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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been

fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/OJIA.2021.3074028, IEEE Open
Journal of Industry Applications

Grid-Forming Converters: Control Approaches,

Grid-Synchronization, and Future Trends - A
Review
Roberto Rosso, Student Member, IEEE, Xiongfei Wang, Senior Member, IEEE, Marco Liserre, Fellow, IEEE,
Xiaonan Lu, Member, IEEE, and Soenke Engelken, Senior Member, IEEE

Abstract— In the last decade, the concept of grid-forming GFL converter GFM converter
𝐼𝑐 𝑍𝑔 𝐼𝑐 𝑍𝑔
(GFM) converters has been introduced for microgrids and
islanded power systems. Recently, the concept has been proposed 𝑍𝑐
for use in wider interconnected transmission networks, and 𝑍𝑐 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑔 𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑔
several control structures have thus been developed, giving rise to
discussions about the expected behaviour of such converters. In
this paper, an overview of control schemes for GFM converters is (a) (b)
provided. By identifying the main subsystems in respect to their
functionalities, a generalized control structure is derived and Figure 1: (a) Simplified representation of a GFL converter, (b)
different solutions for each of the main subsystems composing simplified representation of a GFM converter [2].
the controller are analyzed and compared. Subsequently, several
selected open issues and challenges regarding GFM converters,
i. e. angle stability, fault ride-through (FRT) capabilities, and the currents of the GFM converter are determined by network
transition from islanded to grid connected mode are discussed. conditions and may change rapidly. Therefore, proper fault
Perspectives on challenges and future trends are lastly shared. ride-through (FRT) strategies should be adopted, in order to
Index Terms—Control structure overview, Grid-forming con- ensure the converter stability and prevent hardware damage.
verters, Grid-following converters, power-synchronization. Additionally, while seamless transition from island condition
to grid-connected mode has been intensively discussed in the
I. I NTRODUCTION last decade, this topic still represents a challenge for GFM
converters. A comprehensive overview on the aforementioned
T HE concept of grid-forming (GFM) converters originally
introduced for micro and islanded grid applications [1],
[2], has been proposed as a viable solution for enhancing
aspects and open issues is provided in this paper. Finally,
future trends regarding the specifications of GFM converters
system stability and resiliency of wider interconnected power based on discussions at European level are reported.
networks with high penetration of power electronics-based The outline of the paper is the following: the main fea-
generation. The wider use of GFM converters gives rise to tures of GFM converters compared to state-of-the-art GFL
the need for a classification of the control approaches used to converters are discussed in Section II. A generalized structure
implement these types of converters, which are conceptually is presented in Section III, where different solutions for each
different from state-of-the-art grid-following (GFL) units. of the identified subsystems are presented and compared. In
This paper represents an extension of the work presented in Section IV, challenges and open issues related to synchro-
[3], and its main objectives are described in the following. First nization stability, FRT and transition from islanded to grid-
the conceptual differences between GFM converters and state- connected mode of GFM converters are discussed, providing
of-the-art GFL converters are discussed. An overview of the a comprehensive overview on the solutions reported in the
control structures proposed in the literature for implementing literature. Finally, Section V is dedicated to the conclusions.
GFM converters is presented, and once the main characteristics
of this type of converter are identified, a generalized structure II. C ONCEPTUAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GFM AND GFL
is proposed by splitting the control into subsystems with CONVERTERS
respect to their functionalities. Various solutions for each of There is no well-established formulation for the concept
the identified subsystems are then analyzed and compared, and of GFM converters, and an official definition is currently
the possible similarities as well as advantages/drawbacks of under discussion in industrial and academic communities [4],
the examined approaches are critically reviewed. [5]. Nevertheless, several GFM control structures have been
The second part of the paper discusses the open issues and proposed [6]-[19]. In [2], a GFL converter is described as
challenges of GFM converters. Since most of the reported a unit whose behavior can be approximated to a controlled
GFM implementations are based on the power synchronization current source with a high parallel impedance, whereas a
mechanism of synchronous machines (SMs), classical stability GFM converter is represented as a voltage source with low
issues such as power angle stability may occur. Furthermore, series impedance. An example is shown in Fig. 1 (a) and
due to the fact that GFM converters in contrast to state-of-the- (b), where the common representations of a GFL and of
art GFL units behave as voltage sources behind impedance, a GFM converter are shown, respectively [2]. It is worth

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/OJIA.2021.3074028, IEEE Open
Journal of Industry Applications

𝐸 GFL Control principle GFM Control principle

𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐
Synch. Synch.
𝑍𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝑍𝑔 + 𝑍𝑐 𝐼𝑔 𝜗
Voltage

𝑉𝑔 𝑉𝑔 P current amplitude

𝐼𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝑒
setpoint
𝐼𝑑 𝑒 𝑉𝑚
Power Q current Current 𝑣′ Power Voltage 𝑣′
setpoint 𝑖𝑔 Phase
𝑖𝑔 Control 𝐼𝑞 control Control 𝜑𝑚 control
𝐸

(a) (b)
𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐
Converter PCC
𝐼𝑔 𝑍𝑔 𝐼𝑔 𝑍𝑔 + 𝑍𝑐 𝐼𝑔
Grid

generation
Filter
𝑉𝑔 𝑉𝑔 𝑣′

PWM
𝐼𝑔
(a) (b)
𝑖𝑔
Figure 2: (a) Phasor diagram of a GFL converter according 𝑒
to a perturbation of the grid voltage; (b) phasor diagram of a
Figure 3: Simplified explanation of the control working prin-
GFM converter according to a perturbation of the grid voltage.
ciples: (a) GFL converter, (b) GFM converter.
noting that this representation might erroneously resemble the
converter currents, hence jeopardizing the converter hardware
definition of a Norton or a Thévenin equivalent, which are
components.
theoretically interchangeable; yet it does emphasize the fact
The second aspect characterizing the differences between
that GFL converters achieve their purposes of power injection
GFM and GFL converters is related to their synchronization
or voltage regulation by controlling the injected currents,
processes. A simplified representation of the working princi-
while the GFM converter regulates the power by controlling
ples of the two examined converter types is reported in Fig. 3.
directly the voltage at its output terminals. Additionally, the
It highlights the fact that, while a GFL converter requires
GFM converter under no-load conditions provides a reference
a dedicated unit in order to identify the grid voltage angle
voltage for the loads and the other units operating nearby,
and calculate a proper phase shift of the converter currents
while the GFL converter necessarily requires a reference angle
to inject the defined amount of active and reactive power,
for the current injection.
some of the GFM implementations proposed in the literature
In spite of different working principles, under steady-state are able to self-synchronize to the grid without the need of a
operation, both GFM and GFL converters control active and dedicated unit, but rather by emulating the power synchroniza-
reactive power injection into the grid according to the actual tion principle of a real SM [10]. To this extent, recent works
operating condition, while respecting the internal physical have shown the negative effects of synchronization units, often
voltage and current limitations of the converter. Furthermore, implemented by means of phase-locked loops (PLLs), on the
both types of converters can achieve regulation of voltage and small-signal stability of grid-connected converters [22]-[25].
frequency at the connection point by means of additional outer These studies demonstrate that, not only the stability margin
loops, modifying actual active and reactive power setpoints, as of the single converter is reduced when other GFL converters
usually required by grid codes [2], [20]. Nevertheless, the main operate in proximity to it, but additionally the interactions
differences among the two types of converters can be identified among the synchronization units of the converters operating
in the reaction to a grid event, and their small-signal behaviour nearby become stronger when decreasing the grid short-circuit
under weak as well as stiff grid conditions. ratio (SCR). In contrast to GFL converters, it has been shown
Regarding the first aspect, Fig. 2 graphically explains the in [26] and [27] that, due to their intrinsic behavior of a voltage
different reactions of the two different types of converters to source behind impedance, along with their ability of self-
a grid event. Because of its inherent current source behavior, synchronization, GFM converters are instead suitable for weak
the instantaneous reaction of the GFL converter is to maintain grid applications. On the contrary, they result to be more prone
the current phasor Ig constant in terms of magnitude and to instability under stiff grid operating conditions compared to
phase, causing therefore an inevitable variation of the converter their counterpart GFL converters [28], [29], an aspect that will
voltage phasor Vc , due to the fact that the detection of the be further discussed in Section IV-A.
new phase angle of the phasor Vg is first needed in order
to calculate the new current setpoint. Fig. 2 (b) describes the
reaction of a GFM converter to the same event. According to III. G ENERAL STRUCTURE OF GFM CONTROL
ALGORITHMS
its intrinsic behavior of a voltage source behind impedance,
the internal voltage phasor E of the converter is initially not In this section, an overview of the control structures of GFM
affected by the perturbation, causing an almost instantaneous converters is provided. Analyzing the GFM implementations
variation of the phasor Ig . Whilst this prompt reaction is surely presented in [6]-[19], a general formulation is first presented
superior to the one of a GFL unit, and it is thus highly by identifying the main subsystems composing the control
attractive for system operators (SOs) [21], depending on the structure, along with their main functionalities. Subsequently,
magnitude of the perturbation and on the characteristics of different implementations of each of the outlined subsystems
the system, this behavior might cause a rapid growth of the are examined.

Outer loop
Power synchronization loop
𝑃∗
Inner loop
𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑓 Frequency loop
𝜔
∗ 𝜗
𝑄 Converter
PCC
Grid
Angle loop 𝐸𝑝

generation
Filter
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑒′

PWM
Calculation
modulation
Voltage profile management signal
𝑣 𝑃 Voltage
P, Q, and V 𝑄 amplitude
𝑖𝑔 calculation
𝑖
calculation 𝑉
𝑖𝑔
𝑖 𝑣

Figure 4: Generalized control structure of a GFM converter.

Fig. 4 shows the generalized control structure proposed in additional unit for synchronization purposes is not required
this paper. The measured three-phase converter currents, along during normal operation.
with the currents and the voltages at the point of connection • Power synchronization control (PSC)
(PCC), indicated with i, ig , and v, respectively, are among the
control inputs of the converter. Further control inputs are the While the droop regulator is a well-established technique
reference active power setpoint P∗ , the reactive power setpoint for microgrid applications, the power synchronization con-
Q∗ , the reference frequency ωre f , and the reference voltage trol (PSC) proposed by Zhang et al. and presented in [10],
Vre f . Two control loops are identified in the figure, and namely represents the first control structure for grid-connected con-
an outer control loop calculating the angle ϑ, the frequency verters presented in the literature, overcoming the need for a
ω, and the amplitude E p of the inner virtual voltage source, dedicated synchronization unit. Initially proposed for HVDC
and an inner current control loop, which instead includes applications, it has been developed in order to cope with the
all the further control actions that might take place in order limitations of conventional vector controlled voltage source
0
to produce a proper modulation signal e needed for PWM. converters (VSCs) operating under weak grid conditions. Syn-
In the following, different implementations for each of the chronization is achieved by emulating the power synchroniza-
subsystems composing the generalized control structure shown tion mechanism of a SM, thus by means of transient power
in Fig. 4 are discussed. transfer, and its control structure is depicted depicted in Fig. 5
(b). The subsystem is described by the following equation:
A. Outer loop - power synchronization loop 1
ki (P∗ − P) + ϑre f

ϑ= (2)
s
The power synchronization loop depicted in Fig. 4, contains
where ki is a control parameter and ϑre f is obtained by
two subsystems indicated as frequency loop and angle loop,
integrating the reference signal ωre f . Nevertheless, although
and respectively in charge of the calculation of the frequency
a dedicated synchronization unit is not necessary for normal
ω and the angle ϑ of the virtual inner voltage source. The
operation, a back-up PLL is employed for pre-synchronization
interconnections between the two subsystems are not explicitly
purposes, as well as for operation during grid faults [10].
indicated in the figure, since these may differ according to the
considered approach. • Enhanced direct power control (EDPC)
• Droop control A similar structure as the one of the PSC can be found
in [11], [12], and is shown in Fig. 5 (c). This has been
The simplest implementation of this subsystem is repre-
labeled as enhanced direct power control (EDPC) and, in
sented by the droop regulator depicted in Fig. 5 (a) [2], [6],
order to avoid switching form self-synchronization mode to
[7], [9], whose mathematical expression is reported below:
PLL-mode during grid faults, the use of a PLL is foreseen
also during normal operation. Indeed, the output frequency is
ω = ωre f + D f (P∗ − P) (1) continuously provided by the PLL, whereas the angle ϑ is
with D f indicating the droop coefficient, and representing calculated according to the following equation:
the variation of the converter frequency according to the
1

1

∗
difference between active power setpoint P∗ and the measured

ϑ = P −P+ ωre f − ωPLL G 1 + + ϑPLL (3)
Rd Js
instantaneous power P. Then, the corresponding angle ϑ is
obtained by integrating eq. (1). Though its simple structure, where a PI controller with gain G and time constant J is
the droop control structure is very effective, and the use of an implemented. The parameter Rd represents the inverse of a

D f is the mechanical friction, Te is the electrical torque, and

𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑓 Tm is the mechanical one. This is the case of [8], [9], [14]-
[18], and two of the most representative examples are reported
𝑃∗ + 𝜔 1 𝜗
+ 𝑠 in Fig. 5 (d) and (e).
𝑃 𝑃𝑓 +
Filter - 𝐷𝑓
• Synchronverter
(a)
The structure reported in Fig. 5 (d) is the synchronization
loop of the VSM implementation known as synchronverter and
Fault
detector presented in [13], [14]. It became very popular during the last
𝜗𝑃𝐿𝐿 decade, due to the fact that it can completely overcome the
𝑣
PLL 𝜔𝑃𝐿𝐿
𝜔 1 𝜗𝑟𝑒𝑓 need for a synchronization unit both for pre-synchronization
𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑠
𝜗 purposes, as well as and during normal operation. A sequence
𝑃∗ 𝑘𝑖 𝛥𝝑
+
- 𝑠
+
+
of switching actions is presented in [14], which, emulates
𝑃 the synchronization process of a real SM. Nevertheless, it is
(b) interesting to notice that the proposed synchronization process
resembles the one of a standard PLL, as it has been mathemat-
𝑃∗ ically demonstrated in [31]. The constant D f indicated in the
𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑃 - ++ 𝐺 1+
1
++
𝜗 figure, not only represents the virtual damping factor of the
𝐽𝑠
𝑣
PLL
𝜔𝑃𝐿𝐿
-+
1 control, but it also determines the steady-state droop behavior
𝑅𝑑
𝜔 1 𝜗𝑃𝐿𝐿 of the control. In order to compensate for the lack of this
𝑠 additional degree of freedom, modifications to the original
(c) synchronverter control structures have been proposed in the
literature, so as to improve the dynamic response of the control
𝑃𝐼𝑝 𝑂𝑁
𝑂𝐹𝐹
while maintaining the same steady-state droop behavior [32].
The dashed branch in the figure, is introduced so as to activate
+
𝐷𝑝 + or deactivate the droop control action of the converter, whose
𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑓
-+ effects are canceled out by means of a PI controller. The
𝑃∗ +
1
+
- 1 𝜔 1 𝜗 expression of the angle ϑ calculated by the synchronverter,
-
𝜔𝑛 𝐽𝑠 𝑠
𝑃 and including the dynamic of the PI control, is reported below:

(d)
 Dp 
∗
1
1  P − P Jωn

J 1+D p PI p (s)
ϑ=  + ωre f (5)

s s+ D p Dp 
𝑃∗ 𝜔𝑔 𝜉
s+
J 1+D p PI p (s) J 1+D p PI p (s)
𝑃 + 1 𝐽𝜔𝑔 𝜔 1 𝜗
- +
𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑠 + 2𝜉 𝐾𝑝 𝐽𝜔𝑔 + 𝑠 where PI p (s) indicates the transfer function of the PI control
𝜔𝑃𝐿𝐿 resulting from the chosen proportional and integral gain.
𝑣 -+ 𝐷𝑓
PLL
• Synchronous power control (SPC)
(e)
Finally, Fig. 5 (e) shows the power synchronization loop of
the synchronous power control (SPC) presented in [15]-[16].
Figure 5: Power synchronization loop comparison: (a) fre- A second-order transfer function is implemented in the inner
quency droop control [2], [6]-[7], (b) power synchronization frequency loop, acting on the deviation between power setpoint
control (PSC) [10], (c) enhanced direct power control (EDPC) P∗ and measured power P. An additional frequency droop loop
[11], (d) synchronverter [13]-[14], (e) synchronous power is also implemented, which modifies the active power setpoint
control (SPC) [15], [16]. according to the instantaneous deviation between ωre f and
the measured grid frequency ω, which can be for example
frequency droop factor, whereas the time constant J acts as estimated by means of a PLL. The expression of the angle ϑ
an additional degree of freedom for shaping the response of calculated by the SPC is reported below:
the converter according to a frequency variation, and provide  
∗ −P 1

a similar behavior as the one of a synchronous machine [11]. 1 P Jω
To this extent, the power synchronization loop of virtual ϑ=  q g + ωre f  (6)
s s + 2ζ Kp
synchronous machines (VSMs) is explicitly implemented so as Jωg
to emulate the swing equation of a real SM, reported below
where J is the virtual moment of inertia, ζ is a damping
for simplicity [30]:
factor, and K p represents the steady-state value of the transfer
function between a variation of the converter angle ∆ϑ and
J ω̇ = Tm − Te − D f ω (4) the injected converter power ∆P.
• Considerations about the examined structures
with J representing the moment of inertia, ω is the rotor speed,

Similarities among some of the structures examined above 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

can be outlined. Apart from the possibility of obtaining an
𝑄∗ + 𝐸𝑝
estimation of the grid frequency in the droop control according +
𝑄 𝑄𝑓
to eq. (1), and neglecting first the filtering of the measured Filter -+ 𝐷𝑞
power, the droop control of Fig. 5 (a) results to be identical
to the PSC shown in Fig. 5 (b). Indeed, assuming D f = ki , the (a)

following equation is valid for both schemes:

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐸𝑝
1 𝑃𝐼𝑣
D f P∗ − P + ωre f .
+

ϑ= (7) -
𝑉
s
The VSM with zero inertia constant (VSM0H) presented (b)
in [17]-[19] has basically the same control structure shown in
Fig. 5 (a), where additionally the measured converter power P 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
is processed by a boxcar filter with one cycle time constant.
𝑄∗ 𝛥𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 + 𝐸𝑝
To this extent, it has been mathematically demonstrated in +
-
𝑃𝐼𝑞 +
𝑄
[9], that by properly filtering the measured converter power,
the same inertial response of a VSM can be achieved with a (c)
droop controller.
Finally, the equivalence of the two synchronization loops of 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓
the VSM structures shown in Fig. 5 (d) and (e) has been proven 𝑄∗ ∗
+ 𝑃𝐼𝑞 + 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝐾𝐸 𝐸𝑝
in [33]. Indeed, by differentiating eq. (4) with respect to the - + +
- 1 + 𝑇𝐸 𝑠
𝑄
power difference Pdi f f = P∗ − P, yields for the synchronverter:
𝑉
" 1 #
∂ϑ 1 Jωn (d)
= . (8)
∂Pdi f f s s + Dp
J 𝑄∗
A similar calculation applied to eq. (6), gives the following 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 + 𝑄
∗∗ 𝐸𝑝
+ 𝐷𝑞 + + 𝑃𝐼𝑞
result for the SPC: - -
𝑉
𝑄
 
1
∂ϑ 1 Jωg
= q . (9) (e)
∂Pdi f f s s + 2ζ Kp
Jωg 𝜔
𝑄∗ (from synchronization loop)
As a consequence, the two expressions become equivalent
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 + 𝑄 ∗∗ 𝑀𝑓 𝑖𝑓 𝐸𝑝
when the control parameters of the two VSM implementations +
- 𝐷𝑞 + +
-
𝑃𝐼𝑞
are chosen as follows: 𝑉
𝑄
s
Dp Kp
Jωn = Jωg ; = 2ζ . (10) (f)
J Jωg
Figure 6: Different implementations of the voltage profile
B. Outer loop - voltage profile management
management loop: (a) droop control [1], [2], [7], [9], [18]; (b)
Several implementations of the synchronization loop of PI-based voltage control for SPC [35]; (c) PI-based reactive
a GFM converter have been discussed above, showing a power control for SPC [15], [16]; (d) cascaded structure with
relatively wide variety of possible choices. Regarding the PI control in the first stage and droop in the second stage [10];
subsystem in charge of the voltage regulation, the commonly (e)-(f) cascaded structure with droop in the first stage and PI
adopted solutions can be summarized in three main categories: control in the second stage [11]-[14].
droop control, PI-based control, and cascaded controls in-
volving droop and PI regulators. The considered schemes are Subsequently, this quantity is added to the reference voltage
shown in Fig. 6, and discussed in the following. Vre f , in order to calculate the amplitude of the inner voltage
• Droop control E p of the GFM converter, thus the equation describing the
The first examined implementation is the droop control implementation shown in Fig. 6 (a), is given below:
reported in Fig. 6 (a), which is usually adopted in combination
E p = Vre f + Dq Q∗ − Q f .

with droop controllers in the synchronization loop [1], [2], [7], (11)
[9], [18]. In analogy to the droop structure shown in Fig. 5
(a), the filtering of the measured reactive power is explicitly • PI-based controllers
introduced in the figure, as also indicated in [7]. The difference The two schemes reported in Fig. 6 (b) and (c), represent
between the reactive power setpoint Q∗ and the filtered mea- PI-based solutions, which have been proposed for the imple-
sured power Q f is processed through a proportional gain Dq . mentation of the voltage profile management subsystem of the

SPC. In the first case, a PI controller with transfer function PIv 𝜗

regulates the amplitude of the measured voltage V at the PCC 𝑒′
𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑝 𝑒 𝑗 𝜗
to the reference value Vre f , and has been presented in [35],
for the implementation of a VSM-based Static Synchronous
Compensator (STATCOM). In the second case, a PI controller (a)
with transfer function PIq is implemented in order to regulate
the reactive power Q to the setpoint Q∗ , where, additionally,
a feedforward of the reference voltage Vre f is included [15], 𝜗
𝑗𝜗 𝑒′
[16]. The equations describing the two structures are reported 𝐸𝑝 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑒
+
- I
below:
𝑉
(
E p (s) = PIv (s) Vre f −V (Fig. 6(b)) (b)
∗
.
E p (s) = PIq (s) Q − Q +Vre f (Fig. 6(c))
(12) 𝜗
𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑒′
𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑝 𝑒 𝑗 𝜗 +
- IR ++
• Cascaded controllers
𝑣 LPF
The schemes shown in Fig. 6 (d) and (e), represent two
cascaded structures involving droop and PI controllers. The (c)
first implementation is the one adopted in the PSC [10],
and consists of a PI controller in the outer stage, processing
the reactive power difference, and an Alternating Voltage 𝜗
Controller (AVC) with a droop characteristic in the inner stage. 𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑒′
𝐸𝑝 𝐸𝑝 𝑒 𝑗 𝜗 +
- PR or Yv +
- PR ++
The second implementation is instead widely adopted in the
GFM literature [11]-[14], and consists of a droop controller 𝑣
in the first stage reacting to the voltage deviation, followed
i
by a PI control in the second stage, the latter regulating the
reactive power of the converter to the modified reactive power (d)

setpoint indicated in the figure with Q∗∗ , which is calculated

by adding to the signal Q∗ the output of the droop regulator.
𝑖𝑔
The expressions describing the two formulations are reported Zv
below: 𝜗
𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑓 - 𝑒′
K 𝐸𝑝 𝑒 𝑗 𝜗 +
-
PR + PR ++
E p (s) = PIq (s) Q∗ − Q +Vre f −V 1+T
( - -
E
(Fig. 6(d)) 𝐸𝑝
Es
∗
. 𝑣
E p (s) = Dq Vre f −V + Q − Q PIq (s) (Fig. 6(e))
(13) i

In the specific case of the synchronverter, the structure is (e)

shown in Fig. 6 (f). Though conceptually similar to the one of
Fig. 6 (e), the output of the PI controller represents a virtual Figure 7: Block diagrams of voltage control loop for calculat-
mutual flux, indicated with M f i f . Hence, according to the ing the modulation signals. (a) Direct voltage synthesis [36],
scheme of Fig. 6 (f), E p is calculated as [13], [14]: (b) voltage magnitude control [37], (c) single-loop voltage
vector control [38], (d) dual-loop voltage vector control [42],
E p (s) = Dq Vre f −V + Q∗ − Q PIq (s) ω

(14) (e) multi-loop voltage vector control with virtual impedance
[47], [48].

with ω the frequency calculated in the synchronization loop. the capability of disturbance rejection needs to be further
evaluated.
C. Inner loop - Calculation of the modulation signal An alternative method is to regulate the voltage amplitude
with an integral (I) regulator, as shown in Fig. 7 (b), where the
A wide range of voltage control schemes have been de- voltage amplitude at the fundamental frequency is well regu-
veloped for regulating the output voltage of GFM converters lated, yet the voltage waveform quality is still not guaranteed
[36]-[46]. [37].
• Direct voltage synthesis and voltage magnitude control • Voltage vector control
The simplest approach is to directly feed the voltage magni- To regulate the output voltage waveform with high quality,
tude reference and phase angle, which are generated from the the vector-voltage control can be implemented in a GFM
outer control loops, to the modulation, as shown in Fig. 7 (a) converter, either with the single-loop or the multi-loop control
[36]. There is no specific voltage feedback loop, and hence structure. Fig. 7 (c) illustrates an example of single loop con-

Zo, without
Zo, without VFD
VFD Zo, with
Zo, with VFD
VFD is generally tuned with a low gain in order not to affect the
60
damping effect of the P controller at the LC-filter resonance

(dB)
40
frequency [42]. However, due to the time delay, a frequency-
Magnitude (dB)
Magnitude
20
dependent virtual impedance, instead of a pure resistance, is
0
added by the P current controller, and consequently, the control
-20
90 bandwidth of the outer voltage loop is still constrained [43].
45 Moreover, the control output impedance of the voltage loop
(deg)
Phase (deg)

0
exhibits a negative real part in the high-frequency range, which
Phase

-45

-90
may destabilize the grid with high-frequency oscillations.
-135
R R To enhance the performance of the dual-loop voltage con-
10 1 10 2 10 3 104
Frequency
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
(Hz) trol, the capacitor voltage is also fed back to the output of
(a) the inner current controller, known as the voltage feedback
decoupling (VFD), which exhibits the higher control band-
width and low frequency region of negative real part in the
output impedance [44]. Fig. 8 (a) compares the inverter output
impedance of the dual-loop voltage control without or with the
VFD, which results in different stability under the same grid
condition. This is demonstrated by means of the experimental
results for the two examined cases reported in Fig. 8 (b) and
(c) [38], [39], where single-phase converter currents before
and after the capacitor filter are shown, indicated respectively
(b) with i1a and i2a , along with the capacitor voltage va , and the
grid voltage vga .
• Multiloop vector control with virtual impedance implemen-
tation
Alternatively, the outer voltage controller can also be re-
placed by a virtual admittance [45], where the virtual ad-
mittance is designed as a first-order LPF. Instead of tracking
the voltage reference with zero error, the virtual admittance
provides more flexibility on shaping the output impedance of
inverter [46].
(c)
Fig. 7 (e) illustrates the block diagram of the multi-loop
Figure 8: (a) Output impedances of dual-loop control without vector-voltage control, where the grid current feed-forward
or with voltage feedback decoupling (VFD). Stability results loop is added in the dual-loop voltage and current control.
for the GFM converter with dual-loop voltage control under The grid current feed-forward loop can be added at either the
same grid condition: (b) without VFD, (c) with VFD [38]. output or the input of the voltage regulator. With the different
controllers, the grid current feed-forward loop can be used to
synthesize various virtual impedances for the enhanced power
trol diagram. The I + R (IR) controller is implemented in the
control, active filtering, overcurrent limiting, etc. [47], [48].
αβ-frame [38], where the I controller is used for the additional
90o phase lag at high frequencies, and a high loop gain in the
low-frequency range, while the R controller is designed for a D. Virtual Oscillator Control (VOC)
zero steady-state tracking error at the fundamental frequency Among the GFM implementations proposed in the literature,
[40], [41]. Moreover, to further wide the stability region of the the concept of Virtual Oscillator Controls (VOCs) has gained
PR-I (or R) control, a two-degree-of-freedom control scheme interest in the last years within the research community.
is developed, indicated by the dashed line, and implemented Based on a different working principle compared to the other
by introducing a first-order low-pass filter (LPF) [41]. synchronization strategies already examined in this section,
it is discussed separately hereafter. Nevertheless, analogies
A major drawback of the single-loop voltage control is the to the structures previously examined are highlighted in the
lack of current controllability, which may cause the overcur- following, so that its implementation can still be subordinated
rent tripping of the converter during grid faults. Hence, the to the the generalized structure presented in Fig. 4.
dual-loop voltage and current control scheme is commonly A VOC is a nonlinear control strategy, which makes a
used, as shown in Fig. 7 (d). It is composed by the inner filter converter reproducing the dynamic of a weakly nonlinear
inductor current control loop and the outer filter capacitor volt- limit-cycle oscillator. One of the most appealing character-
age control loop. The current loop serves two main purposes: istics related to this technique, is that it allows converters to
1) active damping of LC-filter resonance with the P controller, synchronize with each other starting from an arbitrary initial
and 2) the prevention of overcurrent tripping with the I conditions, without the need for any communication mean.
controller. Moreover, in the inner current loop, the I controller An implementation for a single-phase converter in a microgrid

Virtual oscillator model


𝑖𝐿 +  L didtL = vc
𝛼𝑣 3 (15)
𝑣 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶 𝑣𝑐  C dv 3
dt = σvc − αvc − iL − ki i
c

−
where the value of the resistance shown in the figure is
𝑒′
R = − σ1 , while kv and ki are scaling factors for voltage
𝑖 𝑘𝑣
𝑘𝑖 and current, respectively. Hence, the modulation signal e0
(a)
is directly calculated from the output capacitor voltage vc
Virtual oscillator model properly scaled by a factor kv . Thus, adopting the notation
𝑖𝐿 +
of Fig. 4, the following can be written [51]:
𝛼𝑣 3
𝑣 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶 𝑣𝑐 e0 = kv vc (t) = E p cos (ϑ) = E p cos (ωre f t + ∆ϑ). (16)
−
Defining the following quantities:
r
𝑖 𝑘𝑖 𝑘𝑣 𝛼𝛽
𝑒′ L 3α β 1
ε := , β := 2 , g(y) := y − y3 , ωre f := √ ,
ϵ𝑘𝑣 abc C kv σ 3 LC
(b) (17)
Virtual oscillator model
the oscillator dynamic is described by the following equations:
𝑖𝐿 + 
𝛼𝑣 3

𝑣 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶 𝑣𝑐



 Ė p = ωre f ε σ g E p cos(ωre f t + ∆ϑ) − kv ki i


− 
 ×cos(ωre f t + ∆ϑ)
(18)
˙ ωre f ε
= − g E cos(ω t + − k k i

abc
𝑘𝑣 𝛼𝛽
 ∆ϑ Ep σ p re f ∆ϑ) v i
𝑖 𝑒′


𝐾 ∠ϕ 𝑘𝑖 

ϵ𝑘𝑣 ×sin(ωre f t + ∆ϑ)

𝛼𝛽 abc

𝐾 ∠ϕ
𝑃∗
𝑃
𝑄∗
Power Though it can be demonstrated that by properly choosing
controller
𝑄 control parameters of a VOC this can behave as a classical
(c) droop controller [50], one of the claimed advantages of a
Virtual oscillator model VOC lies on the fact that its working principle is based
on instantaneous time-domain signals, rather than phasorial
𝑖𝐿 +
𝐿
electrical quantities. Hence, superior performances of VOCs
𝑖𝑚 − 𝑣𝑚 compared to classical droop controllers are expected. To this
𝛼𝑣 3
𝑣
+ 𝐶 𝑣𝑐 extent, the work presented in [51] compares the behaviour
+ of droop controllers and a VOC for a three-phase converter
−
− in a micorgrid application. The considered control scheme
is reported in Fig. 9 (b), which is identical to the scheme
𝑢1 𝑢2
abc 𝛼𝛽
reported in Fig. 9 (a), with the only difference that the
𝑖 𝑘𝑖 𝑘𝑣 𝑒′
+
−
𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ −𝑠𝑖𝑛ϕ
𝑠𝑖𝑛ϕ 𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ
two signals kv vc , along with εkv iL are employed as the αβ
ϵ𝑘𝑖 ϵ𝑘𝑣
𝛼𝛽 ∗
𝑖𝛼𝛽
abc components of the modulation signal e0 . The results presented
𝑃 ∗ in [51], demonstrate a better dynamic behaviour of the VOC
𝑄∗ 𝛤 compared to a droop control when the frequency regulation
(d) range is higher than a certain threshold, however resulting in
an opposite trend for a small frequency regulation range.
Figure 9: (a) VOC based on a Van der Pol oscillator for a It is worth mentioning, that the VOC scheme proposed
single-phase converter [49], [50], (b) VOC based on a Van in [49]-[51] does not allow regulation of active and reactive
der Pol oscillator for a three-phase converter [51], (c) VOC power, becoming therefore not suitable for grid-connected
based on a a Van der Pol oscillator with regulation of active applications. Thus, modifications to the original VOC based
and reactive power [54], (d) VOC based on a Andronov-Hopf on the Van der Pol oscillator have been presented in [52] and
oscillator with regulation of active and reactive power [55]. [53], where a dispatchable VOC (dVOC) has been proposed,
as well as in [54], where the control of active and reactive
application has been presented in [49], and [50]. Its structure power is achieved by means of the control scheme shown
is shown in Fig. 9 (a), and is succinctly discussed in the in Fig. 9 (c). In the latter, a multiplication of the measured
following. The employed oscillator model is the so-called Van converter currents i with a complex factor K = |K|∠φ permits
der Pol oscillator, whose equations for the inductor current iL the modification of the magnitude and the phase of the input
and the capacitor voltage are given below [49]: current of the virtual oscillator, while the quantities |K| and
φ are calculated by means of a power control loop, so as to

enable the regulation of the converter output power to the given

setpoint. 𝜔𝑟𝑒𝑓
Finally, Fig. 9 (d) shows the control scheme proposed in 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝜔 1 𝜗
(𝑒𝑞. 𝛥𝜗) +
+

[55], which emulates the dynamic of so-called Andronov-Hopf 𝑃∗ 𝑠

systems. The considered virtual oscillator model is described 𝑃 𝑒′

𝐸𝑝 𝑒 𝑗 𝜗
by the following equations [55]: 𝑄∗
1 𝐸𝑝
𝑄 (𝑒𝑞. 𝐸𝑝 )
 𝑠
 L didtL = vc + vm − εu2 𝑖
(19)
 C dvdt = −iL + im − u1
c

Figure 10: General VOC structure.

where vm and im are:
 IV. O PEN ISSUES AND FUTURE TRENDS
ξ Vre f 2 2 In this section, open issues related to the implementation
 vm = ωre f 2 kv ) − kxk

 εiL
. (20) of GFM converters are discussed, providing a comprehensive
ξ Vre f 2 2 v overview on the solutions proposed in the literature.
 im = εωre f 2 ) − kxk

c

kv

In (20), Vre f is indicated in terms of its RMS value, ξ is A. Synchronization stability

a constant affecting the convergence speed to steady-state, Keeping synchronism with the power network is essential
and kxk represents the euclidean norm of the state vector to grid-connected converters. It has been observed that the use
x = [vc εiL ]T . The dynamic of the output voltage vector of a PLL with current control may reduce the stability margin
vαβ = kv [vc εiL ] is given by: of GFL converters in very low SCR grids [22], [25], [56].
ξ  " # This is because the converter tends to synchronize with the

kv2
(2Vre2 f − kvαβ k) − ωre f vα PCC voltage, which is highly affected by its output current in
v̇α
=  + low SCR grids (see Fig. 1 (a) for a better illustration). This
v̇β ωre f ξ
(2V 2 − kv k) vβ
2
kv re f αβ synchronization process introduces a negative damping to the
∗ grid [56].
" #" #
kv ki cos(φ) − sin(φ) iα − iα
− (21) In contrast, GFM converters synchronize with the grid based
C sin(φ) cos(φ) iβ − i∗β on their output active power, which is similarly to synchronous
where, similarly as done in [54], φ represents a parameter generators (SGs), as already discussed in the previous section.
producing a phase shift of the input signals to the virtual Differing from the PLL, this power-based synchronization,
oscillator in order to affect active and reactive power injection. together with the PCC voltage control, allows the GFM con-
The current setpoints i∗α and i∗β are instead calculated as: verters to keep synchronism in low SCR grids [10]. However,
in stiff grids with high SCRs, GFM converters tend to lose
P∗ synchronism with the grid, since the slight change of the phase
∗ " # " # " ∗#
iα 2 vα vβ P
= Γ = . (22) difference between the converter and grid voltages can lead
i∗β Q ∗ 2
3kvαβ k v − v Q∗β α to large active power variations [28], [29]. A more robust
According to this implementation, and considering the no- damping control is thus demanded for converters operating
tation adopted in (18), the dynamical model for E p and the in a wide range of SCR conditions [57].
phase angle ∆ϑ results: Besides the small-signal dynamic impact of synchronization
 control, the transient stability of GFM converters, i.e. the
Ė p = kξ2 E p 2Vre2 f − E p2 +

 ability of converters to keep synchronism under large system
v

disturbances, has also attracted increasing attention [58]-[65].

− k3C
v ki 2 ∗ ∗

E p sin(φ)(Q − Q ) + cos(φ)(P − P )
The droop-based power synchronization control (PSC-VSC)
˙ = − kv ki 22 sin(φ)(P − P∗ ) + cos(φ)(Q − Q∗ )


 ∆ϑ
3C E p introduced in [10], exhibits a superior transient stability per-
(23) formance, due to its first-order nonlinear dynamic behavior
[62]. With this control method, the system can be kept stable
revealing how the choice of the parameter φ can affect the whenever there are equilibrium points after the disturbance.
relation between P and Q versus ω and E p . Furthermore, when there are no equilibrium points, e.g. during
Without loss of generality, the control structure of a VOC severe grid faults, the critical fault clearing time (CCT) can be
can be mapped in the form proposed in Fig. 4, as indicated explicitly calculated. Yet, the power synchronization control
in Fig. 10. In fact, independently on the considered VOC with the virtual inertia exhibits a second-order nonlinear
implementation among those examined in this section, the dynamic behavior, and consequently, its transient stability is
equations of the VOC are represented by a set of two non- similar to the power-swing dynamic of SGs [60]. It is worth
linear differential equations for E p and ∆θ, as it is the case mentioning that the overcurrent limiter of GFM converters may
of the Van der Pol-type oscillator investigated in [49]-[51] be triggered during severe grid faults, and the fault current
(eq. (18)), or the Andronov-Hopf-based structure issued in [55] of converters is usually controlled by the inner current loop,
(eq. (23)). which is synchronized by the PLL [10]. The PLL thus becomes

the phasor model for GFM converter [67] for analyzing the
synchronization stability. A more comprehensive analysis on
the effect of inner loop can be found in [68].
Finally, [70] investigates the transient stability behaviour of
a dVOC implemented by means of the Hopf-based oscillator
reported in Fig. 9 (d), and compares it against the behaviour
of a conventional droop control implemented by means of the
scheme of Fig. 5 (a), whose filter time constant has been
chosen so as to reproduce a certain inertial behaviour. The
results reported in the paper, emphasize the advantages of the
(a) overdamped response of the dVOC which, in contrast to the
droop control with inertial behaviour, is able to re-synchronize
after fault clearance even if the clearing time is beyond the
CCT, leading to similar conclusions as in [62], for the case of
a PSC-VSC.

B. Current limitation and fault-ride through (FRT)

It has been highlighted in Section II that, due to the intrinsic

behavior of a voltage source behind impedance, the occur-
rence of grid faults might easily provoke unwanted converter
overcurrents in a GFM converter, with consequent risks for
(b)
hardware damages. The easiest solution in order to overcome
Figure 11: Experimental results of the dynamic responses this critical operating condition in a GFM converter, is to
of the VSC with power synchronization control during large switch to a vector controlled mode at the occurrence of a
transient disturbances. (a) With equilibrium points. (b) Without fault, as proposed in [10]-[11].
equilibrium points, and the fault clearing time > CCT [62]. Contrary to standard current limitation techniques originally
adopted for GFM converters in stand-alone applications, and
critical for the transient stability in such a scenario [63]. The achieved mainly by means of saturating the PI controllers of
commonly used dq-frame PLL is basically a second-order non- the cascaded control loops [71]-[73], it has been demonstrated
linear system [64], whose transient stability impact has been that virtual impedances represent an effective alternative for
found similar to the power-swing dynamic of synchronous ensuring converter stability and avoiding classical phenomena
generators [65]. Thus, a design-oriented analysis is performed of ”wind-up” or ”latch up” [74]. In fact, although limiting
to improve the transient stability of GFM converters during the converter currents due to overload conditions or grid
severe grid faults [63]. faults might seem relatively simple, ensuring the stability of a
As an example, Fig. 11 (a) shows the experimental results of GFM converter under such operating conditions could instead
the dynamic responses of the PSC-VSC during large transient become challenging, especially when operating in parallel to
disturbances [62], where its overdamped response can be standard SMs [75]. The virtual impedance concept consists of
clearly observed. Thus, the transient instability does not occur limiting the converter reference voltage according to fictitious
for the PSC-VSC as long as it has equilibrium points after variable impedance, in order to avoid the generation of ex-
the disturbance. Moreover, for the severe faults without any cessively high current reference signals for the inner current
equilibrium points, the PSC-VSC is able to automatically re- control loop, or simply limiting the magnitude of the reference
synchronize with the power grid after around one cycle of voltage when a GFM control structure without an inner current
oscillation, even if the fault clearing time is beyond the CCT, control loop is implemented [13], [14], [76].
as shown in Fig. 11 (b), hence reducing the risk of system Investigations of FRT strategies for VSMs have been mainly
collapse caused by the delayed fault clearance. concerning the synchronverter control structure [77], [78]. To
In addition, the inner control loop may also interact with this extent, [79] proposes the modification of the standard
the outer control loop, affecting the synchronization stability synchronverter control structure by adding a cascaded inner
of GFM converters [66]-[69]. This is mainly because the current reference generator and an inner PI-based current
timescale of inner control loop may be coupled with that of control loop, in order to calculate proper converter currents
outer power and synchronization control loop, depending on out of the reference voltage signal during both normal condi-
either the grid strength [66], [67] or the used inner loop control tions, as well as during balanced and unbalanced grid faults,
method [68], [69]. It has been shown in [69] that the single- according to the strategies proposed in [80]. Nevertheless, such
loop voltage magnitude control, as shown in Fig. 7(b), leads solution does not allow fully exploiting the potentials of GFM
to a dynamic coupling with the outer power control, and such converters during fault, which due to their emulated behaviour
coupling can enhance the synchronization stability of GFM of voltage source behind impedance, are able of inherently
converters. Hence, the effect of inner control loop needs to be injecting fault currents into the grid, without the need for an
examined before directly treating it as a unity gain, i.e., using estimation of the type and magnitude of the fault.

Symmetrical fault Asymmetrical fault

1 va 1 va
Voltages [pu]

Voltages [pu]
0.5 vb 0.5 vb
vc vc
0 0

-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1
0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04
Time [s] Time [s]
(a) (a)

1 i ga 1 i ga
Currents [pu]

Currents [pu]
i gb i gb
0.5 0.5
i gc i gc
0 I MAX 0 I MAX

-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1
0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04
Time [s] Time [s]
(b) (b)

5 ms 5 ms
0.8 0.8
Power [pu]

Power [pu]
0.6 0.6
0.4 Active Power (P) 0.4 Active Power (P)
Reactive Power (Q) Reactive Power (Q)
0.2 0.2
0 0
-0.2 -0.2
0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04
Time [s] Time [s]
(c) (c)

Figure 12: Experimental results showing the FRT behaviour Figure 13: Experimental results showing the FRT behaviour
of a GFM converter employing the control strategy proposed of a GFM converter employing the control strategy proposed
in [86]; symmetrical fault: (a) PCC voltages, (b) converter in [86]; asymmetrical fault: (a) PCC voltages, (b) converter
injected currents, (c) active and reactive power. injected currents, (c) active and reactive power.

Recent works have addressed the issues related to the in- draft grid codes for GFM converters elaborated in [87], which
stability of an outer control loop based on the power synchro- explicitly require a response of the converter within 5 ms after
nization mechanism, and caused by the limitation of converter fault occurrence.
currents [81]-[83]. [81] investigates the implementation of a
variable virtual impedance in order to increase the CCT, yet C. Transition between islanded and grid-connected modes
it does not explicitly avoid instability when the the fault is
sustained. The work presented in [82], proposes a proper Transition between islanded and grid-connected operation
current limitation procedure, along with a coordination with modes could involve significant deviations and oscillations due
the outer control loop, in order to prevent from the aforemen- to the potential mismatch in frequency and voltage ampli-
tioned instability phenomena, showing excellent results under tude (islanded mode to grid-connected mode) and non-zero
symmetrical fault conditions. Finally, [83] proposes a current through-power (grid-connected mode to islanded mode) [88]-
limitation strategy based on the limitation of the inner voltage [91]. GFM converters should handle both operation modes
of a GFM converter, in a similar manner as for the case of a and ensure smooth transition between them. Particularly, under
variable virtual impedance, demonstrating the efficacy of the islanded operation mode, GFM converters should be able to
proposed approach also during asymmetrical faults. automatically establish and stabilize system frequency and
Other works have presented strategies in order to directly voltage, while under grid-connected mode, GFM converters
control the converter currents of the converter, yet trying should be controlled to inject specific amount of power in
to ensure a GFM behaviour also during the fault [84]-[86]. response to grid commands. More importantly, during the
These propose different ways for limiting positive and negative operation mode transition, it is necessary to avoid oscillations
sequence current components of the GFM converters for the and instabilities and guarantee system stability in the pre-/post-
inner current control loop, in order to ensure stable operation, transition operation.
while preventing a GFM converter from the risk of hardware In terms of the control approaches, droop control is widely
damages at the occurrence of a fault. adopted as the primary control of GFM converters, while
seamless operation transition can be implemented in the sec-
In Fig. 12 and Fig. 13, experimental results showing the FRT
ondary level [88], [89], [92]. The controller design is presented
behaviour of a GFM converter adopting the control strategy
below:
proposed in [86], are reported, respectively for the case of
a symmetrical and an asymmetrical grid fault. In the two ω = ωre f + m(P − P∗ ) + ∆ω (24)
figures, the reaction of the converter in terms of reactive
power injection is highlighted, showing compliance with the

∆ω̇ = kω (ωre f − ω) + λR kϑ ∆ϑ + λI kP ∆P (26)

∆Ė = (1 − λR )kV (E −Vre f ) + λR kE ∆E + λI kQ ∆Q (27)

where k represents the designed control gains; ∆ϑ and

∆E represent the mismatch of voltage phase and magnitude
across the main breaker during reconnection, and ∆P and ∆Q
represent the through-power at the main breaker during discon-
nection; λR and λI as complementary binary variables indicate
Time (s)
(a) inverter operation mode, respectively, and λR = 1 indicates the
converter is under regulation for seamless reconnection while
λI = 1 represents planned disconnection.
Some simulation results are shown in Fig. 14, for operation
mode transition of GFM converters. As shown in Fig. 14 (a),
GFM converter is initially operated under islanded mode and
requested to reconnect to the main grid at t = t1 . The voltage
phase and magnitude mismatch are eliminated at t = t2 to
perform a seamless reconnection as the main breaker closes.
As shown in Fig. 14 (b), the GFM converters is initially
operated under grid-connected mode and requested to switch
to islanded mode at t = t3 . The through-power (active and
Time (s) reactive power) is minimized at t = t4 to seamlessly island the
(b) system.
It is noteworthy that the seamless transition between grid-
connected and islanded modes of GFM converters can be
Figure 14: Operation mode transition of GFM converters. (a) applied to particular applications in distribution systems and
Phase and voltage amplitude mismatch across the main breaker microgrids when the penetration of power electronics-based
when transitioning from islanded mode to grid-connected resources increases. For example, it can be implemented in
mode. (b) Through-power at the main breaker when transi- dynamic microgrids, which are microgrids with dynamic elec-
tioning from grid-connected mode to islanded mode. tric boundaries residing in distribution systems for enhancing
hosting capacity of power electronics-based resources, as well
Z as grid resiliency [88], [89], [94]. In dynamic microgrids,
E = Vre f − n(Q − Q∗ ) − η kI (Q − Q∗ ) dt + ∆E (25) multiple GFM converters can switch between grid-connected
and islanded operation following the basic GFM control (i.e.,
droop control) and secondary control for additional regulation
where ω and E represent the converter operation frequency and in steady-state and transient process, following the rules in eq.
voltage; ωre f and Vre f represent the rated converter operation (24)-(27).
frequency and voltage; m and n represent the P − f and Q −V
droop gains, respectively; P and Q represent the measured D. Future trends
converter output active and reactve power P∗ and Q∗ represent
the reference output active and reactive power under rated The numerous amount of studies showing the potentials of
operation states; ∆ω and ∆E represent the compensation terms GFM converters and their capability of stabilizing a power
involved by using secondary control; η indicates the converter system with high penetration of power electronics-based gen-
operation mode, with η = 1 representing grid-connected mode, eration [95], have triggered discussions in different countries,
η = 0 representing islanded mode, and kI is the integrator as well as at European level, with SOs about the challenges
control gain. and opportunities presented by the GFM technology. In 2017,
the European Network of Transmission System Operators for
The compensation terms involved by secondary control Electricity (ENTSO-E) established a working group on ”High
are introduced to ensure converter seamless operation mode Penetration of Power Electronic Interfaced Power Sources”
switch. To seamlessly reconnect islanded GFM converters to (EG HPoPEIPS)”, whose members represent the wind, so-
the main grid, voltage phasors on both sides of the main lar, and HVDC industries, power system analysis and tool
breaker need to be synchronized; on the other hand, to seam- providers, consultants, academia, and SOs [96]. The British
lessly disconnect grid-connected GFM converters, through- SO (NGESO) convened an Expert Group on VSM associated
power at the main breaker should be minimized before the with the Grid Code Consultation (GC0100) in early 2018 [87].
system is islanded. These compensation terms are designed At the present stage, the following capabilities of GFM
as: converters are debated [96]: creating system voltage, contribut-

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converters using an enhanced voltage control scheme,” in IEEE Trans. ciate Professor in 2016, a Professor and Leader of
on Power Delivery, vol. 34, no. 5, Oct. 2019. Electronic Power Grid (eGrid) Research Program in 2018. He is also a part-
[85] B. Mahamedi, M. Eskandari, J. E. Fletcher, and J. Zhu, ”Sequence- time Visiting Professor of KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm,
based control strategy with current limiting for the fault ride-through of Sweden, from 2020. His current research interests include dynamic analysis
inverter-interfaced distributed generators,” IEEE Trans on Sustainable and control of power electronic converters and systems, power electronics for
Energy, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 165-174, Jan. 2020. sustainable energy systems and electrical grids, high power converters and
[86] R. Rosso, S. Engelken, and M. Liserre, ”Current limitation strategy multi-converter systems.
for grid-forming converters under symmetrical and asymmetrical grid Dr. Wang serves as a Member-at-Large of Administrative Committee for
faults,” in Proc. of IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition the IEEE Power Electronics Society (PELS) in 2020-2022, a Co-Editor-in-
(ECCE) 2020, Detroit, MI, pp. 3746-3753, 2020. Chief for the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, and
[87] NGESO, ”Expert group - Grid supporting fast fault current and as an Associate Editor for the IEEE JOURNAL OF EMERGING AND
associated control including virtual synchronous machine approaches,” SELECTED TOPICS IN POWER ELECTRONICS. He was selected into
https://www.nationalgrideso.com Aalborg University Strategic Talent Management Program in 2016. He has
[88] Y. Du, X. Lu, J. Wang, and S. Lukic, ”Distributed secondary control received six Prize Paper Awards in the IEEE Transactions and conferences,
strategy for microgrid operation with dynamic boundaries,” IEEE the 2016 Outstanding Reviewer Award of IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 5269-5282, Sept. 2019. POWER ELECTRONICS, the 2018 Richard M. Bass Outstanding Young
[89] Y. Du, X. Lu, J. Wang, and S. Lukic, ”Dynamic microgrids with self- Power Electronics Engineer Award from the IEEE PELS, the 2019 IEEE
organized grid-forming inverters in unbalanced distribution feeders,” PELS Sustainable Energy Systems Technical Achievement Award, the 2020
IEEE Power & Energy Society Prize Paper Award, and the Highly Cited
Researcher in the Web of Science in 2019-2020.

Marco Liserre (S’00-M’02-SM’07-F´13) received

the MSc and PhD degree in Electrical Engineering
from the Bari Polytechnic, respectively in 1998 and
2002. He has been Associate Professor at Bari Poly-
technic and from 2012 Professor in reliable power
electronics at Aalborg University (Denmark). From
2013 he is Full Professor and he holds the Chair
of Power Electronics at Kiel University (Germany).
He has published 500 technical papers (1/3 of them
in international peer-reviewed journals) and a book.
These works have received more than 35000 cita-
tions. Marco Liserre is listed in ISI Thomson report “The world’s most
influential scientific minds” from 2014.
He has been awarded with an ERC Consolidator Grant for the project “The
Highly Efficient And Reliable smart Transformer (HEART), a new Heart for
the Electric Distribution System”.
He is member of IAS, PELS, PES and IES. He has been serving all these
societies in different capacities. He has received the IES 2009 Early Career
Award, the IES 2011 Anthony J. Hornfeck Service Award, the 2014 Dr.
Bimal Bose Energy Systems Award, the 2011 Industrial Electronics Magazine
best paper award and the Third Prize paper award by the Industrial Power
Converter Committee at ECCE 2012, 2012, 2017 IEEE PELS Sustainable
Energy Systems Technical Achievement Award and the 2018 IEEE-IES
Mittelmann Achievement Award.

Xiaonan Lu (S’12-M’13) received his B.E. and

Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from Ts-
inghua University, Beijing, China, in 2008 and 2013,
respectively. From September 2010 to August 2011,
he was a guest Ph.D. student at the Department of
Energy Technology, Aalborg University, Denmark.
From October 2013 to December 2014, he was
a Postdoc Research Associate at the Department
of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science,
University of Tennessee, Knoxville. From January
2015 to July 2018, he was with Argonne National
Laboratory, first as a Postdoc Appointee and then as an Energy Systems
Scientist. In July 2018, he joined the College of Engineering at Temple
University as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include modeling
and control of power electronic inverters, hybrid and networked AC and DC
microgrids, and real-time hardware-in-the-loop simulation.
Dr. Lu is the Associate Editor of IEEE Transactions on Industrial Elec-
tronics, the Associate Editor of IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications,
and the Editor of IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid. He serves as the Vice
Chair of the Industrial Power Converters Committee (IPCC) in the IEEE
Industry Applications Society (IAS). He is also the recipient of the 2020
Young Engineer of the Year Award in the IEEE Philadelphia Section.

Soenke Engelken (S’08–M’12-SM’21) received the

B.Sc. degree in electrical engineering and computer
science from Jacobs University Bremen, Bremen,
Germany, in 2007, and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees
in control engineering from The University of
Manchester, Manchester, U.K., in 2008 and 2012,
respectively.
Since joining ENERCON’s R&D division
Wobben Research and Development in 2012, he
has occupied a number of technical and managerial
positions, focusing on the development of control
solutions for wind energy converters, spanning wind turbine controls,
electrical systems controls, and grid-side converter controls. He is currently
leading the R&D Transformation Office.
Dr. Engelken is a member of the IEEE Power and Energy Society, the
IEEE Control Systems Society, and a past member of the CIGRE Joint
Working Group A1/C4.52 Wind Generators and Frequency-Active Power
Control, as well as the ENTSO-E Expert Group on High Penetration Issues.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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Grid-Forming Converters Control Approaches Grid-Sy

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Grid-Forming Converters Control Approaches Grid-Sy

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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been

Grid-Forming Converters: Control Approaches,

𝐸 GFL Control principle GFM Control principle

Figure 4: Generalized control structure of a GFM converter.

D f is the mechanical friction, Te is the electrical torque, and

Similarities among some of the structures examined above 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

following equation is valid for both schemes:

SPC. In the first case, a PI controller with transfer function PIv 𝜗

setpoint indicated in the figure with Q∗∗ , which is calculated

In the specific case of the synchronverter, the structure is (e)

Virtual oscillator model

enable the regulation of the converter output power to the given

[55], which emulates the dynamic of so-called Andronov-Hopf 𝑃∗ 𝑠

systems. The considered virtual oscillator model is described 𝑃 𝑒′

Figure 10: General VOC structure.

In (20), Vre f is indicated in terms of its RMS value, ξ is A. Synchronization stability

B. Current limitation and fault-ride through (FRT)

It has been highlighted in Section II that, due to the intrinsic

Symmetrical fault Asymmetrical fault

∆ω̇ = kω (ωre f − ω) + λR kϑ ∆ϑ + λI kP ∆P (26)

∆Ė = (1 − λR )kV (E −Vre f ) + λR kE ∆E + λI kQ ∆Q (27)

where k represents the designed control gains; ∆ϑ and

Marco Liserre (S’00-M’02-SM’07-F´13) received

Xiaonan Lu (S’12-M’13) received his B.E. and

Soenke Engelken (S’08–M’12-SM’21) received the

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