TOPIC 3

TEMPERATURE
 OUTLINE
• Introduction
• Temperature and Scales
• Physical Controls of Temperature
• Seasons
• Daily Temperature Variations
• Daytime Warming and Nighttime Cooling
• Geographic Controls of Temperature
• Temperature Data
• Temperature and Human Comfort
• Summary 2-2
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After studying this topic, you should be able to
• Distinguish between thermal energy, heat, and temperature.
• Describe the relationship between insolation, net radiation, and temperature.
• Describe how seasons express the temporal and spatial variations in solar
radiation.
• Describe how the major large-scale temperature controls affect the
temperature of any given location.
• Outline the ways in which air temperature is affected by the differing
physical properties of land and water.
• Distinguish between Radiation Frost and Advective Frost.
• Describe at least six methods of frost protection.
• Explain why the daily variation in air temperature occurs.
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 INTRODUCTION

• Temperatures drop when air loses energy and

rise when air gains it.
▪ This energy is exchanged in the form of sensible heat.
• Daily and seasonal temperature variations are:
• Defining features of climate for an area, and
• Key components of the atmospheric system.
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 TEMPERATURE AND SCALES
• Temperature is a measure of the average
kinetic energy of atoms and molecules.
▪ ↑ Molecular motion = ↑ Temperature
a b Figure 1 Air temperature is a measure
of the average speed of the molecules.
(a) In the cold volume of air, the
molecules move more slowly and crowd
closer together. (b) In the warm volume,
they move faster and farther apart.
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 TEMPERATURE AND SCALES

• No molecular motion, no temperature.

• The temperature at which no thermal (or
molecular) motion occurs is known as absolute
zero and occurs at −273.15°C or 0K:
▪ Is the lowest possible temperature.
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 TEMPERATURE AND SCALES
• Kelvin (K) scale:
▪ Absolute zero = 0 K.
▪ Increment on Kelvin and
Celsius scale are equal.
• Fahrenheit Scale (32ºF = 0ºC).
• Celsius scale (˚C).
Figure 2 Comparison of the Kelvin,
Celsius, and Fahrenheit scales. 2-7
PHYSICAL CONTROLS OF TEMPERATURE

• Net increase in sensible heat (QH) → air

temperature increases.
• The sensible heat in air near Earth’s
surface can change in two main ways:
1. Transported horizontally over a warmer
or colder surface (advection).
2. Upward and downward convective fluxes
(convection) of sensible heat. 2-8
PHYSICAL CONTROLS OF TEMPERATURE

• Key factors controlling sensible heat flux (QH)

and consequently control the temperature:
1. Net radiation (Q*) = QH + QG + QE
a. Latitude and season
b. Time of day
c. Clouds and humidity
d. Local topography and surface effects
e. Elevation
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PHYSICAL CONTROLS OF TEMPERATURE

2. Latent Heat Flux (QE) and Ground Heat Flux (QG)

a. Humidity, surface type, soil moisture,
vegetation, and wind.
b. Soil type and moisture.
3. Advection due to weather systems and air
moving between oceans and continents.
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PHYSICAL CONTROLS OF TEMPERATURE

4. Sensible Heat Flux (QH)

a. Difference in temperature
between Earth’s surface
and air near the surface.
b. Wind.
c. Atmospheric stability.
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 SEASONS

• Seasons express the temporal and spatial

variations in solar radiation.
• Earth’s solar orbit is elliptical, and therefore,
Earth distance to sun varies:
▪ Closest (perihelion) in January (147 million km).
▪ Farthest (aphelion) in July (152 million km).
2-12
Figure 3 The elliptical path of Earth about the sun brings
Earth 3 percent closer to the sun in January than in July.
Note that the path is highly exaggerated in this image.
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 SEASONS

• Seasons are regulated by the amount of solar

energy received at Earth’s surface.
• Key factors:
▪ Angle of sunlight (solar angle), and
▪ Length of daylight. Longer in summer, and
shorter in winter.
• Both phenomena occur because Earth is tilted.2-14
 SEASONS

• Solar angle impacts intensity of solar energy:

▪ Summarized by the cosine law of
illumination: R = Ro cos (Z)
R = radiation intensity
R0 = max. radiation intensity
Z = zenith angle of sunlight
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 b

Figure 4 (a) Solar altitude and (b) Length of day. 2-16

Figure 5 Revolution of Earth. 2-17
 SEASONS
Northern Hemisphere Seasons
• Spring equinox
▪ March 20, sun over equator.
▪ All locations have a 12-hour day.
• Summer solstice
▪ June 21, sun over Tropic of Cancer.
▪ Days >12 hours. 2-18
 SEASONS
Northern Hemisphere Seasons
• Autumnal equinox
▪ September 22, sun over Equator.
▪ All locations have a 12-hour day.
• Winter solstice
▪ December 21, sun over Tropic of Capricorn.
▪ Days <12 hours. 2-19
Table 1 Length of time from sunrise to sunset and daily total insolation (K), assuming
cloud-free conditions, for various latitudes on different dates in the Northern Hemisphere.

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 SEASONS
Southern Hemisphere Seasons
• Opposite timing to northern hemisphere.
• Closer to sun in summer but not warmer. Why?
▪ Not as warm because of greater area of
surface water.
• Farther from sun in winter, but not as cool as
northern hemisphere winter. Why?
▪ Because oceans release stored heat. 2-21
 SEASONS
Southern Hemisphere Seasons
• Because Earth travels in an ellipse around the sun:
▪ The total number of days from the spring (March
20) to the fall (September 22) equinox is about
7 days longer than from the fall to spring equinox.
▪ This difference means that spring and summer in
the northern hemisphere are about a week longer
than fall and winter. 2-22
Figure 6 Because Earth travels more slowly
when it is farther from the sun, it takes Earth
a little more than seven days longer to travel
around the sun from March 20 to September
22 than from September 22 to March 20. 2-23
 DAILY TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

• Daily cycle of heating and cooling.

Daytime Warming
• Sunlight warms the ground as the sun rises, and the
ground warms the air in contact with it by conduction.
• As energy accumulates, free convection begins.
• Atmosphere continues to warm after local noon.
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Figure 7a On a sunny, calm
day, the air near the surface
can be substantially warmer
than the air a metre or so
above the surface. On a
windy day, convection is
more efficient at mixing the
warm near-surface air with
cooler air above.

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Figure 7b The daily variation in air
temperature is controlled by the net
radiation (Q*), which is the balance
between incoming and outgoing solar
and infrared radiation. Where incoming
radiation exceeds outgoing radiation
(orange shade), Q* is positive, creating
a sensible heat flux into the air (QH is
positive), and the air temperature rises.
Where outgoing energy exceeds
incoming energy (blue shade), Q* is
negative, making QH negative, so the
air loses sensible heat to the surface
and the air temperature falls.
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 DAILY TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

Nighttime Cooling
• As sun lowers, insolation spreads over larger area.
• Infrared radiation emitted by Earth’s surface.
• When emitted infrared radiation > absorbed
incoming radiation, surface temperatures decrease.
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 DAILY TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

Nighttime Cooling
•Radiation inversion:
▪ Air near ground cooler than above.
▪ Strongest during calm, clear, and dry conditions.
• Thermal belt:
▪ A region on the sides of a valley where nighttime
temperatures are warmer compared to valley floor.
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Figure 8 On cold, clear nights, the settling of cold air into valleys makes
them colder than surrounding hillsides. The region along the side of the
hill where the air temperature is above freezing is known as a thermal belt.
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DAILY TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

Frost Protection
• Protecting crops from cold.
• Frost occurs when the temperature of
ground or plants falls below 0ºC.
• Radiation frost results from radiative cooling
at the surface under clear ‘calm’ conditions.
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DAILY TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

Frost Protection
• Advective frost results from cold air
advection at the surface.
• Conditions that lead to advective
frost can lead to Radiation frost.
1. Proper site selection. Avoid areas
of potential cold air pooling. 2-31
DAILY TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

Frost Protection
2. Orchard Heaters. Direct heating using fuel-
burning heaters or heating cables in soil.
3. Wind Machines. Use of propeller fans to
increase turbulence to enhance mixing of
warm air with colder air at surface.
Downward transfer of sensible heat (QH).
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 a
b

Figure 9 (a) Orchard heaters circulate the air by setting up

convection currents and warming the trees. (b) A wind machine.
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DAILY TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

Frost Protection
4. Irrigation (Latent Heat Control). Latent heat
of fusion is released when water freezes. A
continuous supply of water is needed. Latent
heat of fusion must be greater than heat
loss via radiation and convection.
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DAILY TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

Frost Protection
5. Radiation Control.
i. Use of thermal (hot) caps.
ii. Use of greenhouse type
materials.
Figure 10 Thermal cap.

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 DAILY TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS

Frost Protection
6. Soil Heat Control
I. Mulching. Shifts active surface to top of mulch
therefore soil heat is trapped by mulch near surface.
II. Increase thermal conductivity [Ks] by adding
water, which enhances upward heat transfer.
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 Brief Review

• Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules and can be

represented on several measurement scales (Kelvin, Celsius, and Fahrenheit).
• Temperature changes in response to sensible heating or cooling of the air.
• Sensible heating responds to the physical controls of temperature.
• The seasons are caused by earth being tilted on its axis as it revolves around the sun.
• During the day, earth’s surface and the air above will continue to warm as long as
incoming energy (mainly sunlight) exceeds outgoing energy from the surface.
• The highest temperatures during the day and the lowest temperatures at night are
normally observed at earth’s surface because of radiation absorption and losses.
• Radiation inversions often occur at night, when the air near the ground is
colder than the air above it.
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GEOGRAPHIC CONTROLS OF TEMPERATURE

• Geographic controls are the main factors that cause

variations in temperature from one place to another.
• The main geographic controls are:
1. Latitude
2. Land and water distribution
3. Ocean currents
4. Elevation 2-38
 GEOGRAPHIC CONTROLS OF TEMPERATURE

1. Latitude. Influences:
• Air temperature through
insolation (solar angle and
day length), and
• Net radiation (Q*). Figure 11a Solar radiation
received at different latitudes.
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 a b
Figure 11b (a) Average January surface air temperatures in degrees Celsius
(ºC) for the period 1981 to 2010. Dashed contours represent temperatures
below zero. (b). Average July surface air temperatures in degrees Celsius (˚C) for
the period 1981 to 2010. Dashed contours represent temperatures below zero.
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GEOGRAPHIC CONTROLS OF TEMPERATURE

2. Land and Water Distribution

• Land heats and cools faster and to a greater
extent than water due to:
▪ Heat capacity differences (water higher);
▪ Free evaporation limits temperature increases
over water;
▪ Radiation absorbs through a depth of water
rather than at the surface only; 2-41
GEOGRAPHIC CONTROLS OF TEMPERATURE

2. Land and Water Distribution

▪ Additional convection or mixing
in water results in heat transfer
to greater depths; and
▪ On land transfer through the
ground is by conduction only.
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 GEOGRAPHIC CONTROLS OF TEMPERATURE

2. Land and Water Distribution – Implications

• Large water bodies moderate air temperature of
surrounding land masses (maritime influence).
• Lower temperature range both daily and annually.
• Lower max. temperature and higher min. temperature.
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 GEOGRAPHIC CONTROLS OF TEMPERATURE

2. Land and Water Distribution – Implications

• Maximum and minimum temperatures occur later for
coastal locations vs. continental or interior locations.
• Locations inland show extremes in temperatures
(continentality). Higher maximum temperatures, lower
minimum temperatures, and greater temperature range.
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GEOGRAPHIC CONTROLS OF TEMPERATURE

3. Ocean currents
• Warm currents moderate the winter air
temperatures of locations they affect.
• Cold currents decrease/lower the summer
temperatures of locations they affect.
▪ Some coastal areas also experience upwelling.
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GEOGRAPHIC CONTROLS OF TEMPERATURE

4. Elevation/Altitude
• Cooling and increased range.
• High altitude air is less dense, → less absorption
of surface heat → reduced air temps.
• Therefore, air temperature generally decreases
with increasing altitude.
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Figure 12 Temperature decreases as
we climb away from Earth’s surface.
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GEOGRAPHIC CONTROLS OF TEMPERATURE

• Other factors affecting daily and

annual cycles of air temperature:
▪ Clouds will disrupt the daily cycle.
▪ Passage of frontal systems will
disrupt the daily cycle.
▪ Air mass movements will disrupt
the annual cycle. 2-48
 TEMPERATURE DATA

The Use of Temperature Data

• Heating degree-day – Temperature below 18ºC.
• Cooling degree-day – Temperature above 18ºC.
• Growing degree-day – When mean temperature
is above the base temperature for specific crop.
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a Table 2 Estimated growing degree-
days for certain naturally grown
agricultural crops to reach maturity.

Figure 13 (a) North American average heating

demand as represented by annual heating degree-
days. (b) North American average cooling demand as
represented by annual cooling degree-days. 2-50
TEMPERATURE AND HUMAN COMFORT

• Body heat provided by metabolism, and our

bodies absorb heat.
• Body cooled by emitting infrared energy and
evaporation of perspiration.
• Sensible temperature (we feel) influenced by:
▪ Conduction and convection.
▪ Wind speed and wind-chill index.
▪ Humidity. 2-51
 Table 3 Wind-Chill Equivalent Temperature (ºC)*

Figure 14 The inputs

and outputs of energy
to a human body.
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 SUMMARY

• Temperature is controlled by the input and

output of solar and terrestrial energy.
• Ranges of temperature are greater in dry
climates than in humid ones.
• Temperature influences decisions on clothes to
wear, providing critical information for energy-
use predictions and agricultural planning.
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