Technical and Performance

Units

Mass (Kg)
Force (Newton) = Mass (Kg) x Acceleration (Mtr/sec²)
Weight (Newton) = Mass (Kg) x Gravity (9.8 Mtr/sec²)
Lower weight due to gravity at the equator (greater distance from earth’s core) and higher at poles
Work / Energy (Joule) = Force (Newton) x Distance (Mtr)
Power (Watt) (Joule/sec) = Force (Newton) x Distance (Mtr) = Work / Energy (Joule)
Time (Sec) Time (Sec)
1Hp = 33000 lbs for 1 feet in 1 min = 750 Watts
Kinetic energy (Joule) = 0.5 x Mass (Kg) x Velocity² (mtr/sec)
Acceleration (Mtr/sec²) = Force (Newton)
Mass (Kg)
Torque (Newton/mtr) = Force (Newton) x Distance (Mtr)
1 Newton/sqmtr = 0.14 PSI (Pounds per square inch) = 1Pascal
100 Newton/sqmtr = 100 Pascal = 1 Hectopascal or 1 Millibar
Force (Dyne) = Mass (gm) x Acceleration (cm/sec²)
1000000 Dynes/sqcm = 1 Bar = 1000 mb
1000 Dynes/sqcm = 1 mb
Pressure = Force
Unit Area
Heat = The sum total kinetic energy of all the atoms in substance
Temperature = The average kinetic energy of all the atoms in substance

Laws

First law The velocity of a body remains constant unless the body is acted upon by an external force.
Newton’s The acceleration of a body is parallel and directly proportional to the net force F and
Second law inversely proportional to the mass m, i.e., F = ma.
Third law For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
First law Heat and mechanical energy are both convertible and can be measured
Second law Heat will flow from hotter body to a colder body
Boyle’s law A given air parcel in High pressure occupies less volume and vice versa at a constant temp
Pressure (P) x Volume (V) = Constant (K)
Charles law A given air parcel in Low temp occupies less volume and vice versa at a constant pressure
Volume (V) = Temperature (T) x Constant (K)
Gay – If the temperature of a container is increased then the pressure inside it increases and vice
Lussac law versa for a given constant volume i.e Temperature (T) x Constant (K) = Pressure (P)
Combined Pressure (P) x Volume (V) = Temperature (T) x Constant (K)
gas law
Daltons The total pressure exerted by mixing of various gases is equal to their sum of partial pressure
law
Henrys law The amount of gas dissolved in the liquid is proportional to the pressure applied to the
gas over it under constant temperature
Ohms law Voltage (V) = Current (Amperes) (I) x Resistance (Ohms) (R)
Kirchhoff’s The total current flow into a point is equal to current flow out of that point
First law (The total current applied to the point by different inputs will be equal to the output)
Kirchhoff’s If all the voltage drop in a closed circuit is added together then it is equal to the voltage
Second law applied
Faraday’s A voltage is setup when a coil cuts through the magnetic flux and is proportional to
law the rate of change of magnetic flux
Lenz’s law The magnetic field produced by the current from an rotating coil in an magnetic field
will tend to oppose the direction of rotation
(As the current flow from a generator increases so does the work to rotate it will increase)

Speed Information (All Calibrated airspeeds)

Vmca Minimum control speed on take-off leg. (Critical engine inop) (Max 150 lbs rudder force)
Vmcg Minimum control speed on ground. (Critical engine inop) (Max dev 30ft)
Vmcl1 Minimum control speed on Approach. (Critical engine inop in 2 engine aeroplane)
Vmcl2 Minimum control speed on Approach. (2 engine inop in 4 engine aeroplane)
Vmc Minimum directional control speed in air with Critical engine inop (Full thrust on live engine)
Vef Engine failure recognition speed
V1 Decision speed for take-off. (Take-off can be cancelled before this speed, not after).
(Reverse thrust is not accounted for V1 calculation) (Increases with increase in Weight,
T.O.R.A, Upslope and decreases with increase in temperature, humidity, etc.)
Vmu Velocity Minimum Unstick Speed. (No rotation below this speed)
Vr Rotation speed at which the nose starts to lift from the ground for take-off. (1.05 Vmca)
Vlof Lift-off speed at which the aircraft is off the ground (1.05 Vsr)
V2 Minimum Take-off safety speed with critical eng inop. (Speed at 35ft after take-off 1.2 Vs1g)
V3(V2+10) Steady initial climb speed with all eng running.
V4 Steady take-off climb speed with all eng running.
Vfto Final Take-off speed
Vle Maximum speed with landing gear down
Vlo Maximum landing gear operating speed.(extend or retract)
Vapp Speed of aircraft at approach (1.2 Vsr).
Vls Lowest selectable speed (1.2 Vs1g)
Vref / VAT Velocity at threshold or Velocity Reference Speed (1.3 Vsr)
Vat0 Runway threshold crossing speed with all engine running during approach (1.3 Vsr)
Vat1 Runway threshold crossing speed with 1 engine inop during approach
Vmbe Maximum Speed for brake energy. (Above which there is ineffective braking)
Vimp Minimum power required.(Max reserve of power)(More Endurance)
Vimd Minimum drag speed.(Least drag on aircraft)(Best glide speed)
Va Manoeuvring speed (1.1 Vsr)
Vb Design speed for maximum gust intensity
Vc Design cruising speed
Vd Design diving speed
Vs Stall speed
Vx Speed for Best angle of climb.(Occurs at Vimd speed)
Vy Speed for Best Rate of climb.(Occurs at Vimp speed)
Vyse Speed for Best Rate of climb for single eng. (Blue radial line on airspeed indicator)
Vzf Minimum safety speed with zero flaps
Vsr / Vs1g Reference stalling speed / Stall speed at 1g (Remains same with altitude)
Gsmini Computer calculated minimum speed during wind shear conditions
Vdf / Mdf The maximum flight diving speed (IAS velocity/Mach)
Vra / Mra Rough air penetration speed (IAS velocity/Mach)

Measured Performance: The performance achieved by the manufacturer under test conditions for
certification.
Gross Performance: Gross Performance is the average performance that a fleet of aeroplanes should
achieve if satisfactorily maintained and flown in accordance with the techniques described in the manual.
Net Performance: The actual Performance achieved from the airplane taking into account the actual
variations that cannot be considered operationally e.g. – pilotage technique, non-standard techniques etc.

Aircraft Structure

Chord line Straight line joining the centre of the curvature of leading edge to the trailing edge
Chamber line Line joining the leading edge to the trailing edge equidistant from the top to bottom
Maximum chamber = The max diff between chord line and chamber line on wing
Angle of Attack Angle between chord line & relative airflow or flight path
Angle of Incidence (Riggers) Angle at which the wing is fitted to the fuselage (longitudinal axis)

Thickness / Chord ratio (%) = Thickness of wing Fineness ratio (%) = Length of chord line
Length of chord line Depth (Width of wing)
Taper ratio (%) = Wing tip chord length Mean chord = Area of wing (Sq. Ft)
Wing root chord length Total wing span
Aspect ratio (%) = Total wing span or (Total wing span) ²
Mean chord of wing Area of wing (Sq. Ft)

Framework / Truss structure: In this structure light gauge steel tubes are welded together to form the
basic structure which will carry most of the weight
Monocoque: Most part of the load is carried by the skin with only some internal parts to give its shape
Semi – Monocoque: The aircraft load is shared by the skin and also by the stringers / Longerons

Waisting = The wing is put more into fuselage (Area rule)

Triple slotted fowler flaps at trailing edge help to enegerzise the boundary layer which increases the
downwash

The Krueger flaps are situated at the leading edge root to increase the chamber and decrease the Cʟmax at
the root of the wing

The slats which are leading edge devices produce a gap between them and the wing which is called a slot,
which will help enegerzise the boundary layer

Flap load relief is a device which will extend the flaps only when it is in the speed range, if the speed
increases they will automatically retract

When the prop is forward it is called tractor while at the rear is called pusher

Torsional axis = The axis along which the wing twists which runs from one wing tip to other

Geometric twist (Washout) = A twist given to the wing so that the root is at greater angle than tip,
when vice versa it is called Washin

Prop fan / Proppulser = The sweep back given to the tip of advanced propeller systems (Delays shock)

Max no. of blades on the propeller is 5 except for the Prop fan / Proppulser due to sweep back

Ground clearance for the prop is measured in the flying attitude for all airplanes including tailwheel

Vortilon = Wing fence situated under the wing to energise the boundary layer
 Segment climb (1 eng inop) (Net take-off flight path)

Info Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3 Segment 4

Starts 35ft Gear up Climb to 400ft Flaps up, Minimum
AGL clean speed, climb
thrust
Actions Gear up Climb to 400ft AGL Retract flaps, Climb to security
Vfto, MCT altitude 1500ft AGL
Speed V2 V2 Vfto Minimum clean speed
Ends Gear up Climb to 400ft AGL Flaps up, Vfto, Climb to security
climb thrust altitude 1500ft AGL
Twin eng Gradient More than 0% Not less than 2.4% NA Not less than 1.2%
Three eng Gradient Not less than 0.3% Not less than 2.7% NA Not less than 1.5%
Four eng Gradient Not less than 0.5% Not less than 3.0% NA Not less than 1.7%

WAT (Weight – Altitude –Temperature Limitations):

These are the general variables according to which the regulated Takeoff is carried out in compliance with
the restrictions of the Net takeoff flight path (NTFP)
In order to carry more weight than that permitted by the WAT limitations and to be within the regulatory
requirements of NTFP, techniques below are carried out:

Increased V2: (Clearing the 1st segment of NTFP) Extended V2:

a) No obstacles on the 1st segment of NTFP: Will enable to carry more This technique is applied by
weight than that allowed by WAT limitations by increasing the V1, Vr, and extending the 2nd segment
Vlof speeds with more ground roll to build up more speed which in turn will of NTFP with V2 speed in
give better ROC to clear the far end of the runway by 35ft AGL order to clear any obstacles
b) Obstacles on the 1st segment of NTFP: Same as that of above but clearing which lies on the 2nd
an obstacle by 35ft on the 1st segment of NTFP is taken into consideration. segment of NTFP by 400ft

Controls

Power assisted Controls Certain force is provided by pilot while the remainder is given by the hydraulic
system to the control surfaces
Fully powered controls No force is provided by the pilot, all the force is provided by the hydraulic
system to the control surfaces
On propeller and turboprop The Speed is controlled by the stick and the R.O.D by power
On jet The Speed is controlled by the thrust and the R.O.D by stick

Q feel (Artificial feel) (Dynamic Pressure) = The device incorporated in the hydraulic controls to
give the feel for the controls (Feedback from control surfaces)

Irreversible controls = When the control surfaces are deflected due to flutter or gust the associated
control is not deflected in cockpit

Elevons A delta shape wing were ailerons are used for both pitch and roll
Canard A small movable stab attached on the fuselage ahead of the wing
Ruddervators (V tail) Combination of both rudder and elevators
Dutch tail (Stabilator) The entire stab moves when the control is deflected
Tailerons Differential Stab used both for pitch and roll
Variable Incidence stab The stab is trimmable while the controls deflect the elevators
Outboard & Inboard ailerons with roll spoilers are used at low speeds while only the Inboard ailerons are
used at high speeds

Roll spoilers A small spoiler surface will move up on the down going wing to help the roll
Aileron droop The ailerons on both the wing will move downward like flaps and operate from the
(Flaperons) new position when the flaps are extended
Fraise ailerons The leading edge of the up going aileron protrudes below the wing to equalise drag
Differential ailerons The up going aileron is deflected more than down going ailerons

Aileron roll reversals = At high speed if the wing structure is not rigid then when the ailerons are
deflected up, it will cause a twist to the wing causing the leading edge to go
up changing the AOA

Adverse Yaw = The yaw caused due to the drag created by the down going aileron

Aerodynamic balancing = Used to reduce the pilot effort to deflect the control surface by
using the aerodynamic force exerted on the control surface during flight

Insert hinge = The hinge of the control surface attached to the structure in such a way that it is
easy for the pilot to deflect the control surface
Horn Balance = A small part of control surface lied ahead of the hinge line to give control
effectiveness
Internal Balance = Same as that of Insert Hinge but internally balanced
Mass balancing = Used to reduce flutter by attaching a small mass to the forward of the control
surface hinge

Type of Tab Operated by Relative movement to control Stick force Control

stick Effectiveness
Balance Control surface Opposite Less Reduced
Anti-Balance Control surface Same More Increased
Servo Pilot Opposite Less Reduced
Spring Not operated at low speed Zero NA Increased
By Pilot at high speed Opposite Less Reduced
Trim Trim control Opposite Less Reduced
Fixed Tab On ground Opposite Less Reduced

Aerodynamics

(+)High Pressure (-) Low Pressure

CP is the point of lowest pressure while leading edge stagnation point is the highest pressure over the wing
Considering the entire aircraft the high pressure is below and low is on top of fuselage
Transition point = Where the laminar flow becomes turbulent flow over the wing

ℓ (density) = P (Pressure)
T (temperature)

TAS = EAS where σ is relative density

√σ

Lift = Weight = Cʟ (Coefficient of lift) x 0.5 x ℓ (density) x V² (TAS) x S (Surface area) x Reynolds no. x Mach
(IAS) (Dynamic Pressure)
Speed squared law as lift increases fourfold when TAS is increased twice
Lift in heavy rain reduces by 30 %

Cʟ (Coefficient of lift) = Lifting force

Dynamic force (force of hitting air)

Cʟmax will be more with flaps than that of a clean wing

Critical angle for stall is more for leading edge flaps than plain wing than trailing edge flaps

Thrust = Drag = Cᴅ (Coefficient of Drag) x (0.5 x ℓ (density) x V² (TAS)) x S (Surface area)

Cᴅ (Coefficient of Drag) = Drag force

Dynamic force

Lift to drag ratio (L/D ratio) = Cʟ (Coefficient of lift)

Cᴅ (Coefficient of Drag)

Dynamic Pressure (Q) (Newton/mtr²) = 0.5 x ℓ (density) x Velocity² (mtr/sec)

Form / Pressure Drag = Drag due to the Pressure difference at the leading edge (+) and trailing edge
(+) of Wing (reverse flow of air at the trailing edge from bottom to top of
wing) which tends to push the aerofoil back
Parasite drag = Cᴅp (Coefficient of parasite drag) x (0.5 x ℓ (density) x V² (TAS)) x S (Surface area)
Due to the skin friction and shape of the aircraft
Profile Drag = Skin friction + Form (Pressure drag) ∝ Speed ²(TAS)
Interference drag = Drag due to shape of aircraft
Induced drag (lift dependent drag) is mainly due to wing vortices which is a by-product of lift

Induced drag = 2w² (weight) (No effect of C.G)

ℓ (density) x V² (TAS) x S (Surface area) x π x AR (Aspect ratio)

Induced drag ∝ (Cʟ) ² (Coefficient of lift) ∝ 1

AR (Aspect ratio) (Speed) ²(TAS)

Vimd in drag curves will remain same regardless of the altitude for a given weight
The aircraft is in Equilibrium when the sum of all the moments is Zero and all the forces balance each other

Wake turbulence starts from nose wheel up during takeoff to nose wheel down during landing

Wave Boundary drag Energy drag

drag The separation of airflow at high speed The temperature rise after the shockwave

Effect of Vortices will be up till 1000 ft below to 9 NM behind with a width of ¾ wing span moving at a
speed of 5kts outward from both sides of the wing.

Level Stall Speed (Vs1g) = √ Lift

Cʟmax x 0.5 x ℓ (density) x S (Surface area)

Effect of weight on stall New Vs1g (IAS) = Old Vs1g (IAS) √ New Weight
Old Weight
Effect of bank on stall (Vst) New Vst (IAS) = Vs1g (IAS) √ 1
Cos Ө (Ө is angle of bank)

Rate of turn = g (32.2ft/sec/sec) x tan angle of bank (A.O.B)

V (TAS)

Radius of turn = V 2 (TAS)

g (32.2ft/sec/sec) x tan angle of bank (A.O.B)

In a 2g turn lift increases 2 times while drag increses fourfold

G limit for jetliners is -0.5g to 2.5g and with flaps it is limited to 2.0g

If C.G moves forward than the C.P, then the stalling speed will increase as the lift is needed to be
generated more due to the nose down moment

Gear down will increase the stalling speed as the profile drag increases so we will need to increase the lift

Power on stall on the propeller aircraft will decrease the stall speed as Cʟmax increases due to the
slipstream effect, the jet will not have this effect so it will be the same as on the Power off stall

The stalling speed increases above 30000ft due to compressibility

Any contamination on the wing will increase the stall speed

Rectangular wing will stall from the root outward as there are large vortices at the wing tip
The sweep back wing will stall from the tip inward due to the vortices at the wing root are larger

Super Stall (Deep Stall) Will occur on a T-Tail Plane on a Swept back wing due to Pitch up
Accelerated stall Occurs when the aircraft is pulled from a dive which stalls at higher speed
Shock stall The presence of a shock wave causes the air to separate from the wing
High speed stall At higher altitudes and Mach no. the IAS approaches to Vs1g speed
Low speed stall The lowest speed that an aircraft can fly at the given weight

Spin axis = Passes about halfway from the inner wing in spin
The airplanes revolves around all the 3 axis in a spin were, one wing is more stalled than the other while in
a spiral dive it will revolve only around 2 axis and it is not in stalled condition

Drift down altitude Altitude at which the aircraft can maintain minimum clean speed with 1 eng inop
Optimum Altitude The optimum altitude given by the FMS (Flight management system) to save fuel
taking into consideration the temperature, wind, altitude, cost index etc
Cruise Climb Simple, continuous, very gradual climb from an initial cruise altitude to a final cruise
altitude, making the most efficient use of fuel as the weight reduces
Step Climb Climbing in steps of 1000, 2000ft etc to the final cruise altitude due to traffic
Zoom climb Climbing to certain high altitude by using the momentum of the aircraft

Service ceiling = When the rate of climb reaches 100 ft. /min for Propeller aircraft
When the rate of climb reaches 500 ft. /min for Jet aircraft
Absolute ceiling = As the altitude increases the power required and power available curves
becomes the same.(No more climb)

Thrust = m (mass) x a (acc) (in air speed - out air speed)

Load factor (n) (g) = Lift = 1
Weight Cos Ө (Ө is angle of bank)

Piston Engine Jet engine

PWR PWR
PA

PR PR PA

Vimp TAS Vimp TAS

THR THR
TA
TA

TR TR

Vimd IAS Vimd IAS

Increase in altitude and weight will make these graphs to shift right and the gap closes inwards

Rate of climb (R.O.C) (Ft/min) = PA (Power available) - PR (Power required)

Weight

Rate of Decent (R.O.D) (Ft/min) = Weight

PA (Power available) - PR (Power required)

Best Rate of climb Achieved by maintaining Vimp (Minimum power speed) (No effect of wind)
Best angle of Achieved by maintaining Vimd (Minimum drag speed) for jet and less for piston engine
climb (Unchanged with altitude) (Headwind increases while tailwind decreases the angle)

Sin Ө (Ө is best angle of climb) or best climb gradient = Thrust - Drag

Weight

In climb Thrust = Drag + W Sin Ө (where W is weight and Ө is angle of climb)

In climb Lift = W Cos Ө (where W is weight and Ө is angle of climb)

Optimum Descend for jet

Ht of aircraft x 3 = Dist to level out at final descent point (nm) + 10
(First 2 letters of FL if over FL90)

Power = Drag x Velocity

Gliding for Endurance = Achieved by maintaining Vimp (Minimum power speed) speed
(Power Curves) (Increase weight will reduce Endurance, no effect of wind)

Best Gliding range = Achieved by best Lift to Drag ratio (Vimd (Minimum Drag speed))
(Higher weight gives same range by reaching faster, headwind will decrease the range if not compensated)

Best range speed (Jet) 1.32 Vimd (Minimum Drag speed)

Best range speed (Propeller) 1.10 Vimd (Minimum Drag speed)

LRC (Long range cruise) = 4% of Best range speed and gives 99% of range

Specific Air range (S.A.R) = TAS (True airspeed) x 1

Drag S.F.C (Specific fuel consumption)

Specific Air range (S.A.R) ∝ 1

Weight

Jet range = TAS (True airspeed) Cost Index = Cost of operations

Fuel flow Cost of fuel

Cost index 0-200 = Best range performance at 0 and Minimum time performance at 200
Best range and endurance is when the CG (Centre of gravity) is aft
Best Range is in tailwind, no effect of wind on endurance

Stability & Control

Stability The ability of the aircraft to return to its original state of equilibrium
Controllability (Stick forces) The quantity of control inputs to be made for the aircraft to response
Manoeuvrability The quality (feedback) given by the aircraft when control inputs are made

In (Forward CG) Stability, Controllability, stall speed, drag, fuel consumption, take-off speeds like V1, VR,
Vmu increases while climb gradient, range, Vmc, Vmca speeds & Manoeuvrability decreases and vice-
versa for aft CG

Positive Positively The initial tendency of the aircraft to return to its original equilibrium over the
Static Dynamically period of time when it deviates from its path and achieves the original path
Stability Stable
Neutrally The initial tendency of the aircraft return to its original equilibrium when it
Dynamically deviates from its path but does not return resulting in an Phugoid pattern
stable (Wave form)
Negative The initial tendency of the aircraft to return to its original equilibrium over the
Dynamically period of time when it deviates from its path and tends to amplify the
stable waveform pattern
Neutral Static Stability The tendency of the aircraft to remain in the new equilibrium when the aircraft
deviates from its path, it will continue to be in that state
Negative static stability / The tendency of the aircraft to continue in the state of equilibrium which
Static Instability results in a continuous increase in the deviation from the original path

Moment (lb) = Mass (lb) x Arm (in) (Distance + if aft & - if forward from the datum)

Moment (M) = Cm (Coefficient of moment) x (0.5 x ℓ (density) x V² (TAS)) x S (Surface area)

CG = Total Moment (in)
Total mass (lb)

CG (% of Mean aerodynamic chord MAC) = (Distance of CG – Distance of MAC) from datum x 100
Length of MAC

Longitudinal stability (Pitch) along the Lateral axis Lateral stability (Roll) along the longitudinal axis
Directional stability (Yaw) along the normal axis

The aircraft nose pitches about its lateral axis The aircraft rolls about it Longitudinal axis
The aircraft yaws about its normal axis

Aerodynamic Fixed point on the chord of wing (25% of wing chord) about which the moment with
centre the CP remains the same. (No CP movement only Aerodynamic Centre in
symmetrical aerofoil) (Pitching Moment about this point remains same)
Neutral Point The wing moment is the same as tail moment when the CG is aft.(Neutrally stable)
Manoeuver point The point at which the CG is aft of the neutral point during manoeuvring
Manoeuvre margin The margin between the CG and Manoeuver point
Static margin The margin between the neutral point and CG of aircraft
Trim Point The point at which the trim settings matches the angle of attack at a given airspeed
for equilibrium about the pitch axis
Positive Static Stable Neutrally Stable Static Unstable
When CG is forward of Neutral Point When CG is at the Neutral Point When CG is aft of Neutral Point

Only consider the Aerodynamic centre which is ahead of CG during stability and don’t consider the CP

Increase in power for both jet and propeller will have a destabilising effect (Reduces longitudinal stability)

Longitude Dihedral = The difference in angle of incidence of the wing is more than the elevators

Aerodynamic damping = When the nose pitches up due to gust the bottom of tail is exposed to
more air gust which will tend to pitch the nose down (Due to this
even if the CG is at the Manoeuver point the aircraft will be stable )

T tail or large rudder = (Directional stability)

Dorsal fin = A small fin extended before the rudder on top of the fuselage (Directional stability)
Ventral fin = A small fin added under the fuselage below the rudder (Directional stability)
High Keel surface (High wing) = (Lateral stability)
Sweep back wing = (Lateral stability) Angle between lateral axis and 25% of chord line
Wing Dihedral = The wing is sloping upwards from root to tip (More Lateral stability)
Wing Anhedral = The wing is sloping downwards from root to tip (Less Lateral stability)

Spiral Instability :-
Dutch Roll = Excessive Lateral Stability & less Directional Stability. (Rolling Pre dominates)
(Reduces at lower altitudes)
Snaking (Spiral Divergence) = Excessive Directional Stability & less Lateral Stability. (Yawing Pre
dominates)

Yaw Damper = Electrical unit to control the Yaw in the Spiral Instability

The elevators give the force for the turn as the lift is tilted, the ailerons will give you the roll while the
rudder prevents only Yaw in the turn
Pitch up = As the tapered sweep back wing stalls from the tip to root the C.P moves forward, leading
to a reduced arm between C.P & C.G which will tend the nose to Pitch up

Critical engine is the one which has the shorter arm from the C.G., the failure of this engine will create a lot
of adverse effects (No critical engine in counter rotating engine)

Critical density altitude is where the Vmc and stall speed is the same
Factors for critical engine are:-

P P Factor The descending Prop produces more thrust (The critical engine is the one whose thrust
line is closer to the centre line of airplane usually left engine) (making left engine critical)
A Accelerated The lift created due to prop washout is more on the right side of the engine due to the
slipstream arm of right engine thrust line is more, resulting in a roll (making left engine critical)
S Spiralling The spiralling slipstream from the left hits the rudder making it more effective so if it
slipstream fails there will be less rudder effectiveness (making left engine critical)
T Torque The tendency of the airplane to roll towards the left when left engine is lost is more
predominant due to the torque created by right engine (making left engine critical)

Factor affecting Vmc Vmc speed Control Information

Feathered Prop Substantially less Drag on dead engine
Increase in Density Altitude / More power developed by live engine
Decrease in pressure Altitude
Increase in weight More tilted lift component
Flaps and / or Gear Extended, Decreases Increases Increase in drag so less the pulling force by
Cowl Flaps open (Good) live engine
Max 5° Bank towards live engine The tilted lift will offset the Yaw
Forward C.G Increases the arm from the Rudder (more
effective)
Ground effect Drag decreases in ground effect
Min power on live engine The less the power the less the pulling force

Vmca & Vmcg decreases with altitude as thrust decreases.

Powerplant

Piston Engine (Otto cycle)

Lycoming firing order = 1-3-2-4

Each stoke will displace the crank 180° so total of 4 stroke is 720°

Valve overlap occurs at the time when both the inlet and exhaust valves are open during induction stroke
Valve lead occurs at the time when the inlet valve opens before the induction stroke
Valve lag occurs at the time when the exhaust valve closes during the initial induction stroke

Ignition advance = The ignition is provided in advance before the piston reaches TDC at high
RPM
Ignition lag = The ignition is provided later after the piston reaches TDC at low RPM

Flame rate Normal combustion = 60 -80ft. /sec Detonation = 1000ft. /sec

Detonation and pre-ignition mainly occurs during compression stroke
Flame rate is higher in rich mixture than that of lean mixture
I.M.E.P (Indicated Mean Effective Pressure) = The mean pressure developed during power stroke

Indicated Horse power (I.H.P) = PxLxAxNxE

33,000
Where – P = Indicated mean effective pressure (lb. /in²)
L = Length of stroke (ft.)
A = Area of cylinder (in²)
N = The number of cylinders
E = Effective working stokes/min (R.P.M) (only power stroke calculated)

Indicated Horse power (I.H.P) = Brake Horse power (B.H.P) - Frictional Horse power (F.H.P)

Brake Horse power (B.H.P) = 2 𝜋𝑟 (where r is rpm) x Torque

S.F.C (Specific fuel consumption in piston engine) = The amount of fuel burned to generate 1 I.H.P

Engine efficiency (%) = Output x 100% = Brake Horse power (B.H.P) x 100
Input Indicated Horse power (I.H.P)

Thermal Efficiency (%) = The amount of heat converted into work by the fuel x 100
The total amount of heat available in the fuel
Thermal efficiency of a piston engine is about 30% which is converted to work while 70% is wasted

Volumetric efficiency (%) = Weight of mixture actual in the cylinders x 100

Weight of mixture that cylinders can hold

Total Volume = Swept Volume + Clearance Volume

Compression ratio = Total Volume (Swept Volume + Clearance Volume)

(Piston engine) Clearance Volume

Propellers

Helix angle / Angle of advance = Angle between the Plane of Rotation and actual path of the
propeller (Relative airflow)

Blade angle / Pitch angle = The angle of attack of the blade + Helix angle

Propeller washout = The geometric twist given to the prop which decreases from root to tip
(keeping the angle of attack of the Propeller constant)

Geometric pitch (Tip) (0° angle of attack) = The distance the propeller will travel forward in one revolution
Geometric mean pitch (70% from root) (0° angle of attack) = The distance of the point on
propeller will travel forward in one revolution

Effective pitch = The actual distance travelled by the propeller per revolution
Propeller slip = The difference in distance between Geometric pitch and Effective pitch

Experimental pitch (Tip) = The advance per revolution when the propeller is giving no thrust
Experimental mean pitch (70% from root) = The advance of the point on propeller per revolution
when there is no thrust generated by the prop
Shaft horse power (S.H.P) = Torque x Rotational Velocity (R.P.M)

Thrust power = Thrust x Velocity (TAS)

Propeller Efficiency (%) = Thrust Power x 100

Engine Shaft Power

CTM = Centrifugal twisting moment will tend to make the Propeller go fine. (Major effect)
(Due to thrust on the prop it will tend to twist the tip forward)
ATM = Aerodynamic turning (Twisting) moment will tend to make the Propeller go coarse
Due to the airflow over the propeller
F.F.P.S = Flight Fine pitch stop (Mechanical stop in cruise to restrict the fineness of prop)

Alpha range (in air) = The angle between feathered to the finest blade angle in air (F.F.P.S)
around +85° for feathered to +14° for fine in air
Beta range (on ground) = The angle between least finest to the max reverse blade angle on ground
around -1° finest to -15° max reverse on ground
Braking Prop = The blade angle during the reversers goes below the plane of rotation

The constant speed unit (C.S.U) maintains only the engine RPM constant. (Piston engine)
(If RPM falls then it will move to finer pitch and vice versa)

The Propeller control unit (P.S.U) maintains the turbine RPM constant. (Turbo prop engine)
 Jet engine (Brayton cycle)

Equivalent Shaft Horse power (E.S.H.P) = Sum of shaft power + thrust generated by Jet engine.
(Turboprop jet engine)
60% of turbine energy is used to run the compressor, 40% is the thrust

Angle of attack for all blades in the jet engine for all stages 4°

Bypass Ratio = Air which will Bypass the engine

Air which enters the engine

IGVs (Inlet guide vanes) = The Rotatable stationary vanes before the compressor to guide the air
Stators = The Rotatable stationary blades attached to the jet engine in Compressor

Compression Ratio = The free stream air that is at the start of the compressor segment
(Jet engine) The air that is compressed at the end of the compressor segment

Compressor stall is where some stages are stalled in the compressor (early stage) whereas compressor
surge occurs when all the stages of compressor are stalled and there is a backflow (later stage)

Diffuser = Decreases the speed of the flow after the Compressor to the combustion chamber

Tubo-annular (Cannular / Can-annular) - Burner cans are fitted along the inside of engine casing
Annular - The flame tube is contained between the outer and inner casing (No Burner cans)

Primary air = About 20% of air enters through primary holes in the burner cans which is ignited
Secondary air = About 20% of air enters through secondary holes in the burner cans (Cooling effect)
Tertiary air = About 60% of air enters in the burner can through Tertiary holes (Cooling effect)

NGVs (Nozzle guide vanes) = The stationary blades attached to the jet engine in turbine section

Type Hung start Hot start Wet start

Indications Engine stabilising below self- Too less air with rich fuel Engine not reaching the self-
sustaining RPM with high EGT will make the EGT rise sustaining RPM with low EGT
substantially
Reasons No sufficient airflow through Occurs in tailwind, Hot Starter bleed air is too low
the combustion chamber to Engine Start, Iced engine, which makes the mixture too
burn the fuel (High altitude throttle not idle etc rich, foul ignition plugs etc
start)

Blowout cycle is the process where the start switch is off for the engine, but cranked to vaporize the fuel
Engine rundown time is the time taken by the jet engine to shutdown when fuel is cut-off

Impulse turbine = The turbine blade rotates due to the airflow pushing it through (U shaped)
Reaction turbine = The turbine blade rotates due to lift it creates as the airflow passes (Aerofoil)

Spool - When a stage of turbine is connected to a stage of compressor on the same shaft

A free turbine is the one which is not connected to the compressor but to the propeller
The air is straightened before it will exit from jet pipe
Both Bucket and clamshell door reverser use the hot air while the blocker door reverser uses the cold
bypass air for reverse thrust

Part throttle or flat rated engines are those which achieve max take-off thrust at less than full throttle
below ISA temperature but are normally restricted to do so

APU (Auxiliary power unit) = Provides electrics, hydraulics, bleed air but no thrust

High Speed Flight

Free stream Mach No. = Relative speed of the unaffected air to the speed of aircraft.
Local Mach No. = Speed of air over the wing which is effected by the aircraft

Mach No. .75 .75 to 1.2 1.2 to 5 5

Speed Subsonic Transonic Supersonic Hypersonic

Compressive corner = It is formed when the supersonic airflow blowing over the surface of wing
tends to bend towards the free undisturbed air.

Expansive Corner = It is formed when the supersonic airflow blowing over the surface of wing
tends to deflect away from the free undisturbed air.

Crossover point = The point at which you change from Speed to Mach no. and vice versa

A Shockwave is formed when the airflow suddenly decelerates at high speeds and it is first formed on the
top wing (λ foot), then as the speed increases this shockwave begins to attach itself to the trailing edge.
A second shockwave is also formed at the leading edge (Bow shockwave).

Mach Tuck (Mach Duck) = As the Centre of pressure moves back due to compressibility the
(Tuck under) arm between the C.G & C.P will tend the nose to go down

Jet upset = The elevators becomes ineffective due to the turbulent flow of air
after the trailing edge shockwave, also as the Centre of pressure
moves aft, the nose drops and the aircraft is unable to recover.

Mach trimmer = The trim tabs in the elevators to avoid the Mach Tuck (Mach Duck)
Will work all the time irrespective of autopilot

Mcrit (Critical Mach No.) = The indicated Mach no. at which the speed of the air over the thickest
section of wing has reached the speed of sound (Mach 1)

Mcdr / Force divergence (Critical Drag rise) = The Mach no. at which the drag rises enormously

Detachment Mach No. (Mdet) = The Mach no. at which the leading edge shockwave detaches
itself due to the temperature rise after the shockwave.

Coffins Corner = As the aircraft gains altitude there is a point at which the stall speed and the
max Mach no. becomes same.

Mach Cone = The region of influence of the shockwave.

Control Buzz = The oscillation set in the control surface by the shockwave
Sonic Boom = Occurs only when breaking the sound barrier as a compressive corner is formed due
to the shockwave where supersonic flow suddenly decelerates

Compressibility Buffet= The vibrations set to the airframe due to high dynamic pressure at high Mach
no.

Fuel system

Fuel and Octane Avgas 115 Avgas 100LL Avgas Avgas 91 Avgas 80 Jet fuel
(Low lead) 100
Colour Purple Blue Green Brown Red Colourless
Rich/Weak Detonation point 115/145 100/130 100/130 91/96 80/87 NA

Calorific Value = The amount of heat released during combustion

Low Pressure boiling = At high altitudes the pressure over the fuel decreases resulting in
vaporisation of fuel at lower temperatures (High altitude boiling)

Normal fuel mixture = 12:1 (12 parts of air and 1 part of fuel Piston engine) or 15:1 used
(Stoichiometric) 15:1 (Jet engine)

Low pressure (L.P) fuel Cock is near the fuel tank while the High pressure (H.P) fuel Cock is in the engine
Totalizer will display the total fuel burnt for that engine since start-up

EGT (Exhaust gas temperature): The Thermocouples are placed just aft of the jet exhaust
TGT (Turbine gas temperature): The Thermocouples are placed in the turbine
JPT (jet pipe temperature): The Thermocouples are placed just after the turbine in the jet pipe
The indications are not affected as the thermocouples are all connected in parallel if any one or more of
them fails
 Pressurisation, Bleed Air, Air Conditioning

Boot strap system / Air cycle machine / Cold air unit Vapour Cycle machine

The temperature in the Jetliner = 18°C to 24°C

Amount of fresh air in jetliner = 1lb per minute per person, if 1 eng inop 0.5lb per minute per person

Humidity in the Jetliner = Min 30% relative humidity, 60% for comfort

Max Cabin Altitude = 10,000 Ft. typical

Max Cabin Differential ( ) = 8.5 PSI, after 9.1 PSI the Cabin safety valve will open typically
Cabin Altitude selection range = - 1000 ft to 10,000 ft

Negative safety valve will open after - 0.5 PSI Differential ( )

Optimum Rate of change of Cabin Altitude in climb = 500 Ft/min typically

Optimum Rate of change of Cabin Altitude in descent = 300 Ft/min typically

Ditching valve = Will close all the Bleed and dump (Outflow) valves

Oxygen systems

Types of oxygen systems are:

Continuous flow In this system oxygen mixed with cabin air or 100% oxygen is continuously supplied to
the recipient
Diluter demand Oxygen mixed with cabin air or 100% oxygen is only given to the recipient when he is
inhaling due to the lower pressure created while breathing in
Pressure demand In case of an emergency or in very high altitude 100% oxygen under pressure is given
to the recipient

Oxygen given to the cockpit crew is usually stored under high pressure in the cylinders and can be used in
under diluter demand or pressure demand by selection on the panel
The passengers are usually supplied with oxygen mask connected to chemical oxygen generators
containing a mixture of sodium chlorate and iron powder which will be mixed with cabin air and is given in
form of a continuous flow to the passengers when activated only when pulling the oxygen mask down
PAX oxygen mask should be 20% more than the number of seats and distributed evenly
Oxygen mask will automatically be deployed at 14000ft cabin altitude and is under 1800 Psi in container
which lasts only for 15min

Electricals

Capacitance (Farad) (F) Inductance (Henry) (L) = Impedance (Ohms) + Reactance (Ohms)

Current consists of chemical, heat and magnetic energy into it

Voltage (Volt) (V) = Current (Amps (A)) (I) x Resistance (ohms) (R)

Heat = Current (I) ² x Resistance (R)

Power (Watts) = Voltage (Volt) (V) x Current (Amperes) (I)

1 volt = 1000 millivolts = 1000,000 microvolts

1 amp = 1000 milliamp = 1000,000 microamp
1 ohm = 1000 milliohm = 1000,000 microhm
1 Farad = 1000 millifarad = 1000,000 microfarad = 1000,000,000 nanofarad
= 1000,000,000,000 picofarad

Total Resistance connected in series = R1 + R2 + R3

Total Resistance connected in parallel = 1 + 1 + 1

R1 R2 R3

Total Resistance connected in combined circuit = Calculate R in parallel and then add it to series
Total Capacitance connected in series = C1 + C2 + C3

Total Capacitance connected in parallel = 1 + 1 + 1

C1 C2 C3

Total Capacitance connected in combined circuit = Calculate C in parallel and then add it to series

Voltage measurement by Voltmeter Current measurement by Ammeter

AC System (Alternating current) = 115 / 200 (Volts) 3Phase 400Hz (Hertz)

DC system (Direct current) = 14 volts for 12 volt battery system or
28 Volts for 24 volt battery system

Static Inverter = DC (Direct current) to AC (Alternating current)

Transformer (Step up or step down) = Raises or lowers the input voltage
Rectifier Unit = AC (Alternating current) to DC (Direct current)

Transformer rectifies units (TRU) combines both Transformer and a rectifier

Batteries convert chemical energy to electrical energy and capacity is measured in Amps per hour
Primary cell battery = Chemical energy cannot be restored when used and cannot be recharged
Secondary cell battery = Chemical energy can be restored when used by recharging

Batteries in series = The +ve end is connected to the –ve end of the next in which the voltage
(Volt) is sum of the batteries connected while the current capacity (Amp) is constant
Batteries in parallel = The +ve ends are connected together and their –ve ends are joined together
In which the current capacity (Amp) is sum of the batteries connected while voltage (Volt) is constant
Batteries can also be connected by combining both series and parallel system

Alternator = Has magnets rolling around the stationary coils which generates current.
Generator = Has coils rolling around the stationary magnets which generates current.

Generator frequency (Hz) = Number of poles rotating x RPM

2 60 sec

RMS (Root mean square value) (amps) = 0.707 x Peak RMS Value (amps)
(The amount of heat generated and compared to same amount of DC current in amps)

AC Wild frequency generator = Single phase engine generator were the frequency fluctuates
ACW (Alternating current Generator) = 3Phase engine generator gives 115 V which fluctuates
the frequency given to the equipment

AC system are much simpler, robust and lighter which can operate at high altitudes and RPM for the given
power output when compared to DC system
Bus Bar = The power strip which distributes the power to various equipment
Hot battery bus bar = The power strip which distributes the power taken from the battery to
the vital equipment in case of emergency

Autopilot

Flare mode = Will be armed at 400ft and will be engaged from 50ft -10ft
Rollout mode = Will be armed at 400ft and will be engaged at 10ft
Fail Operational In event of a failure the approach, flare, landing will be done automatically by the
/ Fail Active remaining part of the autoland system
(Land 3)
Fail- hybrid Consists of a fail-passive automatic landing system with a monitored head-up display
(Land 2) which provides guidance to enable the pilot to complete the landing manually after
failure of the automatic landing system.
Fail Passive / In event of a failure, there will be no significant deviation in the flight path or trim
Fail Safe / Fail during an approach but autoland will not be performed (Cat 1 minimums apply)
soft (Land 2)

Cockpit concepts

Sterile cockpit Only flight related discussions under 10,000ft

Cold and Dark Cockpit No (warning, caution, white etc.) lights are illuminated during the flight and all
the systems are auto or on

Systems

HUD (Head up display) A layout of PFD projected on a transparent medium

EVS (Enhanced vision system) An forward looking infrared camera is deployed to impose a live image on
the HUD or PFD
SVS (Synthetic vision A layout of realistic image created by the computer with the help of
systems) terrain database imposed on HUD or PFD

Firefighting equipment

The engines, APU, Cargo / Baggage compartments, wheel well and lavatories are protected from fire
primarily
There are normally two systems of same type connected in parallel for backup and fail-safe operation

Fire detector units for engines and APU:

1) Expansion type detector: In this type there are two spring loaded connectors which under normal
temperatures will be held apart, but when the temperature increases beyond a certain limit the springs
will start to elongate along its length due to expansion making the contacts to touch each other which will
create circuit for fire warning
2) Gas filled detector: In this type of system a tube is filled with helium gas in which a rod made of a
material in such a way that it will release hydrogen gas when exposed to high temperatures is inserted and
sealed. An integrity sensor will sense a high pressure in the tube when the hydrogen is released when
exposed to high temperatures and will complete the circuit to give a fire warning
3) Firewire system: In this system a dielectric material separates the outer and the inner terminals of the
wire. When under high temperature the dielectric material will change its properties and the current will
start flowing from the outer casing to the inner core which will complete a circuit to give you a warning.

Smoke detector units used in Cargo / Baggage compartments, avionics bay and lavatories:
1) Optical detector: In this type of system, smoke is detected by refraction of light which is detected by the
photo electric sensor which in normal case the light is blocked from the light lamp by an opaque glass
2) Ionization /radiation smoke detectors: In this type of system, smoke is detected when the ionized
particles are blocked between the source and the receiver by the smoke

Fire extinguishing system:

Most of the jetliners are provided with 2 fire retarder bottles per engine to extinguish the fire which are
kept in high pressure. When a fire is sensed the fire button is pushed which will isolate that engine from
the airplane, shutting down bleed, hydraulic, electrical and other services from that engine. Then a shot
from the fire extinguishing bottles is fired.
During exterior inspection a green disc will be replaced by red disc if the fire agent has been discharged
due to usage or overpressure

Class Materials Equipment used

A Ordinary materials like wood, paper, plastic etc. C02, water based
B Flammable or combustible liquids like kerosene, gasoline etc. Halon 1211, Foam
C Electrical equipment’s Halon 1211
D Combustible metals which give out oxygen like magnesium, potassium etc. Sand

Ice & rain protection

The normal working of Ice & rain protection is based on Anti-icing (To prevent ice buildup over the surface
– switched on before entering icing condition) or De-icing (To wait for ice buildup – switched on after the
ice is accumulated over the surface)
Following systems are in use:
Mechanical / Bleed air from the engines is used to blow on the rubberized de-icing boots which
Pneumatic system expand and contract in sequence to break off the ice buildup over the surface
Thermal system Hot Bleed air from the engines is used to blow over the surface of the aircraft to break
off the ice buildup over the surface (De-icing) or to prevent ice buildup (Anti-icing)
Fluid / Weeping A glycol based fluid is pumped on to the surfaces of aircraft through minutes holes to
wing protection act as a De-icing or Anti-icing system
Electrical heating This type of heating element is usually found on probes, propeller blades and on
system windshield to give it more strength

Lubrication

Dry Sump lubrication

The scavenge pump capacity is larger than the pressure pump

The Wet Sump is a system where the oil is stored under the engine which also acts like an oil tank

Mineral oil are mainly used, if that does not contain any additives it is straight oil and when additives are
added then it is called compound oil. AD (Ashless Dispersant) has better cleaning properties

The lower the Viscosity SAE number the thinner is the oil while high performance engine needs thick oil
(High SAE number) where the Ideal temperature is about 85°C at 50-100 psi

Hydraulicing happens in a radial and inverted engine where the oil accumulates between the Piston and
cylinder head in lower cylinders

Coring occurs at cold temperatures when the inner part of oil in the tank is cold while the outer part flows
through the engine creating very high temperatures for the oil

The oil quantity for an Dry Sump should be checked immediately whereas for the Wet Sump should be
checked after 15-20 min from the engine shutdown

Hydraulics

Type Fluid Grade Colour Uses

Vegetable based Castor oil Blue Light hydraulic systems
Mineral based (Petrochemical DTD 585 Red Large hydraulic system but
product) highly flammable
Synthetic based (Phosphate ester) Skydrol Purple, Green Large hydraulic systems

Typical Hyd pressure in Jetliners is 3000psi

Landing gear can operate on hydraulics, electrical and pneumatic systems

The landing gear absorbs the shocks due to the Oleo strut (Shock absorber), the torque links prevents the
wheel to turn around the strut, the drag strut will take the loads in the fore and aft axis and the lower and
upper side strut held by jury strut will take the loads sideways

The over centre locks will help the gear to stay in its extended position on ground

Shimmy is an Sinusoidal Oscillation (Sideways) due to flexibility in the tyre walls, wrong pressure and
damaged gear components which is prevented by torque links

Castoring is the ability of the nose wheel to turn in the direction of the turn and then return to its original
position after the turn

Micro switches / Proximity sensor are incorporated in many components like the throttle, gear position
indicator etc to operate a logic for gear operation
Squat switches are used to detect the loads on the landing gear as the Oleo struts are fully compressed on
the ground