14

The Digestive System and Body Metabolism

The Digestive System Functions
• Ingestion—taking in food
• Digestion—breaking food down both physically and
chemically
• Absorption—movement of nutrients into the bloodstream
• Defecation—rids the body of indigestible waste

Organs of the Digestive System

• Two main groups of organs
• Alimentary canal (gastrointestinal or GI tract)—continuous
coiled hollow tube
• These organs ingest, digest, absorb, defecate
• Accessory digestive organs
• Includes teeth, tongue, and other large digestive organs

Organs of the Alimentary Canal

• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Anus

Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy

• Lips (labia)—protect the anterior opening
• Cheeks—form the lateral walls
• Hard palate—forms the anterior roof
• Soft palate—forms the posterior roof
• Uvula—fleshy projection of the soft palate
Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
• Vestibule—space between lips externally and teeth and
gums internally
• Oral cavity proper—area contained by the teeth
• Tongue—attached at hyoid bone and styloid processes of
the skull, and by the lingual frenulum to the floor of the mouth
• Tonsils
• Palatine—located at posterior end of oral cavity
• Lingual—located at the base of the tongue

Mouth Physiology
• Mastication (chewing) of food
• Mixing masticated food with saliva
• Initiation of swallowing by the tongue
• Allows for the sense of taste

Pharynx Anatomy
• Nasopharynx—not part of the digestive system
• Oropharynx—posterior to oral cavity
• Laryngopharynx—below the oropharynx and connected to
the esophagus

Pharynx Physiology
• Serves as a passageway for air and food
• Food is propelled to the esophagus by two muscle layers
• Longitudinal inner layer
• Circular outer layer
• Food movement is by alternating contractions of the
muscle layers (peristalsis)

Esophagus Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy
• About 10 inches long
• Runs from pharynx to stomach through the diaphragm
• Physiology
• Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic squeezing)
 • Passageway for food only (respiratory system branches off
after the pharynx)

Layers of Tissue in the Alimentary Canal Organs

• Four layers from deep to superficial:
• Mucosa
• Submucosa
• Muscularis externa
• Serosa

Layers of Tissue in the Alimentary Canal Organs

• Mucosa
• Innermost, moist membrane consisting of
• Surface epithelium
• Small amount of connective tissue
(lamina propria)
• Small smooth muscle layer
• Lines the cavity (known as the lumen)

Layers of Tissue in the Alimentary Canal Organs

• Submucosa
• Just beneath the mucosa
• Soft connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings,
mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue, and lymphatics

Layers of Tissue in the Alimentary Canal Organs

• Muscularis externa—smooth muscle
• Inner circular layer
• Outer longitudinal layer
• Serosa—outermost layer of the wall contains
fluid-producing cells
• Visceral peritoneum—outermost layer that is continuous
with the innermost layer
• Parietal peritoneum—innermost layer that lines the
abdominopelvic cavity
Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses
• Two important nerve plexuses serve the alimentary canal
• Both are part of the autonomic nervous system
• Submucosal nerve plexus
• Myenteric nerve plexus
• Function is to regulate mobility and secretory activity of the
GI tract organs

Stomach Anatomy
• Located on the left side of the abdominal cavity
• Food enters at the cardioesophageal sphincter
• Food empties into the small intestine at the pyloric
sphincter (valve)

Stomach Anatomy
• Regions of the stomach
• Cardiac region—near the heart
• Fundus—expanded portion lateral to the cardiac region
• Body—midportion
• Pylorus—funnel-shaped terminal end

Stomach Anatomy
• Rugae—internal folds of the mucosa
• Stomach can stretch and hold 4 L (1 gallon) of food when
full
• External regions
• Lesser curvature—concave medial surface
• Greater curvature—convex lateral surface

Stomach Anatomy
• Layers of peritoneum attached to the stomach
• Lesser omentum—attaches the liver to the lesser curvature
• Greater omentum—attaches the greater curvature to the
posterior body wall
• Embedded fat insulates, cushions, and protects abdominal
organs
 • Lymph follicles contain macrophages
• Muscularis externa has a third layer
• Oblique layer helps to churn, mix, and pummel the food

Stomach Physiology
• Temporary storage tank for food
• Site of food breakdown
• Chemical breakdown of protein begins
• Delivers chyme (processed food) to the small intestine

Structure of the Stomach Mucosa

• Mucosa is simple columnar epithelium
• Mucous neck cells—produce a sticky alkaline mucus
• Gastric glands—situated in gastric pits and secrete gastric
juice
• Chief cells—produce protein-digesting enzymes
(pepsinogens)
• Parietal cells—produce hydrochloric acid
• Enteroendocrine cells—produce gastrin

Small Intestine
• The body’s major digestive organ
• Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
• Muscular tube extending from the pyloric sphincter to the
ileocecal valve
• Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by the
mesentery

Subdivisions of the Small Intestine

• Duodenum
• Attached to the stomach
• Curves around the head of the pancreas
• Jejunum
• Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum
• Ileum
• Extends from jejunum to large intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
• Chemical digestion begins in the small intestine
• Enzymes are produced by
• Intestinal cells
• Pancreas
• Pancreatic ducts carry enzymes to the small intestine
• Bile, formed by the liver, enters via the bile duct

Small Intestine Anatomy

• Three structural modifications that increase surface area
• Microvilli—tiny projections of the plasma membrane (create
a brush border appearance)
• Villi—fingerlike structures formed by the mucosa
• Circular folds (plicae circulares)—deep folds of mucosa
and submucosa

Large Intestine
• Larger in diameter, but shorter in length, than the small
intestine
• Extends from the ileocecal valve to the anus
• Subdivisions:
• Cecum
• Appendix
• Colon
• Rectum
• Anal canal

Large Intestine Anatomy

• Cecum—saclike first part of the large intestine
• Appendix
• Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that sometimes becomes
inflamed (appendicitis)
• Hangs from the cecum

Large Intestine Anatomy

• Colon
 • Ascending—travels up right side of abdomen
• Transverse—travels across the abdominal cavity
• Descending—travels down the left side
• Sigmoid—S-shaped region; enters the pelvis
• Rectum and anus also are located in the pelvis

Large Intestine Anatomy

• Anus—opening of the large intestine
• External anal sphincter—formed by skeletal muscle and
under voluntary control
• Internal involuntary sphincter—formed by smooth muscle
• These sphincters are normally closed except during
defecation

Large Intestine Anatomy

• No villi present
• Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus which lubricates the
passage of feces
• Muscularis externa layer is reduced to three bands of
muscle called teniae coli
• These bands cause the wall to pucker into haustra
(pocketlike sacs)

Accessory Digestive Organs

• Teeth
• Salivary glands
• Pancreas
• Liver
• Gallbladder

Teeth
• Function is to masticate (chew) food
• Humans have two sets of teeth
• Deciduous (baby or “milk”) teeth
• A baby has 20 teeth by age two
• First teeth to appear are the lower central incisors
Teeth
• Permanent teeth
• Replace deciduous teeth between the ages of 6 and 12
• A full set is 32 teeth, but some people do not have wisdom
teeth (third molars)
• If they do emerge, the wisdom teeth appear between ages
of 17 and 25

Classification of Teeth
• Incisors—cutting
• Canines (eyeteeth)—tearing or piercing
• Premolars (bicuspids)—grinding
• Molars—grinding

Regions of a Tooth
• Crown—exposed part
• Enamel—hardest substance in the body
• Dentin—found deep to the enamel and forms the bulk of
the tooth
• Pulp cavity—contains connective tissue, blood vessels, and
nerve fibers
• Root canal—where the pulp cavity extends into the root

Regions of a Tooth
• Neck
• Region in contact with the gum
• Connects crown to root
• Root
• Cementum—covers outer surface and attaches the tooth to
the periodontal membrane

Salivary Glands
• Three pairs of salivary glands empty secretions into the
mouth
• Parotid glands
• Found anterior to the ears
 • Submandibular glands
• Sublingual glands
• Both submandibular and sublingual glands empty saliva
into the floor of the mouth through small ducts

Saliva
• Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
• Helps to form a food bolus
• Contains salivary amylase to begin starch digestion
• Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted

Pancreas
• Found posterior to the parietal peritoneum
• Its location is retroperitoneal
• Extends across the abdomen from spleen to duodenum

Pancreas
• Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break
down all categories of food
• Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
• Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic
chyme coming from stomach
• Hormones produced by the pancreas
• Insulin
• Glucagon

Liver
• Largest gland in the body
• Located on the right side of the body under the diaphragm
• Consists of four lobes suspended from the diaphragm and
abdominal wall by the falciform ligament
• Connected to the gallbladder via the common hepatic duct

Bile
• Produced by cells in the liver
• Bile leaves the liver through the common hepatic duct
• Composition is
• Bile salts
• Bile pigments (mostly bilirubin from the breakdown of
hemoglobin)
• Cholesterol
• Phospholipids
• Electrolytes

Bile
• Function—emulsify fats by physically breaking large fat
globules into smaller ones

Gallbladder
• Sac found in hollow fossa of liver
• When no digestion is occurring, bile backs up the cystic
duct for storage in the gallbladder
• When digestion of fatty food is occurring, bile is introduced
into the duodenum from the gallbladder
• Gallstones are crystallized cholesterol which can cause
blockages

Functions of the Digestive System

• Ingestion—placing food into the mouth
• Propulsion—moving foods from one region of the digestive
system to another
• Peristalsis—alternating waves of contraction and relaxation
that squeezes food along the GI tract
• Segmentation—moving materials back and forth to aid with
mixing in the small intestine

Functions of the Digestive System

• Food breakdown as mechanical digestion
• Examples:
• Mixing food in the mouth by the tongue
• Churning food in the stomach
• Segmentation in the small intestine
 • Mechanical digestion prepares food for further degradation
by enzymes

Functions of the Digestive System

• Food breakdown as chemical digestion
• Enzymes break down food molecules into their building
blocks
• Each major food group uses different enzymes
• Carbohydrates are broken to simple sugars
• Proteins are broken to amino acids
• Fats are broken to fatty acids and alcohols

Functions of the Digestive System

• Absorption
• End products of digestion are absorbed in the blood or
lymph
• Food must enter mucosal cells and then into blood or
lymph capillaries
• Defecation
• Elimination of indigestible substances from the GI tract in
the form of feces

Control of Digestive Activity

• Mostly controlled by reflexes via the parasympathetic
division
• Chemical and mechanical receptors are located in organ
walls that trigger reflexes

Control of Digestive Activity

• Stimuli include
• Stretch of the organ
• pH of the contents
• Presence of breakdown products
• Reflexes include
• Activation or inhibition of glandular secretions
• Smooth muscle activity
Digestive Activities of the Mouth
• Mechanical breakdown
• Food is physically broken down by chewing
• Chemical digestion
• Food is mixed with saliva
• Starch is broken down into maltose by salivary amylase

Activities of the Pharynx and Esophagus

• These organs have no digestive function
• Serve as passageways to the stomach

Deglutition (Swallowing)
• Buccal phase
• Voluntary
• Occurs in the mouth
• Food is formed into a bolus
• The bolus is forced into the pharynx by the tongue

Deglutition (Swallowing)
• Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
• Involuntary transport of the bolus
• All passageways except to the stomach are blocked
• Tongue blocks off the mouth
• Soft palate (uvula) blocks the nasopharynx
• Epiglottis blocks the larynx

Deglutition (Swallowing)
• Pharyngeal-esophogeal phase (continued)
• Peristalsis moves the bolus toward the stomach
• The cardioesophageal sphincter is opened when food
presses against it

Food Breakdown in the Stomach

• Gastric juice is regulated by neural and hormonal factors
• Presence of food or rising pH causes the release of the
hormone gastrin
• Gastrin causes stomach glands to produce
• Protein-digesting enzymes
• Mucus
• Hydrochloric acid

Food Breakdown in the Stomach

• Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach contents very acidic
• Acidic pH
• Activates pepsinogen to pepsin for protein digestion
• Provides a hostile environment for microorganisms

Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach

• Protein digestion enzymes
• Pepsin—an active protein-digesting enzyme
• Rennin—works on digesting milk protein in infants, not
adults
• Alcohol and aspirin are the only items absorbed in the
stomach

Propulsion in the Stomach

• Food must first be well mixed
• Rippling peristalsis occurs in the lower stomach
• Propulsion
• Grinding
• Retropulsion
• The pylorus meters out chyme into the small intestine (3
mL at a time)
• The stomach empties in 4–6 hours

Digestion in the Small Intestine

• Enzymes from the brush border function to
• Break double sugars into simple sugars
• Complete some protein digestion

Digestion in the Small Intestine

• Pancreatic enzymes play the major digestive function
 • Help complete digestion of starch (pancreatic amylase)
• Carry out about half of all protein digestion
• Digest fats using lipases from the pancreas
• Digest nucleic acids using nucleases
• Alkaline content neutralizes acidic chyme

Regulation of Pancreatic Juice Secretion

• Release of pancreatic juice into the duodenum is
stimulated by
• Vagus nerve
• Local hormones
• Secretin
• Cholecystokinin (CCK)
• Hormones travel the blood to stimulate the pancreas to
release enzyme- and bicarbonate-rich product

Regulation of Pancreatic Juice Secretion

• Secretin causes the liver to increase bile output
• CCK causes the gallbladder to release stored bile
• Bile is necessary for fat absorption and absorption of
fat-soluble vitamins (K, D, A)

Absorption in the Small Intestine

• Water is absorbed along the length of the small intestine
• End products of digestion
• Most substances are absorbed by active transport through
cell membranes
• Lipids are absorbed by diffusion
• Substances are transported to the liver by the hepatic
portal vein or lymph

Propulsion in the Small Intestine

• Peristalsis is the major means of moving food
• Segmental movements
• Mix chyme with digestive juices
• Aid in propelling food
Food Breakdown and Absorption
in the Large Intestine
• No digestive enzymes are produced
• Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients
• Produce some vitamin K and B
• Release gases
• Water and vitamins K and B are absorbed
• Remaining materials are eliminated via feces

Food Breakdown and Absorption

in the Large Intestine
• Feces contains
• Undigested food residues
• Mucus
• Bacteria
• Water

Propulsion in the Large Intestine

• Sluggish peristalsis
• Mass movements
• Slow, powerful movements
• Occur three to four times per day
• Presence of feces in the rectum causes a defecation reflex
• Internal anal sphincter is relaxed
• Defecation occurs with relaxation of the voluntary (external)
anal sphincter

Nutrition
• Nutrient—substance used by the body for growth,
maintenance, and repair
• Major nutrients
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Water
• Minor nutrients
• Vitamins
• Minerals

Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients

• Carbohydrates
• Most are derived from plants
• Exceptions: lactose from milk and small amounts of
glycogens from meats
• Lipids
• Saturated fats from animal products
• Unsaturated fats from nuts, seeds, and vegetable oils
• Cholesterol from egg yolk, meats, and milk products

Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients

• Proteins
• Complete proteins—contain all essential amino acids
• Most are from animal products
• Essential amino acids are ones that our bodies cannot
make
• We must obtain essential amino acids through our diet
• Legumes and beans also have proteins, but are incomplete

Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients

• Vitamins
• Most vitamins are used as coenzymes
• Found in all major food groups

Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients

• Minerals
• Play many roles in the body
• Most mineral-rich foods are vegetables, legumes, milk, and
some meats

Metabolism
• Chemical reactions necessary to maintain life
 • Catabolism—substances are broken down to simpler
substances; energy is released
• Anabolism—larger molecules are built from smaller ones

Carbohydrate Metabolism
• Carbohydrates are the body’s preferred source to produce
cellular energy (ATP)
• Glucose (blood sugar)
• Major breakdown product of carbohydrate digestion
• Fuel used to make ATP

Cellular Respiration
• Oxygen-using events take place within the cell to create
ATP from ADP
• Carbon leaves cells as carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Hydrogen atoms are combined with oxygen to form water
• Energy produced by these reactions adds a phosphorus to
ADP to produce ATP
• ATP can be broken down to release energy for cellular use

Metabolic Pathways Involved in

Cellular Respiration
• Glycolysis—energizes a glucose molecule so it can be split
into two pyruvic acid molecules and yield ATP

Metabolic Pathways Involved in

Cellular Respiration
• Krebs cycle
• Produces virtually all the carbon dioxide and water resulting
from cell respiration
• Yields a small amount of ATP

Metabolic Pathways Involved in

Cellular Respiration
• Electron transport chain
• Hydrogen atoms removed during glycolysis and the Krebs
cycle are delivered to protein carriers
 • Hydrogen is split into hydrogen ions and electrons in the
mitochondria
• Electrons give off energy in a series of steps to enable the
production of ATP

Metabolism of Carbohydrates
• Hyperglycemia—excessively high levels of glucose in the
blood
• Excess glucose is stored in body cells as glycogen
• If blood glucose levels are still too high, excesses are
converted to fat

Metabolism of Carbohydrates
• Hypoglycemia—low levels of glucose in the blood
• Liver breaks down stored glycogen and releases glucose
into the blood

Fat Metabolism
• Handled mostly by the liver
• Uses some fats to make ATP
• Synthesizes lipoproteins, thromboplastin, and cholesterol
• Releases breakdown products to the blood
• Body cells remove fat and cholesterol to build membranes
and steroid hormones

Use of Fats for ATP Synthesis

• Fats must first be broken down to acetic acid
• Within mitochondria, acetic acid is completely oxidized to
produce water, carbon dioxide, and ATP

Fat Metabolism
• Acidosis (ketoacidosis) results from incomplete fat
oxidation in which acetoacetic acid and acetone accumulate in
the blood
• Breath has a fruity odor
• Common with
• “No carbohydrate” diets
 • Uncontrolled diabetes mellitus
• Starvation

Protein Metabolism
• Proteins are conserved by body cells because they are
used for most cellular structures
• Ingested proteins are broken down to amino acids

Protein Metabolism
• Cells remove amino acids to build proteins
• Synthesized proteins are actively transported across cell
membranes
• Amino acids are used to make ATP only when proteins are
overabundant or there is a shortage of other sources

Production of ATP from Protein

• Amine groups are removed from proteins as ammonia
• The rest of the protein molecule enters the Krebs cycle in
mitochondria
• The liver converts harmful ammonia to urea which can be
eliminated in urine

Role of the Liver in Metabolism

• Several roles in digestion
• Manufactures bile
• Detoxifies drugs and alcohol
• Degrades hormones
• Produces cholesterol, blood proteins (albumin and clotting
proteins)
• Plays a central role in metabolism
• Can regenerate if part of it is damaged or removed

Metabolic Functions of the Liver

• Glycogenesis—“glycogen formation”
• Glucose molecules are converted to glycogen
• Glycogen molecules are stored in the liver
• Glycogenolysis—“glucose splitting”
• Glucose is released from the liver after conversion from
glycogen
• Gluconeogenesis—“formation of new sugar”
• Glucose is produced from fats and proteins

Metabolic Functions of the Liver

• Fats and fatty acids are picked up by the liver
• Some are oxidized to provide energy for liver cells
• The rest are broken down into simpler compounds and
released into the blood

Cholesterol Metabolism
• Cholesterol is not used to make ATP
• Functions of cholesterol
• Serves as a structural basis of steroid hormones and
vitamin D
• Is a major building block of plasma membranes
• Most cholesterol is produced in the liver
(85 percent) and is not from diet (15 percent)

Cholesterol Transport
• Cholesterol and fatty acids cannot freely circulate in the
bloodstream
• They are transported by lipoproteins (lipid-protein
complexes)
• Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) transport to body cells
• Rated “bad lipoproteins” since they can lead to
artherosclerosis
• High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) transport from body cells
to the liver

Body Energy Balance

• Energy intake = total energy output
(heat + work + energy storage)
• Energy intake is the energy liberated during food oxidation
 • Energy produced during glycolysis, Krebs cycle and the
electron transport chain
• Energy output
• Energy we lose as heat (60 percent)
• Energy stored as fat or glycogen

Regulation of Food Intake

• Body weight is usually relatively stable
• Energy intake and output remain about equal
• Mechanisms that may regulate food intake
• Levels of nutrients in the blood
• Hormones
• Body temperature
• Psychological factors

Metabolic Rate and Body Heat Production

• Basic metabolic rate (BMR)—amount of heat produced by
the body per unit of time at rest
• Average BMR is about 60 to 72 kcal/hour
• Kilocalorie (kcal) is the unit of measure for the energy value
of foods and the amount of energy used by the body

Metabolic Rate and Body Heat Production

• Factors that influence BMR
• Surface area—a small body usually has a higher BMR
• Gender—males tend to have higher BMRs
• Age—children and adolescents have higher BMRs
• The amount of thyroxine produced is the most important
control factor
• More thyroxine means a higher metabolic rate

Total Metabolic Rate (TMR)

• TMR = Total amount of kilocalories the body must consume
to fuel ongoing activities
• TMR increases with an increase in body activity
• TMR must equal calories consumed to maintain
homeostasis and maintain a constant weight

Body Temperature Regulation

• Most energy is released as foods are oxidized
• Most energy escapes as heat

Body Temperature Regulation

• The body has a narrow range of homeostatic temperature
• Must remain between 35.6°C to 37.8°C
(96°F to 100°F)
• The body’s thermostat is in the hypothalamus
• Initiates heat-loss or heat-promoting mechanisms

Body Temperature Regulation

• Heat-promoting mechanisms
• Vasoconstriction of blood vessels
• Blood is rerouted to deeper, more vital body organs
• Shivering—contraction of muscles produces heat

Body Temperature Regulation

• Heat-loss mechanisms
• Heat loss from the skin via radiation and evaporation
• Skin blood vessels and capillaries are flushed with warm
blood
• Evaporation of perspiration cools the skin

Body Temperature Regulation

• Fever—controlled hyperthermia
• Results from infection, cancer, allergic reactions, CNS
injuries
• If the body thermostat is set too high, body proteins may be
denatured and permanent brain damage may occur

Developmental Aspects of the Digestive System

• The alimentary canal is a continuous tube by the fifth week
of development
• Digestive glands bud from the mucosa of the alimentary
tube
• The developing fetus receives all nutrients through the
placenta
• In newborns, feeding must be frequent, peristalsis is
inefficient, and vomiting is common

Developmental Aspects of the Digestive System

• Newborn reflexes
• Rooting reflex helps the infant find the nipple
• Sucking reflex helps the infant hold on to the nipple and
swallow
• Teething begins around age six months

Developmental Aspects of the Digestive System

• Problems of the digestive system
• Gastroenteritis—inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract
• Appendicitis—inflammation of the appendix
• Metabolism decreases with old age
• Middle-age digestive problems
• Ulcers
• Gallbladder problems

Developmental Aspects of the Digestive System

• Activity of the digestive tract in old age
• Fewer digestive juices
• Peristalsis slows
• Diverticulosis and cancer are more common