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Extension Systems in India

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 How to Cite:
Mallick, B., Anshuman, J., Behera, B. and Rai, R. (2023). Extension Systems in India. In:
Advances in Agricultural Extension Volume 1, Somdutt Tripathi, Brijesh Kumar Gupta, Jagriti
Kumari, Anjali Pandey, Bhanu Prakash Mishra (Eds), pp. 121-131, Elite Publishing House, New
Delhi, ISBN: 978-93-58990-52-2.
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Advances in Agricultural Extension
Volume - I
Advances in Agricultural Extension
Volume - I

Somdutt Tripathi
Brijesh Kumar Gupta
Jagriti Kumari
Anjali Pandey
Bhanu Prakash Mishra

Elite Publishing House

Copyright © 2023, Elite Publishing House

All rights reserved. Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or used in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming,
recording or information storage and retrieval system, without the written permission
of the publisher and author.

First Edition 2023

ISBN : 978-93-58990-52-2

Published by:

Elite Publishing House

A-10/28, Sector - 18, Rohini, New Delhi - 110089
Tele Info: 9289051518, 9289051519
Email: [email protected], [email protected]
Website: www.elitepublishing.in
 Contents

Preface vii

1 Extension Perspective for Reversion Agriculture Needs 1

2 Gender as a Development Tool, Policy Approaches for 13

Woman Entrepreneurship Development

3 Role of ICTs in Agriculture Knowledge Management 25

4 The Role and Function of Agricultural Extension 36

5 Extension Teaching Methods 47

6 Advanced Trends in Agricultural Extension 61

7 Agripreneurship Development 70

8 Theoretical Knowledge in Program Planning and Evaluation 81

9 Strengthening Extension through Capacity Building 97

10 Modern Age Developmental Strategies and Issues in Agricultural 109

Extension

11 Extension Systems in India 121

12 Capitalizing Agriculture through Entrepreneurship Development 132

13 Technology Commercialization and Incubation 145

14 Capitalizing Agriculture through Entrepreneurship Development 158

15 Research Designs Used in Social Science 171

v
 16 Diffusion of Innovation and Adopter Categories 185

17 Preliminaries of Extension and Communication 196

18 Major Agriculture Laws in India 204

19 Empowering Women for an Inclusive India: A Comprehensive 213

Analysis of the National Policy for Women

20 The Unseen Force: Women’s Role in Empowering Agriculture 231

Extension for Sustainable Rural Development

21 Rural Sociology for Extension 246

22 Extension in the Global Context 254

23 ICT and Knowledge Management in Agriculture Extension 266

24 Market Led Agricultural Extension 279

25 Transforming Perspectives: Sensitization as a Key Strategy 283

for Empowering Women and Tackling Gender Disparities in
Agriculture

26 Grasping the Process of Diffusion and Adoption of Innovation in 296

Agricultural Extension

27 Concept of an Agricultural Extension Organization 306

28 Role of Extension in Diffusion of Innovations 320

vi
 Preface

In the vast tapestry of agriculture, where the threads of knowledge, innovation, and community
interweave, the role of agricultural extension emerges as a vital bridge between theory and
practice. This book embarks on a journey through the dynamic realm of agricultural extension,
unraveling its significance in empowering farmers, fostering sustainable practices, and driving
rural development. Whether you are a seasoned agricultural professional, an aspiring extension
worker, or simply someone intrigued by the vital ties between agriculture and society, this
book endeavors to provide you with insights that transcend the boundaries of fields and farms.

Agricultural extension is more than a conduit for disseminating information; it

embodies a spirit of collaboration, adaptation, and progress. Within these pages, we will
explore the multifaceted facets of extension work – from its historical roots and theoretical
underpinnings to the practical tools and methodologies that empower farmers to enhance
their yields and livelihoods. As we navigate the diverse landscapes of agricultural extension,
we will uncover the challenges it addresses, the innovations it embraces, and the pivotal role
it plays in shaping the future of global agriculture. While the principles of extension remain
steadfast, the field itself is far from static. The twenty-first century has ushered in a new
era of digital connectivity, ecological awareness, and community-driven development. This
book aims to reflect this evolution, marrying traditional wisdom with modern approaches
to provide a comprehensive guide that resonates with the needs of today's extension
practitioners and stakeholders.

In embarking on this exploration of agricultural extension, we recognize that each

farmers story is unique, each community aspirations are distinct, and each agricultural
landscape holds lessons waiting to be learned. May this book serve as a compass, guiding
you through the rich tapestry of agricultural extension, and inspiring you to cultivate not
only crops but also partnerships, innovation, and sustainable change.

With each turned page, let us deepen our commitment to fostering agricultural progress,
nurturing rural prosperity, and sowing the seeds of a bountiful future.

Editors

vii
Chapter - 11

Extension Systems in India

Biswajit Mallick*1, Jyotishree Anshuman2, Bijaylaxmi Behera3 and Rubina Rai4

1,2
PhD Scholar, Department of Agricultural Extension Education, College of
Agriculture, Odisha University of Agriculture and Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha
3
Research Scholar, Department of Extension Education and Communication
Management, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University Pusa,
Samastipur- 848125, Bihar
4
Young Professional – 1, ICAR - NRC for Orchids, Pakyong, Sikkim - 737106
*Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

Abstract
A well-functioning agricultural extension system contributes significantly to the
growth and sustainability of the agriculture sector, ultimately benefiting farmers,
rural communities, and the nation’s food security. Different countries may have
unique approaches and structures for their extension systems tailored to their
specific agricultural contexts and development goals. In our country, extension
systems operate from the central govt. i.e. Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers
Welfare to grassroots level up to Farmers Producer Organizations, also extension
services provided by different government and private organizations stakeholders.
The government encouraged the involvement of cultivators in the decision-making
and implementation of extension programs. Non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) and voluntary agencies also actively disseminate agricultural information
and promote sustainable farming practices. Currently, efforts have been made to
strengthen the linkage between research institutions, extension agencies, and farmers.
Farmer-centric approaches, farmer field schools, and participatory rural appraisals
122

have gained prominence. This chapter highlights the paradigm shift in agricultural
extension and different extension approaches followed in India and broadly discusses
both public and private extension systems that prevailed in India.
Keywords: Agricultural Extension, ATMA, Decentralized Extension, NATP,
Training and Visit.

Introduction
Agricultural extension systems are vital components of agricultural development
worldwide. These systems are crucial in bridging the gap between agricultural research
and farming practices, enabling farmers to adopt modern techniques, technologies,
and best practices for improved productivity, sustainability, and livelihoods (Ravi &
Nedumaran, 2019). Agricultural extension services aim to disseminate knowledge,
information, and innovations to farmers and other stakeholders in the agriculture
sector. The primary objective is to transfer agricultural knowledge, research findings,
and technical know-how to farmers and rural communities. The focus is on empowering
farmers with the latest information and skills to make informed decisions about their
agricultural practices. It is delivered through various agencies and organizations,
including government departments, research institutions, NGOs, universities, and
private sector entities. Multiple programmes were made before independence (1947)
and after independence for the smooth execution of extension services. However, there
were several weaknesses seen in these programmes. Soon after starting Community
Development Programme in 1952 and National Extension Service in 1953, an
organized administrative setup was established at the national, state, district, block
and village levels (Singh et al. 2012). In India, agricultural extension passes through
different stages.

Paradigm shift in agricultural extension services in India

The extension has covered its journey from the land grant pattern of education to
the bottom-up technology transfer approach. The extension system has significantly
changed with scientific orientation and technology generation. The shift in the
extension paradigm can be classified into the following broad heads.

1. Colonial Agriculture and Extension:

Experimental stations were established by using colonial power. They organized
agriculture to focus on cultivating plantations of cash crops, such as tea, rubber, and
cotton, by replacing traditional crops to maximize profits. Technical assistance was
given to larger farmers and plantation managers, while subsistence crop growers
were neglected.
 123

2. Broadbased or Multipurpose Extension:

The multipurpose extension was accelerated in India by initiating Community
Development Programmes (CDP) in 1952, followed by National Extension Service
(NES) in 1953. It was a broadbased concept covering agriculture, health, education,
industries, roads, and women and children welfare. Under NES, blocks were created,
and village level workers (VLWs) were appointed in rural communities. Agricultural
production improved marginally.
3. Area-specific and Target group Extension:
After independence country was passing through a severe food shortage. In 1966
initiation of the High Yielding Variety Programme (HYVP) gave significant results
to agriculture, known as the era of the green revolution. The government focused on
5 major crops: wheat, Rice, Jowar, Bajra and Maize. Though the strategy benefited
mainly in states like Punjab, Haryana and Western UP, it could not give results to
resource-poor farmers due to its cost-intensive nature.
4. Top-down Extension:
Technology diffusion became the prime focus of the agricultural extension system
during the 1970s due to the release and success of high-yielding varieties. In 1974,
The World Bank funded “Training and Visit” (T&V) system was started in India.
The agricultural extension followed a supply-driven top-down extension approach to
disseminate technology through demonstrations, field visits, and farmers’ meetings
developed in research stations. This system improved the area under cultivation,
cropping intensity and employment of family labour. But in the late 1990s, the
system was deserted due to a shortage of funding from the sponsored organization.
5. Decentralized Bottom up Extension:
After the failure of the T&V system, agricultural extension explored a new approach
during the mid-90s. A decentralized decision-making approach via. bottom-up
planning was evolved, and stakeholders, farmers, and private sectors at the district
and block level were involved in planning and implementing extension programmes.
World Bank-assisted National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) model
was tested in 1998. Under NATP, Agricultural Technology Management Agency
(ATMA) provides a market-driven extension system at the district level.
6. E-Extension and E-Agriculture:
In the 21st century, e-extension evolved with the ongoing IT revolution and computer-
based knowledge dissemination mechanism. E-extension (cyber extension) was
introduced with the application of Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) through its various tools, such as Decision Support system (DSS), Geographical
124

Information System (GIS), mobile applications, and Internet and web portals. Cyber
extension disseminates the correct information at the time to the right people living
in geographically dispersed areas.

Extension Approaches in India

Many countries followed public-funded extension systems, but it was unsuccessful,
as expected. After that few reforms such as decentralization, pluralism, cost sharing,
cost recovery and participation of stakeholders were initiated in the extension process
(Singh et al., 2016). There are 8 major approaches commonly accepted over the world
based on the various problems to which the approach has to be applied. A detailed
analysis of the different extension approaches is discussed below:
1. General agricultural extension approach
In terms of extension approaches, it is considered the most classical and common
one. It is a centralized approach which control by the government. This approach
encompasses ministry-based extension plans, programmes and initiatives. It’s the
same as a public extension. This approach states if the technology and knowledge
disseminate properly to the farming community, it could improve farming in terms of
production and productivity. This approach measures success in terms of the increased
adoption rate of recommended technologies and increased national production and
productivity. The extension system of the state agricultural department in India is the
best example of a general extension approach. Some crucial benefits like an in-depth
extension network up to the grassroots level, execution of the national programme,
and efficient communication from various ministries to the block/village level can
be achieved through this approach. While top-down approach, unavailability of a
two-way flow of communication, poor infrastructure to fulfil farmers needs, improper
information dissemination and, low adoption of technology, high cost are loopholes
in this approach.
2. Commodity based extension approach
Various crops contribute significantly to income generation, poverty alleviation,
employment generation and livelihood security of farming communities, but they
are not considered under extension programmes. This approach covers commercially
export cash crops like tea, coffee, sugar, spices etc. The statutory commodity boards
such as tea board, coffee board, spices board, tobacco board, rubber board and on few
profit-oriented enterprises, farmer producer organizations or individual entrepreneurs
are involved in commodity based extension advisory system. The extension system
performs a wide range of activities, including supply of input to technology adoption
and marketing of the produce. So, the approach targets a specific crop under one
 125

administration and provides extension services like inputs, credits, advisory services,
training, quality management, and marketing strategy. Community organizations
facilitate resources to the production system with the help of field extension staff. The
success of this extension approach is calculated by considering the total production
of the particular crop. Major advantages of the approach are a high adoption rate,
suitable technology for the agroecological zone, timely dissemination of need-
oriented messages, well the connection between input suppliers and marketing
agents, low farmer-agent ratio, accessibility to supplementary extension services
like credit training, inputs etc. Drawbacks include system failure due to conflict
in decision-making about the commodity. The approach focuses on the extension
agent’s needs and priorities rather than the farmer’s needs. Certain criteria in this
approach eliminate the small farmers as potential beneficiaries. Sometimes inputs
provided by commodity boards are misused at the field level.
3. Training and Visit (T&V) system of extension
In 1974, the Training and Visit (T&V) system was introduced in India to improve
agricultural crop productivity by influencing farmers to adopt new farm practices. This
approach had a unique feature of daily and fortnightly scheduled visits to farmers’
fields by agents and subject matter specialists (Swanson, et al., 2014). Extension
agents are key people for technology transfer. Important objectives are to build up
the extension management system, enhance the agent-farmer ratio, and provide
basic support to field extension staff. This approach motivates farmers to increase
the production of specific crops and establish communications between extension
staff-researcher and extension agents-farmer. T&V approach has several benefits,
such as increasing the quantity of field extension staff, bringing professionalism in
extension service, up-to-date extension personnel with current agricultural information
and technology, and availability of logistical support. Notable limitations are that
it is a top-down approach, so there is a lack of a two-way flow of information.
Bureaucratic decisions suppress the actual need of farmers. As T&V is a supply-
driven approach, it only focuses on transferring the technology rather than creating
it. The unavailability of low-cost technology and less flexibility in the system makes
it more complex. Also, politically involved people and the rich are getting benefits
instead of real farmers. Sometimes poor training methods and irregular attendance
of extension agents create problems.
4. Participatory extension approach
This approach is based on the principle of self-mobilization, in which farmers
identify and analyze their important problems and find possible solutions according
to their needs. The fundamental characteristic of this approach is the farmers are
126

wise in cultivating their land. Still, integration of an ‘indigenous knowledge system’

with a ‘scientific knowledge system’ will provide helpful insight and solutions. So,
the active participation of the farmers is important to improve the extension system
effectively. Comparatively, fewer resources are required in this approach. Group
meetings, demonstrations, and individual and group travel are crucial to the execution
of any extension programme. It benefits farming communities in many ways, like
all sections of farmers can access information through their groups/organizations.
The utility and effectiveness of the extension method are high. Farmers recognize
their problems rather than imposing any agenda on them by bureaucrats. The major
disadvantages are no role of the centre in accessing or managing the programme and
lacking a long-term commitment to continue the programme. Important Participatory
approaches are Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA), Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA),
and Participatory Action & Learning Method (PALM) etc.
5. Project approach
This approach focused on a location and time-specific programme to improve
the production scenario and living standard of rural people. Greater impact and
continuity of the programme are expected without funding from outside sources.
The implementation plan includes a project management staff, project allowances
for field staff, better transportation facilities, availing equipment, housing and
provision of foreign advisors for local staff. Short-run changes are the measure of
success in this approach. Easy evaluation and quick project results, new techniques
and methods within a limited budget are prime advantages of the project approach.
But the project runs for less period of time, while the cost per unit area is higher
than other approaches. The Agricultural development programme like Intensive
Agricultural District Programme (1960), Operational Research Project (1974), Lab
to land programme (1979), IARI-Post office linkage extension model (2009) etc.,
are perfect examples of project based extension approaches.
6. Farming system approach/Farming system research and extension (FSR&E)
Extension programmes were often rejected because the recommended technology was
unfit for the local people’s needs. Farming System Research and Extension (FSR&E)
was introduced during the 1970s as a new extension approach to eliminate drawbacks
of the existing top-down extension model. It aims to disseminate the technology
which meets the need of the local farmers. In the FSR&E approach, specialized field
staffs create a research-extension-farmers link to transmit technology comprising
different scientific disciplines. A team of interdisciplinary experts categorize the
problems concerned with farmers’ needs and provide field trials, demonstrations,
and training in farmers’ fields. The approach’s success is generally measured by the
 127

extent to which adoption and continuation of the technologies over time. Major
advantages of the FSR&E approach are need-based, extension-research-linked
extension programmes. It works on the recommended technologies’ profitability,
stability and sustainability principles. Limitations include unavailability of input;
inefficient marketing strategy; poor cooperation and collaboration from concerned
departments; lack of interest of officials, which makes the approach non-functional.
Examples of some successful FSRE model includes the ‘Rural demonstration and
training centre’ of village Padhri Kalan, Amritsar, Punjab, the ‘Bio-resource complex’
of the University of Agricultural Science, Bengaluru, ‘Roopa farm” of Mohinder
Singh Grewal of Punjab etc.
7. Cost sharing approach
If the local people partially bear the extension service cost, then the cost-sharing
approach is more likely to fit into the local situation. At the same time, extension
agents are more likely to serve the farming community. It means central or state
government and farmers are sharing the cost mutually, making the system more
affordable and sustainable at the central and local levels. This approach aims to assist
farmers in learning new things for self-improvement and increase farm productivity.
Success is measured by people’s willingness and ability to share some of the project
costs. Notable advantages are the preparation of need-based programmes and
methods for the local community, involvement of local people make high adoption
rate, increase in the confidence of local people, and lessen the government’s financial
burden by sharing a part of service cost. This approach passes through limitations
such as small and marginal farmers being unwilling to pay the cost, sometimes the
government denying payment and challenging management decisions as locals
behave like owners.
Example of cost sharing approach is ITC, Agri-clinic, and MSSRF.
8. Educational institution approach
The approach mainly focuses on extension activities performed in agricultural
universities and colleges. Indian universities have partially incorporated extension
education as an integral part of agricultural knowledge and information system
to improve the institution’s practical utility and quality of teaching and research
functions. The technical knowledge acquired by the faculties of agricultural universities
significantly impacts farmers learning about scientific agriculture. The success of
this approach is measured by farming people’s attendance and participation in
agricultural extension activities. Some unique advantages of the approach are it
provides authentic problems from the field to the extension fraternity, creates an
opportunity for scientists and field extension personnel to maintain a working
128

relationship, ensures efficient use of the human resource, and reduces the financial
burden on the national government for providing extension service. There are the
following limitations involved in this approach: this is a purely academic based
programme. So, it creates differences between subject matter specialists and field
personnel; the lectures are not as practical and helpful from farmers’ perspective. The
most successful cases of this extension approach include extension education institutes
(EEIs), the IARI-Post office linkage extension model, the IARI-VO partnership
model of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Extension approach through
the farmers club of Punjab.

ICAR Efforts towards Extension Development

Eminent social workers and govt implemented several rural development programmes
in India in pre-independence and post-independence eras. However, the Indian
Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) started an agricultural extension and
education department at its headquarters in 1971, later known as the Division of
Extension Education. The division was dedicated to education, research and extension
of new technology to the farming community. With the timeline, ICAR launched
first-line extension services to transfer the latest technology.

Figure 1. ICAR First-line Extension Projects

 129

Formal extension system in India

The government provides agricultural extension services through various agencies and
departments at the state and district levels to the farmers present at the grassroots
level. Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare is working as an apex body at
the national level. Under the ministry, various ICAR institutes and directorates are
working. Agricultural Technology Application Research Institutes (ATARIs) and
Extension Education Institutes (EEIs) function at the zonal level. Below that, State
Agricultural universities and ‘State Agriculture Management Training Institutes’
(SAMETI) are working. KVK and ATMA are at the district level, while ‘Block
level Technology Team’ (BTT) and Farmers Advisory Committees are working in
block level. Finally, ‘Farmers Producer Organizations’ are working at the village level
of the extension system.
130

National Agricultural Technology Project

World Bank funded National Agricultural Technology Project was launched in 1998
with great initiatives taken for the extension system. As it was demand driven, the
Innovations in Technology Dissemination (ITD) component have been planned
for the transfer of technology (TOT) system Kumar et al., 2020). Agricultural
Technology Management Agency (ATMA) was formulated under NATP and worked
as a district-level autonomous institute (Suresh et al., 2022). ATMA coordinates
the ‘farmer-led’ extension activities and facilitates various extension programmes at
the district level. (Sulaiman and Hall 2008). The structure and function of ATMA
are mentioned below:

Conclusion
The need for extension was felt during the Irish famine in 1844. Afterwards, the
whole world adopted extension services one after another. A series of famines during
the 90s forced the British govt. to implement an extension system in India. Social
workers started sporadic approaches for disseminating agricultural information in
the pre-independence era. However, those approaches were ineffective due to several
constraints. After independence, central and state govt. started various programmes
for rural upliftment. The paradigm of extension passes through various stages.
 131

Also, different approaches are involved in the country’s extension system. ICAR
efforts are noteworthy for taking initiatives in education, research and extension of
different programmes. In a formal extension system, several departments coordinate
to successfully implement any programmes. ATMA is an autonomous district-level
organization linking ‘farmers interest group’ with the district planning committee.

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