X-RAY PRODUCTION

ELECTRON TARGET INTERACTION

- The projectile electron interacts with the orbital electrons or nuclear field of
target atoms.
- These interactions result in the conversion of electron kinetic energy into
thermal energy (heat) and electromagnetic energy in the form of infrared
radiation (also heat) and x-rays.
ANODE HEAT
- Approximately 99% of the kinetic energy of projectile electrons is
converted to heat. Only approximately 1% of projectile electron kinetic
energy is used for the production of x-radiation.
- Most of the kinetic energy of projectile electrons is converted into heat by
interactions with outer-shell electrons of target atoms.
PROCESSES INVOLVED IN X-RAY PRODUCTION
1. Production of electrons (Thermionic emission)
2. Acceleration of electrons
3. Deceleration of electrons
4. Emission of electron as Heat and X-rays
WHEN THE ROTOR OR PREP BUTTON IS PUSHED
On the cathode side of the x-ray tube:
a. Filament current heats up the filament.
b. This boils electrons off the filament (thermionic emission)
c. The electrons gather in a cloud around the filament (electron cloud)
d. The negatively charged focusing cup keeps the electron cloud focused
together
e. The number of electrons in the space charge is limited (space charge effect)
On the anode side of the x-ray tube:
a. The rotating anode begins to turn rapidly, quickly reaching top speed.
WHEN THE EXPOSURE OR X-RAY BUTTON IS PUSHED:
On the cathode side of the x-ray tube:
a. High negative charged strongly repels electrons.
b. The electrons stream away from the cathode and toward the anode (tube
current).
On the anode side of the x-ray tube high positive charge strongly attracts electrons
in the tube current.
a. These electrons strike the anode.
b. X-rays and heat are produced.
CHARACTERISTIC RADIATION
- If the projectile electron interacts with an inner-shell electron of the
target atom characteristic x-rays can be produced. Characteristic x-
rays are emitted when an outer-shell electron fills an inner-shell
void.
- Characteristic x-rays are emitted when an outer-shell electron fills an
inner-shell void.
184
Tungsten : 74W
Shell Number of Binding
electron energy
charge (keV)
K 2 69
L 8 12
M 18 3
N 32 1
O 12 0.1
P 2
Note: Only the K-characteristic x-rays of tungsten are useful for imaging.
K-characteristic x-rays requires an x-ray tube potential of at least 69 kVp/keV.
BREMSSTRAHLUNG RADIATION
- is a German word that means “white radiation” “slowed-down radiation”.
- x-rays can be considered radiation that results from the braking of projectile
electrons by the nucleus.
- are produced when a projectile electron is slowed by the nuclear field of a
target atom nucleus.
- The angle deflection identifies the strength of the bremss.
- Note: Bremsstrahlung x-rays can be produced at any projectile electron
energy.
Quantity and Quality of X-ray Beam
- General shape of an emission spectrum is always the same, but its relative
position along the energy axis can change
- The farther to the right a spectrum is, the higher the effective energy or
quality of the x-ray beam.
- The larger the area under the curve, the higher is the x-ray intensity or
quantity.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE SIZE AND RELATIVE POSITION OF X-RAY
EMISSION SPCTRA
TUBE CURRENT- Amplitude of spectrum.
TUBE VOLTAGE- Amplitude and position.
ADDED FILTRATION- Amplitude, most effective at low energy.
TARGET MATERIAL- Amplitude of spectrum and position of line spectrum.
VOLTAGE WAVEFORM- Amplitude, most effective at high energy.
CHANGES IN X-RAY BEAM QUALITY AND QUANTITY PRODUCED BY FACTORS
THAT INLUENCE THE EMISSION SPCTRUM
INCREASE in CURRENT (mAs)- An increase in quantity; no change in quality.
INCREASE in VOLTAGE (kVp)- An increase in quantity and quality.
INCREASE in ADDED FILTRATION- A decrease in quantity and an increase in quality.
INCREASE in TARGET ATOMIC NUMBER (Z)- An increase in quantity and quality.
INCREASE in VOLTAGE RIPPLE- A decrease in quantity and quality.

X-RAY EMISSION
- X-rays are emitted through a window in the glass or metal enclosure of the
xray tube in the form of a spectrum of energies.
The x-ray beam is characterized by:
- Quantity is the number of x-rays in the beam.
- Quality is the penetrability of the beam.
X-RAY QUANTITY/ X-RAY INTENSITY/ RADIATION EXPOSURE
- The x-ray intensity of the x-ray beam of an x-ray imaging system is measured
in milligray in air (mGya ).
- Another term, radiation exposure, is often used instead of x-ray intensity or
x-ray quantity.
- is the number of x-rays in the useful beam.
FACTORSTHAT AFFECT X-RAY QUANTITY
1. mAs
2. kVp
3. Distance
4. Filtration

1. milliAmpere-seconds (mAs)
- X-ray quantity is directly proportional to the mAs.
- When mAs is doubled the number of electrons striking the tube target is
doubled, and therefore the number of x-rays emitted is doubled.
I 1 mAs 1
= (Intensity∧mAs)
I 2 mAs 2
2. KILOVOLT PEAK (kVp)
- X-ray quantity varies rapidly with changes in kVp.
- The change in x-ray quantity is proportional to the square of the ratio of
the kVp.
- In other words, if kVp were doubled, the x-ray intensity would increase by a
factor of 4.

( )
2
I 1 kVp1
= Intensity∧kVp
I 2 kVp2

3. DISTANCE
- X-ray intensity varies inversely with the square of the distance from the x-ray
tube target.
- This relationship is known as the Inverse Square Law.
INVERSE SQUARE LAW- density maintaining formula for mAs. (ha physics)

=( )
I 1 d2 2
I 2 d1
Intensity∧distances

Compensating for a change in SID by changing mAs by the factor SID2 is known
as the Square Law, a corollary to the Inverse Square Law.
SQUARE LAW- ha imaging

( )
2
mAs 1 SID 1
= mAs is thetechnique at SID
mAs 2 SID 2

4. FILTRATION
- X-ray imaging systems have metal filters, usually 1 to 5 mm of aluminum
(Al), positioned in the useful beam.
- The purpose of these filters is to reduce the number of low energy x-
rays.
- Low energy x-rays contribute nothing useful to the image.
- They only increase the patient dose unnecessarily, because they are
absorbed in superficial tissues and do not penetrate to reach the image
receptor

AFFECTIG EFFECTS ON
FACTORS QUALITY
↑ mAs ↑quantity
↑kVp ↑quantity
↑Distance ↆquantity
↑Filtratuon ↆquantity

X-RAY QUALITY
 - As the energy of an x-ray beam is increased, the penetrability is also
increased.
- Penetrability refers to the ability of x-rays to penetrate deeper in tissue.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT X-RAY QUALITY
1. kVp
2. Filtration

1. Kilovolt peak (kVp)

- As the kVp is increased, so is x-ray beam quality.
- Increasing the kVp, increases the quality of an x-ray beam.

2. FILTRATION
- The primary purpose of adding filtration to an x-ray beam is to remove
selectively low-energy x-rays that have little chance of getting to the image
receptor.
- Increasing filtration increases the quality of an x-ray beam.
- Filter Aluminum (Z = 13) is chosen because: Readily available,
Inexpensive , Easy to shape
- As filtration is increased, so is beam quality, but quantity is
decreased.
TYPES OF FILTRATION
A. INHERENT FILTRATION
B. ADDED FILTRATION
C. TOTAL FILTRATION
D. COMPENSATING FILTER

1. INHERENT FILTRATION
- refers to the filtration that is permanently in the path of the x-ray beam.
Three components contribute to inherent filtration:
1. The glass envelope of the tube
2. The oil that surrounds the tube
3. The mirror inside the collimator

2. ADDED FILTRATION
- Describes the filtration that is added to the port of the x-ray tube.
- Aluminum is the material primarily used for this purpose to absorb the low
energy photons while allowing the useful higher-energy photons to exit.

3. TOTAL FILTRATION
- In the x-ray beam is the sum of the added filtration and the inherent
filtration.
- For x-ray tubes operating above 70 kVp must have a minimum filtration of
2.5 mm of aluminum.

OPERATING TOTAL
kVp FILTRATION
Below 50 kvp 0.5 mm
aluminum
50-70 kVp 1.5 mm
aluminum
Above 70 kVp 2.5aluminum

4. COMPENSATING FILTER
- These are special filters to be added to the primary beam to alter its
intensity. These types of filters are used to image anatomic areas that non-
uniform in make-up, and assist in creating a radiographic image with more
uniform density.

Wedge Filters
- most common type of compensating filters.
- The thicker part of the wedge filter is lined up with the thinner portion of the
anatomic part that is being image, allowing fewer x- ray photons to reach
that end part.

Bilateral wedge filter/Trough filters

- performs a similar function to the wedge filter; however, it is designed
differently. It has a double wedge.
- Commonly used for AP thorax to compensate for the easily penetrated air-
filled lungs.

Special “Bow-tie” shaped filters

- are used with computed tomography imaging systems to compensate
for the shape of the head or body.

AFFECTING EFFECTS ON
FACTOR QUALITY
↑ kVp ↑ Quality
↑Filtration ↑Quality

FACTORS QUANTITY QUALIT

INCREASED Y
↑mAs ↑ No effect
↑kVp ↑ ↑
↑Distance ↆ No effect
 ↑Filtration ↆ ↑

X-RAY INTERACTIONS WITH MATTER

 Coherent/Classical Scattering
 Compton Scattering
 Photoelectric Effect
 Pair Production
 Photodisintegration
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
- interacts with structures that are similar in size of its wavelength.
- X-rays wavelength is 10-8 to 10-9 m.
- The higher the energy, the shorter its wavelength.
DIFFRACTION
- <10
- RESEARCH : structure and molecular analysis
GRENZ RAYS
- 10-20
- MEDICINE: dermatology
SUPERFICIAL
- 50-100
- MEDICINE: therapy of superficial tissues
DIAGNOSTIC
- 30-150
- MEDICINE: imaging anatomical structures and tissues
ORTHOVOLTAGE
- 200-300
- MEDICINE: therapy of deep-lying tissues
SUPERVOLTAGE
- 300-1000
- MEDICINE: therapy of deep-lying tissues
COHERENT/CLASSICAL SCATTERING
- 1st described by J.J Thomson
- X-rays with energies below approx. 10 keV interact with matter by coherent
scattering.
- The incident x-ray interacts with a target atom, causing it to become
excited.
 - The target atom immediately releases this excess energy as a
scattered x-ray with wavelength equal to that of the incident x-ray
and therefore of equal energy.
- However, the direction of the scattered x-ray is different from that of the
incident x-ray.
- At 70 kVp a small percent of the x-rays undergo coherent scattering, which
contributes slightly to image noise- the general graying of an image that
reduces image contrast.
COMPTON SCATTERING
- Named after Arthur Holly Compton
- X-rays throughout the diagnostic range can undergo an interaction with
outer-shell electrons that not only scatters the x-ray but reduces its
energy and ionizes the atom as well.
- In Compton scattering, the incident x-ray interacts with an outer-shell
electron and ejects it from the atom, thereby ionizing the atom. The ejected
electron is called a Compton electron or recoil electron.
- During Compton scattering, most of the energy is divided between the
scattered x-ray and the Compton electron.

SELECTED SCATTERING CASES CAN BE CONSIDERED:

1. The minimum energy transfer occurs for a 0-degree photon scatter
(gazing hit), there is no interaction, and the scattered photon has the same
energy as the incident photon. The electron is scattered at 90-degree with
zero energy.
2. The maximum energy transfer occurs for a direct hit with a backscattered
photon (180-degrees) and yields a (minimum) scattered photon energy. The
electron has maximum energy and travels in forward direction.
3. The 90-degree Compton scattered photon energy will always be less than
the incident photon energy. The electron travels in a direction that depends
on the incident photon energy.
FEATURES OF COMPTON SCATTERING
- AS X-RAY ENERGY INCREASES
With loosely bound electrons
Increased penetration through tissue without interaction
Increased Compton Scattering relative to photoelectric effect
Reduced Compton Scattering (≈1/E).

- AS ATOMIC NUMBER OF ABSORBER INCREASES

No effect on Compton Scattering

- AS MASS DENSITY OF ABSORBER INCREASES

 Proportional increase in Compton Scattering

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
- Works of Albert Einstein
- X-rays in the diagnostic range also undergo ionizing interactions with
inner-shell electrons. The x-ray is not scattered, but it is totally
absorbed.
- The electron removed from the atom is called a photoelectric electron.
- A photoelectric interaction cannot occur unless the incident x-rays has
energy equal to or greater than the electron binding energy.
The probability of the photoelectric effect is inversely proportional to the third
power of the x-ray energy (1/E)³.
A photoelectric interaction cannot occur unless the incident x-ray has
energy equal to or greater than the electron binding energy.
If the incident x-ray has sufficient energy, the probability that it will undergo a
photoelectric effect decreases with the third power of the photon energy
(1/E)³.

ATOMIC NUMBER AND K-SHELL ELECTRON BINDING ENERGY OF

RADIOLOGICALLY IMPORTANT ELEMENTS

ELEMENT ATOMIC keV

NUMBER
Hydrogen 1 0.02
Carbon 6 0.3
Nitrogen 7 0.4
Oxygen 8 0.5
Aluminum 13 1.6
Calcium 20 4.1
Molybdenu 42 19
m
Rhodium 45 23
Iodide 53 33
Barium 56 37
Tungsten 74 69
Rhenium 75 72
Lead 82 88

EFFECTIVE ATOMIC NUMBER OF MATERIALS IMPORTANT TO RADIOLOGIC

SCIENCE
HUMAN TISSUE

TYPE ATOMIC
SUBSTANCE NUMBER
Fat 6.3
Soft tissue 7.4
Lung 7.4
Bone 13.8
CONTRAST MATERIAL

TYPE ATOMIC
SUBSTANCE NUMBER
Air 7.6
Iodine 5.3
Barium 56
OTHER

TYPE ATOMIC
SUBSTANCE NUMBER
Concreate 17
Molybdenum 42
Tungsten 74
Lead 82

FEATURES OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

- AS X-RAY ENERGY INCREASES
With tightly bound electrons
When x-ray energy is just higher than electron binding energy
Increased penetration through tissue without interaction
Less photoelectric effect relative to Compton Scattering
Reduced absolute photoelectric effect (≈1/E)³.

- AS ATOMIC NUMBER OF ABSORBER INCREASES

Increases proportionately with the cube of the atomic number (Z³)

- AS MASS DENSITY OF ABSORBER INCREASES

Proportional increases in photoelectric absorption
PAIR PRODUCTION
- If the incident x-ray has sufficient energy, it may escape interaction with the
electrons and come close enough to the nucleus of the atom.
- The interaction between the x-ray and the nuclear field causes the x-ray to
disappear, and in its place, two electrons appear, one positively charged
(positron) and one negatively charged.
 - The incident x-ray photon must have at least 1.02 MeV of energy. An x-
ray with less than 1.02 MeV cannot undergo pair production.
- The positron unites with the free electron, and the mass of both particles is
converted to energy in a process called annihilation radiation.
- Because pair production involves only x-rays with high energies greater
than 1.02 MeV, it is unimportant in x-ray imaging, but is very important for
Positron Emission Tomography imaging (PET) in nuclear medicine.
Pair production occurs when the incident x-ray interacts with the electric filed of
the nucleus. The x-ray disappears, and two electrons appear- one positively charged
(positron) and one negatively charged (electron)
PHOTODISINTEGRATION
- X-rays with energy above approx. 10 MeV can escape interaction with
electrons and the nuclear field and be absorbed directly by the nucleus.
- When this happens, the nucleus is raised to an excited state and instantly
emits nucleon or other nuclear fragment.
- photodisintegration occurs when the incident x-ray is directly absorbed by
the nucleus. The x-ray disappears, and nuclear fragment are released.
OF THE FIVE WAYS AN X-RAY CAN INTERACT WITH TISSUES, ONLY
TWO ARE IMPORTANT TO RADIOLOGY.
COMPTON SCATTERING • (Energy of radiation (x-ray) is partially absorbed)
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT • (Energy of radiation (x-ray) is totally absorbed)
Only Compton scattering and Photoelectric effect are important in
making an x-ray image.