Methods of

Philosophizing
Prof. John Marie E. Malco
 METHODS OF
PHILOSOPHIZING
Seeking
Truth
Lesson Objectives
1. Define the role of Philosophy in
determining truth and knowledge;

2. Distinguish opinion from truth;

3. Realize that the methods of

philosophy lead to wisdom and
truth
EPISTEMOLOGY
Study of Knowledge
EPISTEME Logos
KNOWLEDGE STUDY
KNOWLEDGE
Begins with perception via senses
Plato’s
WORLD OF FORMS AND IDEAS
Recollection of perfect knowledge into the body

“The unexamined life is not worth living”

Socrates
Activity:

List 5 recent
news that
circulate on
media or
social media.
 Here
goes the Philosophers
big emphasize the
question. importance of
belief as a
How do we know if
something is true? basis for
How do we know that determining
what we believe is
true?
truth.
KNOWLEDGE AND OPINION DISTINGUISHED
Here goes Plato again.
OPINION
eikasia or illusion, or imagination.
pistis or belief or conviction.

KNOWLEDGE
noesis or reason. Using the intellect.
dianoia or understanding (via thinking) using
scientific, mathematical hypotheses.
THEORIES OF TRUTH

COHERENCE
THEORY
Ascertains that a thing is true or false
based on whether the statement
COHERES with the larger system or not.
Consistency with the system being used.

e.g., Euclidian Geometry and Pythagorean Theorems

have been accepted as a well-formed formula in the
field of mathematics and geometry. Also, in logic the
logical form in validating.
THEORIES OF TRUTH

CORRESPONDENCE
THEORY
What we believe is true if it
corresponds to the ways of things.
Sense perception or experience as its
source of knowledge.

e.g., The color of the Sky. A dog inside

the house.
THEORIES OF TRUTH

PRAGMATIC
THEORY
Ascertains that a belief or statement is
true if it has a useful application in the
world. Based on the good or practical
consequences of an idea.

e.g., Ghosts or mythical creatures.

Santa Claus
LOGIC
Study of correct reasoning.
 CRITICAL
THINKING
distinguishing facts and opinions or
personal feelings by suspending beliefs and
judgement until all facts have been
gathered and considered.
Inference
The use of premises to arrive at a
conclusion
 fallere
To deceive

FALLACY
Faulty reasoning. Defect in argument.
Fake argument.
 ARGUMENTUM AD IGNORANTIAM
(APPEAL TO IGNORANCE)

Whatever has not been proven false must

be true and vice versa.
Since no one can prove that there are vampires living in
the city of Malolos, therefore, there are vampires in
Malolos.

Since no one can prove that there is a crime in

Room 14, then there is no crime.
 FALLACIES to recognize.

ARGUMENTUM AD IGNORANTIAM
(APPEAL TO IGNORANCE)

Whatever has not been proven false must

be true and vice versa.
Since no one can prove that there are vampires living in
the city of Malolos, therefore, there are vampires in
Malolos.

Since no one can prove that there is a crime in

Room 14, then there is no crime.
 ARGUMENTUM AD MISERICORDIAM
(APPEAL TO PITY)

EMOTION IN WHICH SOMEONE TRIES TO WIN SUPPORT

FOR AN ARGUMENT OR IDEA BY EXPLOITING HIS OR HER
OPPONENT’S FEELINGS OF PITY OR GUILT.

“How could you convict lovely of a crime? She is

just a teenager, an orphan!”
 ARGUMENTUM AD MISERICORDIAM
(APPEAL TO PITY)

“We cannot imprison Juana for the murder she has done
because she is the only mother of her child, not one would
take care of her child.”

“We should have mercy on student X and give him a

passing grade because he will not be accepted by his
family if not.”
 FALLACIES to recognize.

ARGUMENTUM AD MISERICORDIAM
(APPEAL TO PITY)

EMOTION IN WHICH SOMEONE TRIES TO WIN SUPPORT

FOR AN ARGUMENT OR IDEA BY EXPLOITING HIS OR HER
OPPONENT’S FEELINGS OF PITY OR GUILT.

“How could you convict lovely of a crime? She is

just a teenager, an orphan!”
 ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM
(AGAINST THE PERSON)
ATTEMPTS TO LINK THE VALIDITY OF A PREMISE TO A CHARACTERISTIC
OR BELIEF OF THE PERSON ADVOCATING THE PREMISE.

Abusive
Your work is ugly because you have an ugly appearance.

Circumstantial
Person A: “I suggest that we increase more women in the
workforce so that we could give more jobs and improve the
economy and our business.”
Person B: “Obviously you would offer that suggestion, you’re
a woman.”
 ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM
(AGAINST THE PERSON)
ATTEMPTS TO LINK THE VALIDITY OF A PREMISE TO A CHARACTERISTIC
OR BELIEF OF THE PERSON ADVOCATING THE PREMISE.

TU QUOQUE (You too) kah-kwe

Why should I study hard to get a job? You
did not finish high school and did not bother
to take college, but you were able to get a
job.
 ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM
(AGAINST THE PERSON)
ATTEMPTS TO LINK THE VALIDITY OF A PREMISE TO A CHARACTERISTIC
OR BELIEF OF THE PERSON ADVOCATING THE PREMISE.

TU QUOQUE (You too) kah-kwe

Why should I study hard to get a job? You
did not finish high school and did not bother
to take college, but you were able to get a
job.
FALLACIES to recognize.
ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM
(AGAINST THE PERSON)
ATTEMPTS TO LINK THE VALIDITY OF A PREMISE TO A CHARACTERISTIC
OR BELIEF OF THE PERSON ADVOCATING THE PREMISE.

TU QUOQUE (You too) kah-kwe

Why should I study hard to get a job? You did not finish high
school and did not bother to take college, but you were able to get
a job.
 ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM
(APPEAL TO THE PEOPLE)
APPEALS OR EXPLOITS PEOPLE’S VANITIES, DESIRE FOR ESTEEM,
AND ANCHORING ON POPULARITY.

“Although the meeting was not adjourned, the teacher

was not appearing in the room for 15 minutes, but many
of my classmates leave the room so I also left the room.”

“It is okay not to obey or observe the health protocols, all

people in the school are doing it anyway”

“Every officer is doing it, so it is allowed.”

 FALLACIES to recognize.

ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM
(APPEAL TO THE PEOPLE)
APPEALS OR EXPLOITS PEOPLE’S VANITIES, DESIRE FOR ESTEEM, AND
ANCHORING ON POPULARITY.

“Although the meeting was not adjourned, the teacher

was not appearing in the room for 15 minutes, but many
of my classmates leave the room so I also left the room.”

“It is okay not to obey or observe the health protocols, all

people in the school are doing it anyway”

“Every officer is doing it, so it is allowed.”

 ARGUMENTUM AD BACULUM
(Appeal to force)
AN ARGUMENT WHERE FORCE, COERCION, OR THE THREAT OF
FORCE, IS GIVEN AS A JUSTIFICATION FOR A CONCLUSION.

“I’ll offer you something you can’t refuse, either we have a

deal or your death.”

“Give me that thing or I will hurt you!”

“Plato o Plomo” (Silver or lead, in Colombian Spanish. Slang,

Silver means the money while lead means the bullet.)

“Sundin mo ako o makakatanggap ka sakit ng katawan”

 ARGUMENTUM AD ANTIQUITATEM
(APPEAL TO TRADITION OR COMMON PRACTICE)
OCCURS WHEN SOMEONE CLAIMS THAT BECAUSE AN ACTION THAT IS COMMON,
BELIEF OR TRADITION IS GOOD OR TRUE BECAUSE IT ALWAYS HAS BEEN DONE.

“Lahat kami sa UP nag-aral kaya dapat sa UP ka din magtapos

ng pag-aaral.”

“Lahat ng kapatid mo abogado at doktor. Mag abogado ka.”

“My friends since childhood are thieves so I should make my

new friends to become a thief.”
 Hasty Generalization
ERRORS IF ONE REACHES AN INDUCTIVE GENERALIZATION
BASED ON INSUFFICIENT EVIDENCE.

“Juan and Karlo, our guy friends is holding hands in the

park, they’re both gays.”

“Hindi marunong si Jackylin gumamit ng Android phone,

kaya hindi rin siya marunong gumamit ng laptop.”

“Yung girlfriend mo masungit, yung girlfriend ni Juan

masungit, sigurado pati mga girlfriend sa Marcelo H. del
National High School masungit din.”
 Hasty Generalization
ERRORS IF ONE REACHES AN INDUCTIVE GENERALIZATION BASED ON
INSUFFICIENT EVIDENCE.

“Juan and Karlo, our guy friends is holding hands in the

park, they’re both gays.”

“Hindi marunong si Jackylin gumamit ng Android phone,

kaya hindi rin siya marunong gumamit ng laptop.”

“Yung girlfriend mo masungit, yung girlfriend ni Juan

masungit, sigurado pati mga girlfriend sa Marcelo H. del
National High School masungit din.”
 EQUIVOCATION
LOGICAL CHAIN OF REASONING OF A TERM OR A WORD SEVERAL TIMES BUT
GIVING THE PARTICULAR WORD OF DIFFERENT MEANING EACH TIME.

“A star is a heavenly body. Ivana Alawi is a star. Therefore, Ivana

is a star.”

A king moves one square in any direction; but Solomon is a

king; Therefore, Solomon moves one square in any direction.
 EQUIVOCATION
LOGICAL CHAIN OF REASONING OF A TERM OR A WORD SEVERAL TIMES BUT
GIVING THE PARTICULAR WORD OF DIFFERENT MEANING EACH TIME.

“A star is a heavenly body. Ivana Alawi is a star. Therefore, Ivana

is a star.”

A king moves one square in any direction; but Solomon is a

king; Therefore, Solomon moves one square in any direction.
 AMPHIBOLY
Awkward construction of one’s sentence allows a multiple
interpretation.
Lots for sale. (Is it many things or land?)

A guy in court asked for written testimony.

Judge: “Ikaw ba ang pumatay?”
Suspect: “Hindi, ako ang pumatay.” (ikaw o hindi?)

Commuter sa jeepney: “magkano po ang bulakan?”

Driver: (pamasahe o lugar?)
 COMPOSITION
Taking collectively what should be taken individually.

It is peaceful in barangay Catmon. Catmon is in Malolos

City. Therefore, Malolos is a peaceful city.

Since all parts of a machine is light in weight, the

machine is light in weight as a whole.
 DIVISION
Taking individually what should be taken collectively.

Marcelo H. del Pilar National High School is located at

Bulacan. Marcelo H. del Pilar is from Bulacan. Therefore,
every Del Pilarians are Bulakenyos.

The Catholic Church is a sacred institution. Therefore,

every Catholic Christian is sacred.
 PETITIO PRINCIPII
Begging the question.

“Why are you late?”

“Well, because I’m not here.”

All criminals are immoral. Therefore, all criminals are not

moral.

Murder is always morally wrong. Therefore, abortion is always

morally wrong.
 ARGUMENTUM AD VERECUNDIAM
(appeal to unqualified authority)
When one presents the opinion of a person is
not an authority in the field in question.

Dominic said that it is okay to not isolate during covid 19

because the undersecretary of national defense said so.

Rich Padilla, a popular opera singer, said that it is okay to

buy whitening products of Croatians because he said so.
 ARGUMENTUM AD VERECUNDIAM
(appeal to unqualified authority)
When one presents the opinion of a person is
not an authority in the field in question.

Dominic said that it is okay to not isolate during covid 19

because the undersecretary of national defense said so.

Rich Padilla, a popular opera singer, said that it is okay to

buy whitening products of Croatians because he said so.
 Appeal to advantage
An appeal is made to a person/s to adhere to a policy or
perform an act contrary to the person’s will.

A client offers a government official a huge amount of

provided the latter facilitate or give a favorable decision on
some transactions in which the client has some interest.

A religious political leader offers a person job, provided the

person join his religion and accept his beliefs.
 Notable words to feed the mind

PROPOSITIONS
Statements about the world or reality.

KNOWLEDGE
Clear awareness and understanding of something.
Comprised of ideas and beliefs that we know to be true.

OPINION
A view or judgement formed about something, not
necessarily based on fact or knowledge.

FACTS
Propositions or statements that are observed to be
real or truthful.

CLAIM
Propositions or statements that are observed to be
real or truthful are considered facts
 Notable words to feed the mind

CONCLUSION
A judgement based on certain facts.

BELIEFS
Statements that express convictions that are not easily and
clearly explained by facts.

EXPLANATIONS
Statements that assume the claim to be true and
provide reasons why the statement is true.

ARGUMENTS
Series of statements that provide reasons to convince
the reader or listener that a claim or opinion is truthful.
ACTIVITY:
Give at least one experience or
situation where what you believe to
be true turned out to be untrue.
How did this experience affect you?
 What we’ve learned.

Epistemology
Acquiring and
validating knowledge
Truth from opinion
Theories of truth
Inference and fallacies via logic
 I know nothing
‘’ except the fact
of my ignorance
Socrates
Thanks!
Any questions?