universal soul; That cannot be. If this
soul is capable of perceptions, it is spiritual, and indivisible, and if it
is indivisible, it cannot separate from itself any part to go and
animate any Being whatever. If this spirit informs different bodies, it
is because it operates at the same time in different places; and not
because it sends any where some emanation of its substance.
“Farther: The antients believed that man, like the animals, derived
from the universal soul all the intelligence he is endowed with;
another mistake. If we consider in man, that hidden principle which
carries him so efficaciously to follow the impressions of sense,
though ever so repugnant to reason, we shall agree, with the antients,
that this principle must be the same with that which animates, rules,
and directs the animals; the pure sensitive nature of the universal
soul is visible in it. But when I perceive in man another agent, which
tends to subject all his actions to the rules of justice; which so often
opposes the senses (though seldom with success) which, even when
it succeeds not to hinder the sin, never fails to sting him with
remorse and repentance; I cannot help thinking, that besides the
universal spirit, there is in man another principle of a superior order:
A principle known by the name of rational soul. It is manifest by the
clashing between the passions and reason, that there are in us two
contradictory Beings, which oppose one another. If I may be allowed
to compare things of so different a nature, I should say that every
thing which partakes of the universal soul is like a spunge soaked in
water, and immersed in the sea; and that if, moreover, the body is
endued with a reasonable soul (which is the case of man) it is like the
same spunge soaked in water, but in which a drop of oil has found its
way.
“In fine, the antients believed, that the universal soul was diffused
every where; but neither can That be. Perhaps it pervades the
terrestrial globe, or, it may be, the whole solar system, or even
farther: But still it is certain, it has its bounds, it is God alone that
fills immensity.
“But how shall the existence of a thinking Being be admitted,
which, bounded as it is, has however so prodigious an extension?
What ideas can be formed of its capaciousness and its limits? How
can it animate so many bodies physically separated one from the
other, and forming so many individuals? Let us fathom, as far as in
us lies, these depths of obscurity.
 “Since spiritual substances have no solidity, they are penetrable,
and take up no room. From their penetrability it follows, that several
spirits may exist in one and the same space, and that a body may also
be in the same place. From their taking up no room it follows, that
they have neither length, nor breadth, nor depth; that they have no
extension properly so called. But still a spirit is a real Being, a
substance: Though it takes up no room, it is necessarily some-where;
and, though it has no extension properly so called, it has necessarily
its bounds. So, in a metaphysical sense, all spiritual Beings may be
said to be more or less extended, to contain, and to be contained:
And then we may return to our companion of the spunge, penetrated
by a drop of oil, impregnated with water, and immersed in the sea.”
“On the other hand, by virtue of the laws of combination, the result
of the unions necessarily differs from the substances that are united;
and it does not appear, that the soul and the body should make an
exception. When the spirit and matter are united, think not the spirit
the same as before; it is, in some measure, materialized; think not
the matter such as it was before; it is, in some measure, spiritualized.
From this mixture results a new Being, different from pure spirit,
though it retains its noblest virtue; different from brute matter,
though it partakes of its qualities: It is a particular Being, forming an
individual, and thinking apart; in fine, it is such a Being as you that
are reading, such as I that am writing. Therefore, what perceives in
us, is properly speaking, neither the universal spirit nor the rational
soul, nor organized matter: but a compound of all three. Just as
when a lion roars, it is not the universal soul, that is in a rage; it is
the compound of that soul and the brain of the lion. Hence it comes,
that each animal forms a separate thinking individual, though all the
animals think only by virtue of one and the same spirit, the universal
soul. Let us proceed without losing sight of the faint light which
guides us thro’ these dark paths.
“We have seen that, to form an animal, there needs only a
combination of organized matter, and the universal soul; and, to
form a man, there must be another union of organized matter,
universal spirit, and rational soul. If the universal spirit was wanting;
ever obedient to the dictates of the rational soul, we should see none
but virtuous and spotless men, such as are no where to be found. If
the rational soul was wanting, abandoned to this instinct of the
universal spirit, which always follows the allurements of sense, we
should see none but monsters of vice and disorder.
“The rational soul is united to the human body, the instant the
motion essential to life is settled there, it is separated the instant that
motion is destroyed; and, once separated, it is known to return no
more, it departs for-ever; and enters into a state of which there is to
be no end.
“The universal soul is united and separated in the same
circumstances: But it is not always separated for-ever. Let, in any
person, the motion essential to life, after having totally ceased, come
to be renewed, (a thing which every physician knows to be very
possible) and what will be the consequence? The rational soul, which
departed upon the ceasing of the vital motion, cannot return; but the
universal soul, always present, cannot fail of re-uniting with the
organized body set in motion again. The man is dead, for his soul is
separated from his body. He preserves, however, the air of a living
man; because the universal soul is re-settled in his brain, which it
directs tolerably well.
“Such to you appears a person perfectly recovered from an
apoplectic or lethargic fit, who is but half come to life; his soul is
flown; there remains only the universal spirit. Excess of joy, or of
grief, any sudden opposition may occasion death, and does occasion
it, in fact, oftener than is imagined. Let a fit of jealousy or passion
affect you to a certain degree, your soul, too strongly shocked, quits
its habitation for-ever: And, let your friends say what they please, or
say what you will yourself, you are dead, positively dead. However,
you are not buried: the universal soul acts your part to the deception
of the whole world, and even of yourself.
“Do not complain therefore, that a relation forgets you, that a
friend forsakes you, that a wife betrays you. Alas! perhaps it is a good
while since you had a wife, or relations, or friends; they are dead;
their images only remain.
“How many deaths of this kind have I seen at Babylon? Never, for
instance, did contagious distemper make such havock as the late
pious broils. It is true, the Babylonians are so constituted, that their
soul sits very loose; the least shock parts it from the body; this is
confirmed by observation. Call to mind their notorious quarrel about
musick, their rage, their fury: How few heads were untouched? They
are mad, said some reasonable people: But for my part, I knew they
were dead.
“God rest the soul of the author of the Petites Lettres a de grands
Philosophes! He had long been declining; and at last died some
months ago. Instantly, the universal soul, possessed of his brains,
dislodged some shreds of verses, jumbled them together, and framed
that lifeless comedy, the indecency of which gave offence to all the
Babylonians that remained alive.
“I shall now speak of the signs by which the living may be
distinguished from the dead: And, doubtless, the reader sees already
what these signs may be. To behold wickedness with unconcern; to
be unmoved by virtue, to mind only self-interest; and without
remorse, to be carried away with the torrent of the age, are signs of
death. Be assured, no rational soul inhabits such abandoned
machines. What numbers of dead amongst us! you will say. What
numbers of dead amongst us! will I answer.
“As there are signs which declare that such a particular person,
who thinks himself, and whom you think full of life, is however
deprived of it; so there are signs which show the ravages, these
concealed deaths have made in the world. For instance, there must
have been, of late years, a great mortality among the learned: For, if
you observe almost all the productions of modern literature, you will
find only a playing with words, destructive principles, dangerous
assertions, dazzling hints. Alas! our authors are manifestly but
machines, actuated by the universal soul.
“And, very lately, have we not had fresh proofs of this mortality?
What is meant by these libels unworthy of the light? These when’s?
These if’s? These what-d’ye-calls? These wherefore’s? And I know
not how many more with which we are deluged. Be not persuaded
that rational souls are capable of such excesses.
“I will conclude with opening a door to new reflections. Suppose a
man, like so many others, vegetates only, and is reduced to the
universal soul, I demand whether the race of such a man is not in the
same state. If so, I pity our posterity. Rational souls were scarce
among our fore-fathers; they are still more so among us; surely there
will be none left among our offspring. All are degenerating, and we
are very near the last stage.”
 CHAP. XIII.
Letter to the Europeans.

T he second of the works, of which I remember to have seen the

plan delineated on the leaves of the Fantastical tree, was digested
into the form of a letter, addressed to all the nations of Europe, the
substance of which is as follows:
“O ye powerful nations of Europe; nations polished, ingenious,
learned, warlike, made to command the rest; nations the most
accomplished upon earth; the times are come: Your profound
schemes for the happiness of man have prospered: You enjoy it at
length, and I congratulate you upon it.
“In nature’s infancy, those uncivilised ages wherein men
wandering in the fields, were fed with the products of the earth, a
perfect security, easy pleasure, profound peace, or rather languishing
indolence benumbed all the faculties of the soul. But when the sweets
of property had flattered the human heart; when each had his
inclosure and could say, This is mine; then all was in motion. A man
had too much of one thing, and too little of another; he gave the
superfluity for what he wanted: And trade was established. It was at
first carried on among neighbours; then, from country to country;
and at last, from one of the quarters of the world to the other three.
From that time, mankind have formed but one numerous family,
whose members are incessantly employed in cheating one another.
The spirit of distrust, finess, and fraud, have displayed all the springs
of the soul; the talents have shown themselves, the arts have taken
birth; and men begin to enjoy the full extent of their understanding.
“How well these profound speculatists have conjectured, who have
told us: Would you have a state flourish? incourage populousness;
for real strength and riches consist in a great number of citizens. To
incourage populousness, enlarge trade more and more, set up
manufactures, introduce arts of every kind; and, to consume
superfluities, call in luxury. Let the names of those who have opened
this admirable way, be carefully preserved in our kalendar.
“It is true, by following this method, you have missed your aim,
which was populousness. What fortune soever a man may raise, it is
consumed by the boundless expence of luxury, which always exceeds
the revenues: There is nothing left for the education and settlement
of children; and means must be used to have a small number, or even
none at all. Long races suit only those remote times when your
ancestors, plentifully furnished with necessaries, were so
unfortunate as to have no idea of pageantry. It is no wonder, if
people so barbarous as not to know silk, lace, tea, chocolate,
Burgundy, Champagne, should so increase in the northern regions,
as to over-run, like a torrent, all your countries, should found
monarchies, and dictate laws, which are revered to this day.
“But what signifies populousness and multitude? Rejoice, O ye
fortunate nations; for you have coffee and snuff, cinnamon and
musk, sugar and furs, tea and china. How happy are you! and how
composed should your minds be!
“It is true, toils, hunger, thirst, shoals, storms, sooner or later
destroy these insatiable traders, who traverse the seas to bring you
these precious superfluities. But with how many advantages are
these petty inconveniences repaid? The face of Europe is entirely
new! even to your constitutions all is changed. Thousands of quintals
of spices, circulate in your blood, carry fire into your inmost nerves,
and give you a new sort of Being. Neither your health, nor your
diseases are like those of your fore-fathers. Their robust constitution,
simplicity of manners, their native virtues, are they comparable to
the advantages you enjoy? That sensibility of the organs, that
delicacy of mind and body, those universal lights, those vices of all
kinds.... What! will it be said, are vices also to be reckoned among the
actual felicities of Europe? Yes, without doubt: Is it not daily proved,
that virtue heretofore might be useful to the prudent economy of
your ancestors, but that, for enlightened citizens, who no longer walk
by the old rules, vice is absolutely necessary, or rather changes its
nature and becomes virtue.
“Another advantage that you owe to the depth of your policy and
extensiveness of your trade is, that perpetual occasions offer to show
your courage, and to practice your military virtues.
“When formerly your countries were under that vast dominion,
which swallowed up all the rest, they sunk into indolence; you had
only short wars and long intervals of peace, every thing languished.
But since, out of the wrecks of that unwieldy empire, a hundred petty
states have been formed, every thing has revived. The Europeans
have incessantly quarrelled and fought for little spots of land; the
grand art of heroism is returned, the art of sacking provinces and
shedding blood: And that balance of power so much talked of, is at
last established, which puts all Europe in arms at the motion of the
least of its parts, and by means of which, a single spark is sufficient
to set the whole earth in a flame.
“Let us not regret those times so productive of warriors, when
country heroes, each at the head of two or three hundred vassals,
continually harrassed one another. The seeds of dissention, which
were grown scarce in your climates, have been sought in the farthest
parts of the earth; and from the bosom of the two Indias, commerce
has brought fresh seeds of enmity, discord, and war.
“These fertile sources are not exhausted; there still remain
countries to be discovered. O ye indefatigable nations! is your
courage abated? What! should you confine yourselves to your late
progresses, as if there remained no unknown lands? Will you never
go and hoist your standards, and build forts, directly under the
Poles? Rouse yourselves, there are still left riches to plunder,
countries to waste, blood to spill.
“But why should you cast your eyes on such objects? Are not your
possessions immense? Is not your luxury carried to the utmost
height? Are there still new vices to be introduced among you? And do
not you begin to shake off the troublesome yoke of every sort of
duty? Without doubt, you are very well, nor were you ever better.
The little way you have to arrive at perfection, will soon be gone over.
When modern wisdom, which timorously conceals herself still in the
shade, shall appear in broad day; when she shall have raised her
proud head, and shall see all Europe at her feet, universally adopting
her maxims, then, you will have neither religious nor moral
principles; you will be at the summit of felicity.”
 CHAP. XIV.
The Maxims.

T he third work of which I remember to have seen the sketch on

the Fantastical Tree, was entitled, Rules of Conduct for the
Eighteenth Century, addressed to a young Babylonian, who is
coming into the world. It contained the following Maxims.
“Every country has its customs, every age its manners; and, in
human wisdom, the only unchangeable Maxim is, to change with the
times and places. The most unquestionable Maxims of the
Babylonians, and of the present times are such as these:
“To have true merit does not much signify; but to have small
talents is essential. To make one’s court, for example, and pretty
verses, is sufficient to prosper: and even farther than can be
imagined.
“Great faults shall be forgiven you, but the least ridiculous ones are
unpardonable. You think right, and say excellent things: But take
care you do not sneeze; it will be such an indecorum, that all the
Babylonish gravity would not be able to hold; and you might speak
still better things, and not a soul hear you.
“Be particularly careful to act entirely with reference to yourself,
and to talk always with reference to the publick-good. It is a fine
word, that publick-good: If you would, it will never enter into your
heart; but it must be always in your mouth.
“Seek not the esteem of the Babylonians in place, that leads to
nothing; seek to please. What, think you, will esteem do for you? It is
so frozen a sentiment, has so distant a relation to self! But amuse
their highnesses, and their eminencies, you will then be prized, they
will not suffer you out of their sight; they will do all for you, and
think they can never do enough.
 “Wait not to sollicit for a place you may be fit for; probably you will
not succeed. But ask, without distinction, for whatever shall offer. It
is a secret to you, but you must know, that it often enters into the
depth of true policy, to prefer unfit persons, and remove those that
are capable.
“In fine, if you will prosper, turn, according to circumstances,
flatterer, like a dedication; quack, like a preface; verbose like a book
of art or science; enthusiast, like a demi-philosopher; liar, like an
historian; fool-hardy, like an author who is resolved to be talked of.
“These are the true principles of wisdom: But remember, it is the
Babylonian wisdom of the Eighteenth Century.”
 CHAP. XV.
The Thermometers.

A s I was attentively examining a leaf of the Fantastical Tree, on

which I perceived grand projects, and insufficient means; I saw
another, so small and curled as to be almost invisible, fly off from a
neighbouring bough, and suddenly disappear. At the same instant I
felt a slight pricking in my forehead, and a sort of restlessness in my
head, which I cannot describe, and which has not left me ever since.
Certainly this leaf has entered my brain, and is labouring to unfold
itself; some new invention will result from it one time or other. I
even begin to suspect of what kind; and I imagine, it will be a
mechanical affair. If I am not mistaken it is this:
The different tempers, the different talents, the different
dispositions depend upon the heat and motion, more or less
considerable, of the animal spirits: This is a settled point among the
physicians; I shall not appeal from their judgment. The question
would be to find a mechanical instrument, to discover in each person
the degree of heat and motion of this animal liquid, in order to
discern what any one is fit for, and to employ him accordingly. This
is what I am seeking, and what the leaf, which is busy in my brain,
when unfolded will not fail to show me.
I will compose a quintessence analogous to the animal liquid; and,
instead of spirits of wine, I will fill thermometers with it. On the side
of the tube, in the room of the different degrees of the temperature of
the air, there shall be an enumeration of the objects, about which
men are usually employed: Instead of cold, temperate, hot, very hot,
&c. shall be put, good for history, good for physick, good for poetry,
good for the gown, good for the sword, good for the mitre, good for
the baton, good for Bedlam, &c.
 When a person shall put his hand upon the phial, the liquor will be
condensed, or dilated; and, rising or falling in the tube, will show
what the person is good for.
I will present Thermometers to sovereigns, that they may chuse
Generals, Ministers, Counsellors, and especially Favourites, who will
love them enough to tell them the truth. I will give some to Bishops
to fill their Benefices and Dignities, for I observe, that those who are
appointed to watch, should themselves be watched. I will give some
to Fathers, that their children may be wisely disposed of: We shall
not see them gird with a sword a son whom they ought to dedicate to
the altar, nor bury in a cloister a daughter who would have been the
delight of a husband, and the happiness of a family. I will give some
to the Great, that they may discern those who deserve their
protection: They will grant it no more to a base flatterer, to a supple
intriguer, to an ostentatious mean person, who has pretensions; but
to true merit, which is seldom seen by them, and never with all its
advantages. I will give some to those tender-hearted virtuous Girls,
made to enliven the small number of our pleasures, and to allay the
multitude of our troubles. With my Thermometers, they will chuse
husbands worthy of their affection, if any such there be; and they will
not see themselves given up to men born for the plague of their sex;
those men without morals, who marry for life, and espouse only for
six months.
In fine, I will give some to particular persons, that each may
examine himself, and act accordingly: For I observe, that generally
every one does what he should not do; I see none but what are
misplaced.
I am now solliciting for a pension, to defray the vast expence, that I
must evidently be at in making Thermometers, even though I should
give them only to such as most want them.
It is true, that reflection might serve instead of my liquid and
glass-tubes, but reflections are known to be very rare. For example, it
is now at Babylon as on the real stage; all is action, nothing is
thought, and my Thermometers may become a necessary piece of
furniture.
 CHAP. XVI.
The Lentils.

T he sap which circulates in the Fantastical Tree, said the Prefect,

is exhausted in bearing and nourishing leaves. Let it be
considered, how many plans, views, projects, come into men’s heads;
the prodigious quantity of leaves that this tree must furnish will be
astonishing; and it will be no longer wondered, that its whole
substance is wasted in their production.
Mean while, the sap, passing into the philosophical branch, makes
more progress there than any where else; it produces blossoms, and
sometimes fruit. These blossoms are of a singular form and colour,
that is to say, admirable to some eyes, and very odd to others. Their
odour is very penetrating; few love it, many cannot bear it: To like it,
requires a strong head, and a brain organized on purpose.
These same blossoms are extremely delicate: The least change of
the air disorders their economy. They generally fade without leaving
any fruit.
In fine, the fruit is very late, and seldom comes to perfect maturity.
The shell is almost round, divided within into little cells, and ending
at the top in a crown.
The little cells of the philosophical fruit, are full of seeds
transparent as crystal, round and flatted like a Lentil, but infinitely
smaller. When the fruit is ripe, it bursts; the cells open, the seeds
come out. But as they are very light, they are suspended in the air,
and the wind blows them every way over the surface of the earth.
One thing would astonish thee if thou wast not a little versed in
chymistry and optics, and that is, these philosophical grains have a
particular analogy to the eye. They will not stick to any other
substance; but, as soon as they come within the reach of certain eyes,
they never fail to fasten on them, and that just before the sight of the
eye. As they are perfectly transparent, they cannot be perceived: But
they are discovered by their effects.
He that has a seed of this kind before his eyes, sees things as they
are, and he cannot be imposed upon by chimæras. What used to
appear to him great, is prodigiously lessened, and what appeared to
him little, is magnified in the same proportion; so that to his eyes,
every thing is upon a level or nearly so.
In general, men appear to him very little, and those lords over
others, whom he beheld before as colossuses, seem to him so little
above the rest, that he hardly perceives the difference.
He sees the extent of human knowledge, and finds it so near to
ignorance, that he does not conceive how learning can breed vanity,
or ignorance cause shame.
He sees without disguise the phantom of immortality, the idol of
the great and the jest of the wise. He sees the celebrated names
penetrate a little more or less into futurity; and then stop like the rest
and sink into eternal oblivion.
He sees what is low in the most sublime; the dark part of what
casts the most lustre, the weak side in what appears the strongest:
And his imagination presents to him nothing dazzling, but wherein
his reason discovers all the defects.
He sees the earth, as a point in the boundless space; the series of
ages, as an instant in eternal duration; and the chain of human
actions, as the traces of a cloud of flies in the aerial plains.
In fine, he respects virtue; and, as to the rest, whatever he
perceives all around him, even to the most minute things, seems to
him all alike. He esteems nothing, he despises nothing, he prefers
nothing, and accommodates himself to every thing.
Such a man cannot be conceived to be susceptible of all those little
sallies of joy which affect others, but then he is screened from those
little mortifications which trouble them so much, and in my opinion,
he is a gainer.
 CHAP. XVII.
The Subterraneous Road.

I have one thing more (said the Prefect) to show thee; prepare thy
eyes and thy ears; and be frightened at nothing.
The rivulet, by the side of which we walked to the Fantastical Tree,
receives several streams as it flows along; and, as if it left with regret
so beautiful a residence, after forming a thousand serpentine
windings in the meadow, it glides gently towards its mouth. In that
place, a hole, formed by an opening of the earth, receives and
transmits it through subterraneous channels.
We came to the place where it was broadest. The bottom was of
smooth gravel, and the water not above an inch deep. The Prefect
went in and I followed him.
I had gone but a few paces, when the bottom gave way: I sunk, but
it was only to my waste; and I remained in that posture, without
being able to get to one side or the other. Fear nothing, says the
Prefect, calmly enjoy the last spectacle I have reserved for thee.
I then gave myself up to the efforts of the waters, which carried me
away, and I soon entered into the subterraneous cavities, where they
were lost. At a little distance, the rivulet flowed into another, and
soon after, both ran into a river. I was carried from stream to stream;
I crossed gulphs, lakes, and seas.
As long as a faint light permitted, I contemplated the internal
frame of the earth. It is a labyrinth of immense caverns, deep grottos,
irregular crevices, which have a communication with one another.
The waters that flow in these subterranean places, spread themselves
sometimes into vast basons, and seem to stagnate; sometimes they
run with a rapid stream through narrow straits; and dash against the
rocks with such impetuosity, as to produce the phosporus and flashes
of lightening; very often they fall from the top of the vaults with a
dreadful noise. The dazzled eye sees, as it imagines, the foundations
of the earth shake; one would think, that the whole was turned
upside down, and falling into chaos.
When the glimmering light, which I had enjoyed some time, came
to fail, I found myself buried in profound darkness, which increased
the horror, I had conceived at what I had seen. A hideous noise,
mixed with the murmuring of the streams, with the whistling of the
gulfs, with the roaring of the torrents, threw me into great
perturbation of mind; and my troubled fancy formed to itself a
thousand frightful images.
I went on a good while in this darkness; and I know not how far I
had gone when a faint light struck my eyes. It was not like that which
precedes sun-rising, or follows sun-set; but that melancholy light,
which a town on fire spreads at a distance in the shade of the night. I
was some time before I saw whence it came: At last, I found myself
close to the most terrible of all the sights.
A vast opening exposed to my eyes in an immense cavern, an abyss
of fire. The devouring flame rapidly consumed the combustible
matter with which the arched roofs of the abyss were impregnated. A
thick smoke mixed with fiery sparks, diffused itself to a great
distance. From time to time, the calcined stones fell down by pieces,
and the liquified metals formed flaming streams. Sometimes whole
rocks, rent from the tops of the vaults, gave passage to water, which
poured down in boiling streams. The moment the water touched the
calcined matters and melted minerals, it caused most shocking
detonations: The concavities of the globe resounded, their
foundations were shaken: And I conceived that such was the cause of
those terrible earth-quakes, that have destroyed so many countries,
and swallowed up so many cities.
I was soon in darkness again; for I still went on. Every moment I
should have been destroyed, if the Prefect of Giphantia had not
watched over me. I saw him no more: But his promise was with me:
And the dangers, I had escaped, heartened me against those I had
still to undergo. By degrees I took courage, and became so easy as to
make some reflections.
Alas! said I, through a frightful desart I came into the most
beautiful mansions in the world, and I am now going thence through
gulfs, abysses, and vulcanos. Good and evil closely follow one
another. It is thus, the light of the day and darkness of the night, the
frosts of the winter and the flowers of the spring, the gentle zephyrs
and the raging storms, succeed one another. However, by this
strange concatenation, is formed the enchanting prospect of nature.
Let us not doubt it: The natural world, notwithstanding its disorders,
is the master-piece of infinite wisdom; the moral world, in spite of its
stains, is worthy the admiration of the philosopher: And Babylon,
with all its faults, is the chief city of the world.
At last, after many days of subterraneous navigation, I once more
saw the light; I came out of these terrible vaults, and the last current
landed me upon a maritime coast. The serenity of the air was not
ruffled with the wind; the calm sea shone with the rays of the rising-
sun; and, like a tender wife who stretches out her arms, and sweetly
smiles on a beloved husband, the earth seemed to resume new life at
the return of that glorious orb, from whence springs all its fertility.
By degrees, my troubled senses were calmed: I looked round me, and
found myself in my own country, six hundred furlongs north-west
from Babylon, to which city I address and dedicate this narrative of
my hazardous travels.

FINIS.

1. The Jansenists (so called from Jansenius bishop of Ypres) explained the
Doctrine of Grace after the Calvinistical or rather Methodistical manner, whilst the
Molinists (so named from Molina a Spanish Jesuit) explained it after the Arminian
or rather Semi-pelagian way. The Gallican clergy were divided between these two
Opinions.
The reader may remember, there are three opinions concerning Grace. Says
the Calvinist and Methodist, Grace does ALL. Says the Arminian and Semi-pelagian,
Grace does HALF. Says the Pelagian, Grace does NOTHING.

2. The city of Ombi stood on the eastern side of the Nile, and Tentyra or
Tentyris on the western; both in Thebais part of Upper Egypt. The Tentyrites were
professed enemies of the Crocodiles, whilst the rest of the Egyptians held them in
great veneration, especially the Ombites, who for their sake waged war with the
Tentyrites.
 3. Our author in this and the following chapter gives a very lively summary of
the four great monarchies of the world.
I. The Assyrian or Babylonian founded by Nimrod (or Belus I.) soon after the
dispersion at Babel, and which ended with the taking of Babylon (A. C. 538) by
Cyrus who founded II. The Persian empire which ended with the defeat of Darius
Codomannus (A. C. 334) by Alexander the Great who founded III. The Grecian or
Macedonian empire which in about five years was divided among his successors,
and at length (after the battle of Actium and death of Cleopatra) became subject to
IV. The Roman empire under Augustus Cæsar, of which there are still some
remains.

4. Arbaces governour of Media, and Belesis of Babylon.

5. After the death of Sardanapalus (who is said to burn himself, his wives and
concubines, his eunuchs and riches, in one of the courts of his palace) the empire
was divided into the Median over which Arbaces reigned at Nineveh, and the
Assyrian over which Belesis reigned at Babylon. These were united under Cyrus
about 210 years after. Belesis (the Baladan of Scripture) is called also Nabonassar.
From the first year of his reign begins the famous Astronomical Æra of
Nabonassar, containing 908 years from February 26 before Christ 747, to the 23d
year of Antoninus Pius in the year of our Lord 161.

6. Nebuchadnezzer (A. C. 589) utterly destroyed Jerusalem, put out king

Zedekiah’s eyes, killed his sons and erected the golden image in the plains of Dura.

7. By a solemn treaty Ptolemy had Egypt, &c. Cassander had Macedonia and
Greece. Lysimachus had Thrace, Bithynia, &c. Seleucus had Syria, &c. Of these, the
kingdom of Egypt (under 14 monarchs including Cleopatra) and of Syria (under 27
kings) subsisted till subdued by the Romans. The rest soon fell to pieces.

8. His Library is said to consist of above 200,000 volumes. Among the rest
was the Septuagint or Greek translation of the Old Testament A. C. 267. done by
Ptolemy’s order. This library was at last destroyed by fire.

9. This man who from a huntsman raised himself to the throne of Lusitania
(now Portugal) defeated the Romans in several battles; so that Cepion the consul
was forced at last to have him murdered by treachery. He was (says Livy) much
lamented and honorably buried.

10. Rome was taken by Alaric king of the Goths in 410. By Genseric the Vandal
in 455. By Odoacer king of the Heruli in 465, and by Totila the Goth in 546, by
whom it was miserably plundered.

11. Attila king of the Huns, (called the scourge of God) after his other
devastations entered Gaul with 500,000 Men and was defeated in the plains of
Chalons in 451, with the loss of 200,000 Huns. After which he wasted Italy and
destroyed Aquileia and other places. Then returning home, he died on his wedding
night. The Huns were the most terrible of all the northern swarms. By the very
terror of their countenances they are said to over-run the Scythians, Alans and
Goths. They were so ignorant as not to know letters.

12. Mahomet was born at Mecca in Arabia, May 5, 570. He is thought by some
to be persuaded that he was really inspired to propagate the belief of one God, and
to overthrow the idolatrous religion of his country. If he retained some absurd
notions, it was (say they) to induce his countrymen to embrace his religion. The
Mahometan æra begins July 16, 622, when he fled from Mecca to Medina. He died
Jan. 17, 631, after having reduced Arabia to his obedience. His religion has since
spread itself over Asia, Africa, and great part of Europe.

13. Soliman, father of the Othman race, came out of Scythia with 50,000 men
in the year 1214, and pushed his conquests to the Euphrates. In attempting to pass
that river he was drowned in 1219. Othman his grandson was declared sultan in
1300. Mahomet II. the seventh emperor of the Turks, put an end to the Eastern
empire by taking Constantinople in 1453. The Turks embraced the religion of
Mahomet.

14. Camayeu, is a stone, whereon are found various figures formed by nature.
It is the name the orientals give the onyx, on which and on agate, these natural
figures are often found. When the figures are perfected by art, it is still called a
camayeu, as is also a painting in one colour, representing basso relievos.