UNIT 4: THERMOMETRY

Temperature Scale
 Is a range of values for measuring the degree of hotness or coldness referred
to as temperature.
Types of Temperature Scales
1. Celsius Scale
Also known as centigrade scale
Uses degree Celsius ( ) as the unit of measuring temperature
The lower fixed point is 0 and the upper fixed point is 100
The region between these two fixed points on the scale is graduated into 100
equally spaced temperature marks
Temperatures below 0 have negative (-) values
2. Kelvin Scale
Uses kelvin (K) as the unit of measuring temperature
Uses absolute zero, 0K (-273 ) as its reference point (lower fixed point)
Converting a Kelvin scale to a Celsius scale, use the formula:
Converting a Celsius scale to a Kelvin scale, use the formula:
Thermometers
 A thermometer is an instrument for measuring temperature.
In constructing a thermometer, a thermometric substance is chosen first. Then the
temperature scale is defined by means of two fixed points, lower fixed point and
upper fixed point.

Thermometric substances
 Thermometric substances are substances that are used in the thermometers
as thermometric solids, liquids or gases.
Thermometric properties
 1. The property should remain constant if temperature is constant.
2. The property should change uniformly with change in temperature.
3. The property should change uniformly for every 1 change in temperature.
4. The property should acquire thermal equilibrium as quickly as possible,
when temperature measurements are needed.
5. The property should cover a wide range (should not freeze or boil at normal
temperatures).
6. The property should be able to register the rapid changing temperature (e.g.
sudden explosion due to chemical reactions).
7. The property should have a large change even if the change in temperature is
small.
8. The property should be such that the temperature can be taken easily without
waiting for a long time.
Types of thermometers
Types of thermometers
There are various types of thermometers in use, namely; liquid-in-glass
thermometer, thermocouple thermometer, constant-volume gas thermometer and
electrical resistance thermometer.
1. Liquid-in-glass thermometers
It uses either mercury or coloured alcohol as the thermometric substance.
It works on the principle that a liquid expands and contracts when temperature
changes.
When heated, the liquid volume expands and rises along the narrow glass column.
The increase in volume, hence height of the liquid column is proportional to the
increase in temperature.
When the substance is cold, the liquid contracts and the thermometer shows a
lower temperature reading.
o The common examples of liquid-in-glass thermometer are six’s maximum and
minimum thermometer, and clinical thermometer.

Working of liquid-in-glass thermometer.

The end of the glass tube containing the liquid is dipped into or placed on the
substance whose temperature is to be determined
The liquid in the tube expands when the substance transfer heat to it
This gives a higher temperature reading
When the substance is cold, the liquid contracts and the thermometer shows a
lower temperature reading
Advantages of using mercury and alcohol as thermometric substances
1. Mercury does not wet glass. Hence it does not stick to the sides of the
capillary tube.
2. Mercury has a large increase in volume for 1 rise in temperature.
3. Mercury has a wide range of temperature since mercury freezes at -39 and
boils at 357 degree Celsius.
4. Alcohol has a very low freezing point of -112 degree celsius hence its
suitable in thermometers to record very low temperatures. (boils at 78 degree
Celsius)
5. Alcohol has a uniform expansion and contraction than even mercury.
6. Alcohol is a good thermal conductor; it is also cheap and easily available.

2. Thermocouple
The word thermo means being associated with heat or temperature and the
couple means two joined together.
  A thermocouple is made of two different types of wires joined together at
their two ends.
 As such when two different types of wires are joined together at the ends
forming a loop, and then one of the joined ends (junction) heated to a higher
temperature, electric current through the loop in a complete circuit.
 This current can be measure by connecting a galvanometer at some point in
the loop.
 The amount of current that flows in the circuit is a measure of the
temperature difference between the two joined ends of the loop
 A thermocouple thermometer is used to measure very high temperature
which ordinary thermometers cannot measure.
 It consists of two metallic conductors, copper and brass that are joined at
junctions A and B forming a loop. A galvanometer is connected in the loop.
 Junction B is dipped/placed in an environment whose temperature in known
e.g. in melting ice (0).
 Junction A is placed in the environment whose temperature is to be
determined e.g. in a burning flame, furnace.

Uses of thermocouple
 1. It is used in industries e.g. in kilns, gas turbine exhaust to determine if the
required temperature is reached.
2. It can be used in homes, offices and business places as the temperature
sensors in thermostats.
3. Thermocouples are used as flame sensors in safety devices.
4. A thermoelectric thermometer is also used in the same way as a
thermocouple and can measure very high temperatures.
3. Constant-Volume gas thermometer
A constant-volume gas thermometer measures temperature by making use of the
change in the temperature of a fixed (constant) volume of a gas when the
temperature changes

 It is composed of bulb that is filled with a fixed amount of a gas.

 The bulb is connected to a mercury manometer that measures the gas
pressure.
 The smaller column of the manometer is partially filled with mercury and is
connected to the larger column called the reservoir by a fixed tube.
Working of a constant-volume gas thermometer
  Before using the thermometer, the height of the mercury in the smaller
column is set to a reference point 0 on a fixed millimeter scale like a ruler.
 It must be maintained at this level so that the volume of the gas remains
constant.
 To use the thermometer, the gas bulb is placed in the environment whose
temperature is to be measured for example in a water bath. If the
environment is hotter, the temperature of the gas rises.
 This increases the pressure of the gas and also tends to increase the volume
of the gas through expansion (the reverse happens when the environment is
cooler).
 Due to the increase in those two quantities, mercury rises higher up in the
longer column (reservoir) of the manometer.
 To ensure that the volume of the gas remains constant, the reservoir is
physically raised up or down for the mercury in the smaller column to flow
back to the reference point 0 on the scale.
 The height difference is between the mercury levels in the two smaller
columns give the pressure of the gas in the bulb at the temperature 0 of the
given environment.
 A practical constant-volume gas thermometer has two fixed points: the
lower and the upper fixed that were set using known values of temperature
for example melting point of pure ice (0 ) and boiling point of pure water
(100 ).
 Using these points we are able to determine the temperature of the other
substance or environment using the thermometer.
For example
Suppose the lower and upper fixed points of a constant-volume gas thermometer
are 540mmHg at 0 degree Celsius and 780mmHg at 100 degree Celsius. What will
be the temperature that produces a pressure difference of 600mmHg on the
thermometer?
Solution
- Pressure difference between the fixed points = (780-
540) mmHg = 240mmHg
- Temperature difference between the fixed points = (100-
0) = 100
- Thus, a temperature rise of 100 produces a pressure rise of 240mmHg in the gas
- The substance produces a pressure rise = (600-540) mmHg
= 60mmHg above the lower fixed point.
- Thus, the temperature produced by the substance above the lower fixed point is
then given by:

Exercise:
The pressure in a constant-volume gas thermometer is 755mmHg at 0 of ice and
790mmHg at 100 . What is the temperature when the pressure is 765mmHg?
4. Electrical resistance thermometer
 Electrical resistance thermometer is a device used to measure temperature by
the change of electrical resistance of a metallic sensor.
 The thermometer works using the fact that electrical resistance increases
with the increase in temperature.
 The most accurate and commonly used thermometers are standard platinum
resistance thermometers (SPTs) that use platinum wire sensor.
Working of an electrical resistance thermometer
 Electrical resistance thermometer measures changes in the electrical
resistance of metallic materials or thermistors.
 A metal wire or thermistor is housed in a thin rod.
 It is connected in a circuit in whose temperature is to be measured.
 The change in electrical resistance is indicated as a temperature reading on a
digital display screen.

Chapter 5

PRESSURE
Definition: Pressure is the force exerted per unit area.
Formula: Pressure = force/ Area
SI Units: Force is measured in Newtons (N), area is measured in square
metres (m2). The SI unit of pressure is Newton per square metre. 1
Newton per 1 square meter = 1 Pascal (Pa). Therefore the SI unit of pressure is the
Pascal. Pressure must be expressed in pascals (Pa) unless stated otherwise.
Solid Pressure
Solid pressure is the force a solid exerts per unit area.

How to increase pressure in solids.

Increase the force.
Decrease the area.

As a law, pressure in solid increases with decrease in area where the force is
concentrating.

Example:
A cube of side 2cm and weight 1.2N is placed on a table. Calculate the pressure it
exerts on the table. (Hint: Sketch a diagram of the cube – box whose all six sides
measure the same.)

Pressure= force/ Area

Force= 1.2N
Area = 2/100 * 2/100 =0.02 * 0.02 = 0.0004m

Pressure = 1.2N/ 0.0004m

 =3000pa

Factors affecting pressure in solids

The force exerted. Pressure is proportional to the force exerted. The greater the
force the greater the pressure produced.
Area of contact. The greater the area of contact the smaller the pressure will be
produced and vice versa.

Uses of solid pressure

 Tractors are fitted with very large rear tyres so that they do not sink into soft
soil. The weight of tractors is spread out on a large area. This reduces the
pressure.
 Wall foundations have a large horizontal area. This reduces the pressure
underneath so that walls do not sink too any further into the ground.
 Studs on football boots have a small area. The pressure under the studs is
high enough to give an extra grip.
 The blade of the edge of a knife is extremely small. This produces a high
pressure for the blade to push easily through materials
 A load spreading washer ensures that the nut is not pulled into the wood
when tightened up.
Skis have a large area to reduce the pressure on the snow so that they do not sink
too far.

Pressure in liquids
A fluid exerts its pressure on the walls of a container in all directions at
right angles
If a rubber balloon is filled with water under pressure and holes are pricked on the
balloon water jets spout out in all directions at right angles.

Application of this fact

Deep sea-diving vessels are built to withstand the crushing effect of sea water
whose pressure pushes inwards from all directions.
The magnitude of a fluid pressure depends on the depth. Fluid pressure increases
with an increase in depth. A greater weight of a liquid acts at a greater depth.

Application of this fact

Dams are constructed thicker at the bottom than at the top because there is greater
pressure at bottom.
Submarines are constructed with thick walls to withstand the great pressure at the
bottom of the sea.
Liquid pressure depends on the density of the liquid. The denser the liquid the
higher the pressure.
Liquid pressure does not depend on the shape of the container.

pressure at A,B,C and D are the same.

Pressure at a particular level of a liquid in a container is the same.

PRESSURE FORMULA FOR FLUIDS

 Pressure =

Force = mass x 10m/s2 (acceleration due to gravity, g)

 So by substitution Pressure =

Mass = density x volume

 So by substitution Pressure =
Volume = Area x height
  So by substitution Pressure =

The areas cancel each other

 Therefore Pressure in fluid = Density x Height x gravity

Example:
Petrol of density 0.7g/cm3 is in a large metal tank to a depth of 1.5m.
Calculate the pressure of petrol exerted to the bottom of the tank.

Solution
Pressure = Density X Height X g
Density = 0.7 X 1000 = 700Kg/m3.
Pressure = 700Kg/m3 X 1.5m X 10m/s/s =10500Pa

Transmission of pressure in fluids

Pascal’s principle states that pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is transmitted
equally to all parts of the fluid.

For pascal’s principle to hold, the fluid used should have the following properties:

 It should be incompressible
 It should not corrode the parts of the system
 It should have a wide range of temperature i.e. low freezing point and high
boiling point

Uses of fluid (liquid) pressure

 a) Water supply system
Water reservoirs which supply water to towns and cities are placed on high
grounds. Water flows from them through pipes to any tap or storage tank that is
below the level of the water contained in the reservoirs. The lower the place
supplied the greater the pressure at it
b) Drinking straw
c) Syringe
d) Siphon
e) Hydraulic brake
f) Hydraulic press
g) Upstroke
h) Force pump
i) Bicycle pump
j) Downstroke
k) Lift pump

Why are liquids used in hydraulic machines?

They pass on any pressure applied to them because they are incompressible.
Consider the above diagram:
A downward force of 12N is exerted on a piston with area of 0.01m2.
P =force/ Area
=12N/0.01 m
= 1200Pa

The oil in the connecting pipe transmits the pressure of 1200Pa which acts on
piston with area 0.1m2 in the output cylinder.
Output force = pressure x area = 1200Pa x 0.1m2 = 120N.
An input force of 12N produces an output force of 120N therefore a hydraulic
machine acts as a force multiplier.

Pressure in gases
Gas pressure is the pressure which a gas exerts per unit area.
Gases have weight which can be made to act over an area.

What produces gas pressure?

 Collisions between gas molecules and the walls of the container.
What can increase gas pressure?

 Temperature increase: this increases the kinetic energy of the gas molecules
and weakens the IMF. The gas particles move more rapidly and the number
of collisions between the gas molecules with the container per second
increases to increase gas pressure.
 Adding gas molecules in the container.
 Reducing the volume of a given container. When the volume of the given
mass of a gas is reduced at constant temperature, the number of gas
molecules and the kinetic energy of the particles remain constant. However
the gas particles collide more frequently with the smaller surfaces of a
container. These more frequent collisions between the gas particles and the
reduced surfaces of the container cause higher pressure.

If the piston (shown in Fig. a.) is pressed downwards on the volume of the gas (as
shown in Fig. b.), it increases pressure on the gas hence reducing the distance
between gas molecules in turn. This reduces the volume of the gas.
Archimedes’ principle
Any object in a liquid whether floating or submerged experiences an upward
force from the liquid; the force is known as upthrust force. Upthrust force is also
known as buoyant force and is denoted by letter ‘U’.
Archimedes, a Greek scientist carried out first experiments to measure upthrust on
an object in liquid in the third century.

Archimedes principle states that when abody is wholly or partially immersed in a

fluid,it experience an upthrust which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
(upthrust = Weight of fluid displaced =Apparent loss in weight)

The law of Floatation.

 Object that float in a liquid are less dense than liquid in which they float.
 Law of floatation which states that; “A body displaces its own weight of the
liquid in it floats”.
Mathematically, the following relation can be deduced
Weight = volume of displaced liquid * density *gravity
= V* d * g
NOTE- floatation is a special case of Archimedes principle. This is because a
floating body sinks until the upthrust equals the weight of the body.
Example
A wooden block of dimensions 3cm * 3cm *4 cm floats vertically in methylated
spirit with 4cm of its length in the spirit. Calculate the weight of the block.
(Density of methylated spirit =8.0 * 10 kg/m
Solution
Volume of the spirit displaced = (3 × 3 × 4) = 36 cm3 = 3.6 × 10-5 m3
Weight of the block =

Relative density
We have established the relative density as the ratio of the density of a substance
to the density of water. Since by the law of floatation an object displaces a fluid
equal to its own weight. Hence the following mathematical expressions can be
established.

Hence d = W / u = W / W2 W1, the actual density, of an object can be obtained as

follows of an object = d × 1,000 kgm-3.

Applications of Archimedes principle and relative density

1. Ships- steel which is used to make ships is 6-7 times dense than water but a ship
is able to float on water because it is designed to displace more water than its
volume. Load lines called plimsoll marks are marked on the side to indicate the
maximum load at different seasons to avoid overloading.
2. Submarines - they are made of steel and consist of ballast tanks which contain
water when they have to sink and filled with air when they have to float. This
makes the submarines to balance their weight and be able to rise upwards.
3. Ballons - when they are filled with helium gas balloons become lighter and the
upthrust on the balloon becomes greater than their weight therefore becoming able
to rise upwards.
4. Hydrometers - they are used to measure the relative densities of liquids quickly
and conveniently. Various types of hydrometers are made to measure different
ranges of different densities i.e. lactometer – for measuring milk water (1.015-
1.045,), battery acid tester – used to test the charge in lead-acid –battery.

Example

1, a solid of mass 1.0 kg is suspended using a thread and then submerged in water.
If the tension on the thread is 5.0 N, determine the relative density of the solid.
Solution
Mass of solid = 1.0 kg
Weight of solid W = mg = 10 N
Tension on the string (T) = 5 N
Upthrust on solid (u) = W T = 10 5 = 5
Relative density (d) = W / u = 10 / 5 = 2.

2. A balloon made up of a fabric weighing 80 N has a volume of 1.0 ×

107 cm. the balloon is filled with hydrogen of density 0.9 kgm-3.
Calculate the greatest weight in addition to that of the hydrogen and the fabric,
which the balloon can carry in air of average density 1.25 kgm-3.

Solution

Upthrust = weight of the air displaced

= volume of air × density × gravity
= (1.0 × 107 × 106) × (1.25 × 10 )
= 10 × 1.25 × 10 = 125 N
Weight of hydrogen = 10 × 0.09 × 10 = 9 N
Total weight of hydrogen and fabric = 80 + 9 = 89 N
Total additional weight to be lifted = 125- 89 = 36 N.

3. A material of density 8.5 gcm-3 is attached to a piece of wood of mass 100g and
density 0.2 gcm-3. Calculate the volume of material X which must be attached to
the piece of wood so that the two just submerge beneath a liquid of density 1.2
gcm-3.

Solution
Let the volume of the material be V cm3
The mass of the material be 8.5 V grams
Volume of wood = 100 g / 0.2 g/cm = 500 cm3.
In order to have an average density of 1.2 gcm-3 = total mass / total volume
Therefore (100 + 8.5V) / (500 + V) = 1.2 gcm-3
Hence V = 68.5 cm3.