0% found this document useful (0 votes)

7 views60 pages

Prenatal

Prenatal Development

Uploaded by

htar khin

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

7 views60 pages

Prenatal

Prenatal Development

Uploaded by

htar khin

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 60

Prenatal Development

Periods of Prenatal Development

Now we turn our attention to prenatal development which is divided into three periods: the germinal
period, the embryonic period, and the fetal period. Here is an overview of some of the changes that
take place during each period.

The Germinal Period

Sperm and Ovum at Conception

The germinal period (about 14 days in length) lasts from conception to implantation of the zygote
(fertilized egg) in the lining of the uterus. During this time, the organism begins cell division and
growth. After the fourth doubling, differentiation of the cells begins to occur as well. It’s estimated
that about 60 percent of natural conceptions fail to implant in the uterus. The rate is higher for in
vitro conceptions.

The Embryonic Period

Photo by Lunar Caustic

This period begins once the organism is implanted in the uterine wall. It lasts from the third through
the eighth week after conception. During this period, cells continue to differentiate and at 22 days
after conception the neural tube forms which will become the brain and spinal column. Growth
during prenatal development occurs in two major directions: from head to tail
(cephalocaudal development) and from the midline outward (proximodistal development). This
means that those structures nearest the head develop before those nearest the feet and those structures
nearest the torso develop before those away from the center of the body (such as hands and fingers).
The head develops in the fourth week and the precursor to the heart begins to pulse. In the early
stages of the embryonic period, gills and a tail are apparent. But by the end of this stage, they
disappear and the organism takes on a more human appearance. About 20 percent of organisms fail
during the embryonic period, usually due to gross chromosomal abnormalities. As in the case of the
germinal period, often the mother does not yet know that she is pregnant. It is during this stage that
the major structures of the body are taking form making the embryonic period the time when the
organism is most vulnerable to the greatest amount of damage if exposed to harmful substances. (We
will look at this in the section on teratology below.) Potential mothers are not often aware of the risks
they introduce to the developing child during this time. The embryo is approximately 1 inch in length
and weighs about 4 grams at the end of this period. The embryo can move and respond to touch at
this time.

The Fetal Period

From the ninth week until birth, the organism is referred to as a fetus. During this stage, the major
structures are continuing to develop. By the 12th week, the fetus has all its body parts including
external genitalia. In the following weeks, the fetus will develop hair, nails, teeth and the excretory
and digestive systems will continue to develop. At the end of the 12th week, the fetus is about 3
inches long and weighs about 28 grams.

During the 4-6th months, the eyes become more sensitive to light and hearing de, hearing develops.
Respiratory system continues to develop. Reflexes such as sucking, swallowing and hiccupping
develop during the 5th month. Cycles of sleep and wakefulness are present at that time as well. The
first chance of survival outside the womb, known as the age of viability is reached at about 22 and 26
weeks (Moore & Persaud, 1998). Many practitioners hesitate to resuscitation before 24 weeks. The
majority of the neurons in the brain have developed by 24 weeks although they are still rudimentary
and the glial or nurse cells that support neurons continue to grow. At 24 weeks the fetus can feel pain
(Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 1997).

Between the 7th and 9th months the fetus is primarily preparing for birth. It is exercising its muscles,
its lungs begin to expand and contract. It is developing fat layers under the skin. The fetus gains
about 5 pounds and 7 inches during this last trimester of pregnancy which includes a layer of fat
gained during the 8th month. This layer of fat serves as insulation and helps the baby regulate body
temperature after birth.

Candela Citations

CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY

 Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. Authored by: Laura Overstreet. Located
at: http://opencourselibrary.org/econ-201/. License: CC BY: Attribution

LICENSES AND ATTRIBUTIONS

Introduction to Infancy
LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lesson, you will be able to

1. Summarize overall physical growth during infancy.
2. Describe the growth of the brain during infancy.
3. Contrast development of the senses in newborns.
4. Compare gross and fine motor skills and give examples of each.
5. Explain the merits of breastfeeding.
6. Discuss nutritional concerns of marasmus and kwashiorkor.
7. List and describe the six substages of sensorimotor intelligence.
8. Describe stages of language development during infancy.
9. Define babbling, holophrasic speech, and overregularization.
10. Contrast styles of attachment.
11. Discuss the importance of temperament and goodness of fit.
12. Describe self-awareness, stranger wariness, and separation anxiety.
13. Use Erikson’s theory to characterize psychosocial development during infancy.

Introduction
Welcome to the story of development from infancy through toddlerhood; from birth until
about two years of age. Researchers have given this part of the life span more attention
than any other period, perhaps because changes during this time are so dramatic and so
noticeable and perhaps because we have assumed that what happens during these years
provides a foundation for one’s life to come. However, it has been argued that the
significance of development during these years has been overstated (Bruer,
1999). Nevertheless, this is a period of life that contemporary educators, healthcare
providers, and parents have focused on most heavily. We will examine growth and nutrition
during infancy, cognitive development during the first 2 years, and then turn our attention
toward attachments formed in infancy.

REFERENCES

Berger, K. S. (2001). The developing person through the life span. New York: Worth.

Berger, K. S. (2005). The developing person through the life span (6th ed.). New York:
Worth.

Berk, L. E. (n.d.). Development through the life span (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Bruer, J. T. (1999). The myth of the first three years: A new understanding of early brain
development and lifelong learning. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Chess, S., & Thomas, A. (1996). Temperament: Theory and practice. New York:
Brunner/Mazel.

Children’s Welfare. (1998). Welfarem-L Digest, june 25. Retrieved August 10, 2006, from
[email protected]
Hart, S., & Carrington, H. (2002). Jealousy in 6-month-old infants. Infancy, 3(3), 395-402.

LeVine, R. A., Dixon, S., LeVine, S., Richman, A., Leiderman, P. H., Keefer, C. H., &
Brazelton, T. B. (1994). Child care and culture: Lessons from Africa. New York: Cambridge
University Press.

O’Connor, T. G., Marvin, R. S., Rotter, M., Olrich, J. T., Britner, P. A., & The English and
Romanian Adoptees Study Team. (2003). Child-parent attachment following early
institutional deprivation. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 19-38.

Sen, M. G., Yonas, A., & Knill, D. C. (2001). Development of infants’ sensitivity to surface
contour information for spatial layout. Perception, 30, 167-176.

Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Sagi, A. (n.d.). Cross-cultural patterns of attachment. In J. Cassidy
& P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical
applications (pp. 713-734). New York: Guilford.

Webb, S. J., Monk, C. S., & Nelson, C. A. (2001). Mechanisms of postnatal neurobiological
development: Implications for human development. Developmental Neuropsychology, 19,
147-171.

Overall Physical Growth

The average newborn in the United States weighs about 7.5 pounds and is about 20 inches
in length. For the first few days of life, infants typically lose about 5 percent of their body
weight as they eliminate waste and get used to feeding. This often goes unnoticed by most
parents, but can be cause for concern for those who have a smaller infant. This weight loss
is temporary, however, and is followed by a rapid period of growth. By the time an infant is
4 months old, it usually doubles in weight and by one year has tripled it birth weight. By age
2, the weight has quadrupled. The average length at one year is about 26-32 inches.

Body Proportions

Another dramatic physical change that takes place in the first several years of life is the
change in body proportions. The head initially makes up about 50 percent of our entire
length when we are developing in the womb. At birth, the head makes up about 25 percent
of our length (think about how much of your length would be head if the proportions were
still the same!). By age 25 it comprises about 20 percent our length. Imagine now how
difficult it must be to raise one’s head during the first year of life! And indeed, if you have
ever seen a 2 to 4 month old infant lying on the stomach trying to raise the head, you know
how much of a challenge this is.

The Brain in the First Two Years

Some of the most dramatic physical change that occurs during this period is in the brain. At
birth, the brain is about 25 percent its adult weight and this is not true for any other part of
the body. By age 2, it is at 75 percent its adult weight, at 95 percent by age 6 and at 100
percent by age 7 years.

While most of the brain’s 100 to 200 billion neurons are present at birth, they are not fully
mature and during the next several years dendrites or connections between neurons will
undergo a period of transient exuberance or temporary dramatic growth. There is a
proliferation of these dendrites during the first two years so that by age 2, a single neuron
might have thousands of dendrites. After this dramatic increase, the neural pathways that
are not used will be eliminated thereby making those that are used much stronger. This
activity is occurring primarily in the cortex or the thin outer covering of the brain involved in
voluntary activity and thinking. The prefrontal cortex that is located behind our forehead
continues to grow and mature throughout childhood and experiences an addition growth
spurt during adolescence. It is the last part of the brain to mature and will eventually
comprise 85 percent of the brain’s weight. Experience will shape which of these
connections are maintained and which of these are lost. Ultimately, about 40 percent of
these connections will be lost (Webb, Monk, and Nelson, 2001). As the prefrontal cortex
matures, the child is increasingly able to regulate or control emotions, to plan
activity, strategize, and have better judgment. Of course, this is not fully accomplished in
infancy and toddlerhood, but continues throughout childhood and adolescence.

Another major change occurring in the central nervous system is the development of
myelin, a coating of fatty tissues around the axon of the neuron. Myelin helps insulate the
nerve cell and speed the rate of transmission of impulses from one cell to another. This
enhances the building of neural pathways and improves coordination and control of
movement and thought processes. The development of myelin continues into adolescence
but is most dramatic during the first several years of life.
From Reflexes to Voluntary Movements

Infants are equipped with a number of reflexes which are involuntary movements in
response to stimulation. These include the sucking reflex (infants suck on objects that touch
their lips automatically), the rooting reflex, which involves turning toward any object that
touches the cheek, the palmar grasp (the infant will tightly grasp any object placed in its
palm), and the dancing reflex evidence when the infant is held in a standing position and
moves its feet up and down alternately as if dancing. These movements occur automatically
and are signals that the infant is functioning well neurologically. Within the first several
weeks of life these reflexes are replaced with voluntary movements or motor skills.

Gross Motor Skills

These voluntary movements involve the use of large muscle groups and are typically large
movements of the arms, legs, head, and torso. These skills begin to develop first. Examples
include moving to bring the chin up when lying on the stomach, moving the chest up,
rocking back and forth on hands and knees. But it also includes exploring an object with
one’s feet as many babies do as early as 8 weeks of age if seated in a carrier or other
devise that frees the hips. This may be easier than reaching for an object with the hands,
which requires much more practice (Berk, 2007). And sometimes an infant will try to move
toward an object while crawling and surprisingly move backward because of the greater
amount of strength in the arms than in the legs!

Fine Motor Skills

Fine motor skills are more exact movements of the hands and fingers and include the ability
to reach and grasp an object. Newborns cannot grasp objects voluntarily but do wave their
arms toward objects of interest. At about 4 months of age, the infant is able to reach for an
object, first with both arms and within a few weeks, with only one arm. Grasping an object
involves the use of the fingers and palm, but no thumbs. Stop reading for a moment and try
to grasp an object using these fingers and the palm. How does that feel? How much control
do you have over the object? If it is a pen or pencil, are you able to write with it? Can you
draw a picture? The answer is probably not. Use of the thumb comes at about 9 months of
age when the infant is able to grasp an object using the forefinger and thumb. This ability
greatly enhances the ability to control and manipulate an object and infants take great
delight in this newfound ability. They may spend hours picking up small objects from the
floor and placing them in containers. By 9 months, an infant can also watch a moving
object, reach for it as it approaches and grab it. This is quite a complicated set of actions if
we remember how difficult this would have been just a few months earlier.

Sensory Development

Vision

The womb is a dark environment void of visual stimulation. Consequently, vision is the most
poorly developed sense at birth. Newborns typically cannot see further than 8 to 16 inches
away from their faces, have difficulty keeping a moving object within their gaze, and can
detect contrast more than color differences. If you have ever seen a newborn struggle to
see, you can appreciate the cognitive efforts being made to take in visual stimulation and
build those neural pathways between the eye and the brain. When you glance at a person,
where do you look? Chances are you look into their eyes. If so why? It is probably because
there is more information there than in other parts of the face. Newborns do not scan
objects this way; rather, they tend to look at the chin another less detailed part of the
face. However, by 2 or 3 months, they will seek more detail when exploring an object
visually and begin showing preferences for unusual images over familiar ones and for
patterns over solids and faces over patterns and three-dimensional objects over flat
images. Newborns have difficulty distinguishing between colors, but within a few months
are able to discrimination between colors as well as do adults. Infants can also sense depth
as binocular vision develops at about 2 months of age. By 6 months, the infant can perceive
depth perception in pictures as well (Sen, Yonas, and Knill, 2001). Infants who have
experience crawling and exploring will pay greater attention to visual cues of depth and
modify their actions accordingly (Berk, 2007).

Hearing

The infant’s sense of hearing is very keen at birth. If you remember, this ability to hear is
evidenced as soon as the 5th month of prenatal development. In fact, an infant can
distinguish between very similar sounds as early as one month after birth and can
distinguish between a familiar and non-familiar voice even earlier. Some of this ability will
be lost by 7 or 8 months as a child becomes familiar with the sounds of a particular
language and less sensitive to sounds that are part of an unfamiliar language.

Other senses

Newborns can distinguish between sour, bitter, sweet, and salty flavors and show a
preference for sweet flavors. They are sensitive to touch and can distinguish between their
mother’s scent and that of others.

Cognitive Development

Piaget and Sensorimotor Intelligence

Remember our discussion of sensorimotor development during the first two years of
life. Piaget describes intelligence in infancy as sensorimotor or based on direct, physical
contact. Infants taste, feel, pound, push, hear, and move in order to experience the
world. Let’s explore the transition infants make from responding to the external world
reflexively as newborns to solving problems using mental strategies as two year olds.

Stage One: Reflexive Action: (Birth through 1st month)

This active learning begins with automatic movements or reflexes. A ball comes into contact
with an infant’s cheek and is automatically sucked on and licked. But this is also what
happens with a sour lemon, much to the infant’s surprise!

Stage Two: First Adaptations to the Environment (1st through 4th month)
Fortunately, within a few days or weeks, the infant begins to discriminate between objects
and adjust responses accordingly as reflexes are replaced with voluntary movements. An
infant may accidentally engage in a behavior and find it interesting such as making a
vocalization. This interest motivates trying to do it again and helps the infant learn a new
behavior that originally occurred by chance. At first, most actions have to do with the body,
but in months to come, will be directed more toward objects.

Stage Three: Repetition (4th through 8th months)

During the next few months, the infant becomes more and more actively engaged in the
outside world and takes delight in being able to make things happen. Repeated motion
brings particular interest as the infant is able to bang two lids together from the cupboard
when seated on the kitchen floor.

Stage Four: New Adaptations and Goal-Directed Behavior (8th through 12th months)

Now the infant can engage in behaviors that others perform and anticipate upcoming
events. Perhaps because of continued maturation of the prefrontal cortex, the infant
become capable of having a thought and carrying out a planned, goal-directed activity such
as seeking a toy that has rolled under the couch. The object continues to exist in the
infant’s mind even when out of sight and the infant now is capable of making attempts to
retrieve it. Here is an example of a lack of object permanence.

Was Piaget correct? Infants seem to be able to recognize that objects have permanence
at much younger ages (even as young as 3.5 months of age).

Dr. Rene Baillargeon explains in the following clip:

Stage Five: Active Experimentation of Little Scientists (12th through 18th months)

Infants from one year to 18 months of age more actively engage in experimentation to learn
about the physical world. Gravity is learned by pouring water from a cup or pushing bowls
from high chairs. The caregiver tries to help the child by picking it up again and placing it on
the tray. And what happens? Another experiment! The child pushes it off the tray again
causing it to fall and the caregiver to pick it up again! A closer examination of this stage
causes us to really appreciate how much learning is going on at this time and how many
things we come to take for granted must actually be learned. I remember handing my
daughters (who are close in age) when they were both seated in the back seat of the car a
small container of candy. They struggled to move the pieces up and out of the small box
and became frustrated when their fingers would lose their grip on the treats before they
made it up and out of the top of the boxes. They had not yet learned to simply use gravity
and turn the box over in their hands! This is a wonderful and messy time of experimentation
and most learning occurs by trial and error.

Stage Six: Mental Representations (18th month to 2 years of age)

The child is now able to solve problems using mental strategies, to remember something
heard days before and repeat it, to engage in pretend play, and to find objects that have
been moved even when out of sight. Take for instance, the child who is upstairs in a room
with the door closed, supposedly taking a nap. The doorknob has a safety device on it that
makes it impossible for the child to turn the knob. After trying several times in vain to push
the door or turn the doorknob, the child carries out a mental strategy to get the door
opened-he knocks on the door! Obviously, this is a technique learned from the past
experience of hearing a knock on the door and observing someone opening the
door. The child is now better equipped with mental strategies for problem-solving. This
initial movement from the “hands-on” approach to knowing about the world to the more
mental world of stage six marked the transition to preoperational intelligence that we will
discuss in the next lesson. Part of this stage involves learning to use language.

Candela Citations
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY
 Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. Authored by: Laura Overstreet. Located
at: http://opencourselibrary.org/econ-201/. License: CC BY: Attribution
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT
 Object Concept VOE Ramp Study Baillargeon. Provided by: adamism9. Located
at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hwgo2O5Vk_g. License: All Rights
Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License

Language Development

Newborn Communication

Baby boy at 8 months.

Do newborns communicate? Certainly, they do. They do not, however, communicate with
the use of language. Instead, they communicate their thoughts and needs with body
posture (being relaxed or still), gestures, cries, and facial expressions. A person who
spends adequate time with an infant can learn which cries indicate pain and which ones
indicate hunger, discomfort, or frustration.

Intentional Vocalizations: Cooing and taking turns: Infants begin to vocalize and repeat
vocalizations within the first couple of months of life. That gurgling, musical vocalization
called cooing can serve as a source of entertainment to an infant who has been laid down
for a nap or seated in a carrier on a car ride. Cooing serves as practice for vocalization as
well as the infant hears the sound of his or her own voice and tries to repeat sounds that
are entertaining. Infants also begin to learn the pace and pause of conversation as they
alternate their vocalization with that of someone else and then take their turn again when
the other person’s vocalization has stopped. Cooing initially involves making vowel sounds
like “oooo”. Later, consonants are added to vocalizations such as “nananananana”.
Babbling and gesturing: At about four to six months of age, infants begin making even
more elaborate vocalizations that include the sounds required for any language. Guttural
sounds, clicks, consonants, and vowel sounds stand ready to equip the child with the ability
to repeat whatever sounds are characteristic of the language heard. Eventually, these
sounds will no longer be used as the infant grow more accustomed to a particular
language. Deaf babies also use gestures to communicate wants, reactions, and
feelings. Because gesturing seems to be easier than vocalization for some toddlers, sign
language is sometimes taught to enhance one’s ability to communicate by making use of
the ease of gesturing. The rhythm and pattern of language is used when deaf babies sign
just as it is when hearing babies babble.
Understanding: At around ten months of age, the infant can understand more than he or
she can say. You may have experienced this phenomenon as well if you have ever tried to
learn a second language. You may have been able to follow a conversation more easily
than to contribute to it.
Holophrasic speech: Children begin using their first words at about 12 or 13 months of
age and may use partial words to convey thoughts at even younger ages. These one word
expressions are referred to as holophrasic speech. For example, the child may say “ju” for
the word “juice” and use this sound when referring to a bottle. The listener must interpret
the meaning of the holophrase and when this is someone who has spent time with the child,
interpretation is not too difficult. They know that “ju” means “juice” which means the baby
wants some milk! But, someone who has not been around the child will have trouble
knowing what is meant. Imagine the parent who to a friend exclaims, “Ezra’s talking all the
time now!” The friend hears only “ju da ga” which, the parent explains, means “I want some
milk when I go with Daddy.”
Underextension: A child who learns that a word stands for an object may initially think that
the word can be used for only that particular object. Only the family’s Irish Setter is a
“doggie”. This is referred to as underextension. More often, however, a child may think that
a label applies to all objects that are similar to the original object. In overextension all
animals become “doggies”, for example.
First words and cultural influences: First words if the child is using English tend to be
nouns. The child labels objects such as cup or ball. In a verb-friendly language such as
Chinese, however, children may learn more verbs. This may also be due to the different
emphasis given to objects based on culture. Chinese children may be taught to notice
action and relationship between objects while children from the United States may be
taught to name an object and its qualities (color, texture, size, etc.). These differences can
be seen when comparing interpretations of art by older students from China and the United
States.
Vocabulary growth spurt: One year olds typically have a vocabulary of about 50
words. But by the time they become toddlers, they have a vocabulary of about 200 words
and begin putting those words together in telegraphic speech (I think of it now as ‘text
message’ speech because texting is more common and is similar in that text messages
typically only include the minimal amout of words to convey the message).
Two word sentences and telegraphic (text message?) speech: Words are soon
combined and 18 month old toddlers can express themselves further by using expressions
such as “baby bye-bye” or “doggie pretty”. Words needed to convey messages are used,
but the articles and other parts of speech necessary for grammatical correctness are not yet
used. These expressions sound like a telegraph (or perhaps a better analogy today would
be that they read like a text message) where unnecessary words are not used. “Give baby
ball” is used rather than “Give the baby the ball.” Or a text message of “Send money now!”
rather than “Dear Mother. I really need some money to take care of my expenses“ You get
the idea.
Child-directed speech: Why is a horse a “horsie”? Have you ever wondered why adults
tend to use “baby talk” or that sing-song type of intonation and exaggeration used when
talking to children? This represents a universal tendency and is known as child-directed
speech or motherese or parentese. It involves exaggerating the vowel and consonant
sounds, using a high-pitched voice, and delivering the phrase with great facial
expression. Why is this done? It may be in order to clearly articulate the sounds of a word
so that the child can hear the sounds involved. Or it may be because when this type of
speech is used, the infant pays more attention to the speaker and this sets up a pattern of
interaction in which the speaker and listener are in tuned with one another. When I
demonstrate this in class, the students certainly pay attention and look my way. Amazing! It
also works in the college classroom!

Theories of Language Development

The first two theories of language development represent two extremes in the level of
interaction required for language to occur (Berk, 2007).

Chomsky and the language acquisition device: The view known as nativism advocated
by Noam Chomsky suggests that infants are equipped with a neurological construct
referred to as the language acquisition device or LAD that makes infants ready for
language. Language develops as long as the infant is exposed to it. No teaching, training,
or reinforcement is required for language to develop.
Skinner and reinforcement: Learning theorist, B. F. Skinner, suggests that language
develops through the use of reinforcement. Sounds, words, gestures and phrases are
encouraged through by following the behavior with words of praise or treats or any thing
that increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.
Social pragmatics: Another view emphasizes the child’s active engagement in learning
language out of a need to communicate. The child seeks information, memorizes terms,
imitates the speech heard from others and learns to conceptualize using words as language
is acquired. Many would argue that all three of these dynamics foster the acquisition of
language (Berger, 2004).

Psychosocial Development and Attachment

Emotional Development
At birth, infants exhibit two emotional responses:
attraction and withdrawal. They show attraction to pleasant situations that bring comfort,
stimulation, and pleasure. And they withdraw from unpleasant stimulation such as bitter
flavors or physical discomfort. At around two months, infants exhibit social engagement in
the form of social smiling as they respond with smiles to those who engage their positive
attention. Pleasure is expressed as laughter at 3 to 5 months of age, and displeasure
becomes more specific fear, sadness, or anger between ages 6 and 8 months. This fear is
often associated with the presence of strangers or the departure of significant others known
respectively as stranger wariness and separation anxiety which appear sometime between
6 and 15 months. And there is some indication that infants may experience jealousy as
young as 6 months of age (Hart & Carrington, 2002).

During the second year of life, children begin to recognize themselves as they gain a sense
of self as object. This is illustrated in the 15 month old child’s ability to recognize one’s own
reflection in a mirror. (The classic mirror test or rouge test involves showing a toddler a
mirror after having secretly rubbed red coloring on the child’s nose. Children who are
younger than 15 months of age may try to wipe the color from the mirror. But a 15 month
old child may wipe the color from his or her own nose.) Once a child has achieved self-
awareness, the child is moving toward understanding social emotions such as guilt, shame
or embarrassment as well as sympathy or empathy. These will require an understanding of
the mental state of others that is acquired at around age 3 to 5 and will be explored in our
next lesson (Berk, 2007).

Forming Attachments
The significance of early attachments: An attachment is desire for physical closeness
with someone. The formation of attachments in infancy has been the subject of
considerable research as attachments have been viewed as foundations for future
relationships, as the basis for confidence and curiosity as toddlers, and as important
influences on self-concept.
Measuring attachment styles: The classic model for studying styles of attachment
involves having a caregiver and child come into a strange room filled with toys and
observing the child’s reactions. A securely attached child will play with the toys and bring
one to the caregiver to show and describe from time to time. The child is content and
secure as he or she explores the situation. An insecurely-resistant child will cling to the
caregiver and refuse to go and play. An insecure-avoidant attachment style is indicated by
a child who is neither curious nor clingy; rather the child sits and waits until time to go.

Attachment styles vary in the amount of security and closeness felt in the relationship and
they can change with new experience. The type of attachment fostered in parenting styles
varies by culture as well. For example, German parents value independence and Japanese
mothers are typically by their children’s sides. As a result, the rate of insecure-avoidant
attachments is higher in Germany and insecure-resistant attachments are higher in
Japan. These differences reflect cultural variation rather than true insecurity, however (van
Ijzendoorn and Sagi, 1999). Keep in mind that methods for measuring attachment styles
have been based on a model that reflects middle-class, U. S. values and
interpretation. Newer methods for assessment attachment styles involve using a Q-sort
technique in which a large number of behaviors are recorded on cards and the observer
sorts the cards in a way that reflects the type of behavior that occurs within the situation.

As we explore styles of attachment below, consider how these are evidenced also in adult
relationships.

Types of Attachments
Secure: A secure attachment is one in which the child feels confident that needs will be
met in a timely and consistent way. In North America, this interaction may include emotional
connection in addition to adequate care. However, even in cultures where mothers do not
talk, cuddle, and play with their infants, secure attachments can develop (LeVine et. al.,
1994). Secure attachments can form provided the child has consistent contact and care
from one or more caregivers. Consistency of contacts may be jeopardized if the infant is
cared for in a day care with a high turn-over of caregivers or if institutionalized and given
little more than basic physical care. And while infants who, perhaps because of being in
orphanages with inadequate care, have not had the opportunity to attach in infancy can
form initial secure attachments several years later, they may have more emotional
problems of depression, anger, or be overly friendly as they make adjustments (O’Connor
et. als., 2003).
Insecure Resistant: This attachment style is marked by insecurity and a resistance to
engaging in activities or play away from the caregiver. It is as if the child fears that the
caregiver will abandon them and clings accordingly. (Keep in mind that clingy behavior can
also just be part of a child natural disposition or temperament and does not necessarily
reflect some kind of parental neglect.) The child may cry if separated from the caregiver and
also cry upon their return. They seek constant reassurance that never seems to satisfy their
doubt. This type of insecure attachment might be a result of not having needs met in a
consistent or timely way. Consequently the infant is never sure that the world is a
trustworthy place or that he or she can rely on others without some anxiety. A caregiver
who is unavailable, perhaps because of marital tension, substance abuse, or preoccupation
with work, may send a message to the infant he or she cannot rely on having needs met. A
caregiver that attends to a child’s frustration can help teach them to be calm and to
relax. But an infant who receives only sporadic attention when experiencing discomfort may
not learn how to calm down.
Insecure-Avoidant: This too is an attachment style marked by insecurity. But this style is
also characterized by a tendency to avoid contact with the caregiver and with others. This
child may have learned that needs typically go unmet and learns that the caregiver does not
provide care and cannot be relied upon for comfort, even sporadically. An insecure-
avoidant child learns to be more independent and disengaged. Such a child might sit
passively in a room filled with toys until it is time to go.
Disorganized: This represents the most insecure style of attachment and occurs when the
child is given mixed, confused, and inappropriate responses from the caregiver. For
example, a mother who suffers from schizophrenia may laugh when a child is hurting or cry
when a child exhibits joy. The child does not learn how to interpret emotions or to connect
with the unpredictable caregiver.

How common are the attachment styles among children in the United States? It is
estimated that about 65 percent of children in the United States are securely
attached. Twenty percent exhibit avoidant styles and 10 to 15 percent are resistant. Another
5 to 10 percent may be characterized as disorganized. How would this compare with adults
in the United States? (We will look at this in our lesson on early adulthood.)

Temperament

Perhaps you have spent time with a number of infants. How

were they alike? How did they differ? Or compare yourself with your siblings or other
children you have known well. You may have noticed that some seemed to be in a better
mood than others and that some were more sensitive to noise or more easily distracted
than others. These differences may be attributed to temperment. Temperament is an inborn
quality noticeable soon after birth. According to Chess and Thomas (1996), children vary on
9 dimensions of temperament. These include activity level, regularity (or predictability),
sensitivity thresholds, mood, persistence or distractibility, among others. The New York
Longitudinal Study was a long term study of infants on these dimensions which began in
the 1950s. Most children do not have their temperament clinically measured, but categories
of temperament have been developed and are seen as useful in understanding and working
with children. These categories include easy or flexible, slow to warm up or cautious,
difficult or feisty, and undifferentiated (or those who can’t easily be categorized).

Think about how you might approach each type of child in order to improve
your interactions with them. An easy or flexible child will not need much extra attention
unless you want to find out whether they are having difficulties that have gone
unmentioned. A slow to warm up child may need to be given advance warning if new
people or situations are going to be introduced. A difficult or feisty child may need to be
given extra time to burn off their energy. A caregiver’s ability to work well and accurately
read the child will enjoy a goodness of fit meaning their styles match and communication
and interaction can flow. Rather than believing that discipline alone will bring about
improvements in children’s behavior, our knowledge of temperament may help a parent,
teacher or other gain insight to work more effectively with a child.
Temperament doesn’t change dramatically as we grow up, but we may learn how to work
around and manage our temperamental qualities. Temperament may be one of the things
about us that stays the same throughout development.

Psychosocial Development

Erikson’s Stages for Infants and Toddlers

Trust vs. mistrust: Erikson maintained that the first year to year and a half of life involves
the establishment of a sense of trust. Infants are dependent and must rely on others to
meet their basic physical needs as well as their needs for stimulation and comfort. A
caregiver who consistently meets these needs instills a sense of trust or the belief that the
world is a trustworthy place. The caregiver should not worry about overly indulging a child’s
need for comfort, contact or stimulation. This view is in sharp contrast with the Freudian
view that a parent who overly indulges the infant by allowing them to suck too long or be
picked up too frequently will be spoiled or become fixated at the oral stage of development.
Problems establishing trust: Consider the implications for establishing trust if a caregiver
is unavailable or is upset and ill-prepared to care for a child. Or if a child is born
prematurely, is unwanted, or has physical problems that make him or her less desirable to a
parent. Unwanted pregnancies can be experienced by busy, upper-middle class
professional couples as well as young, unmarried mothers, or couples in the midst of
relational strains. Under these circumstances, we cannot assume that the parent is going to
provide the child with a feeling of trust. However, keep in mind that children can also exhibit
strong resiliency to harsh circumstances. Resiliency can be attributed to certain personality
factors, such as an easy-going temperament and receiving support from others. So a
positive and strong support group can help a parent and child build a strong foundation by
offering assistance and positive attitudes toward the newborn and parent.

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt: As the child

begins to walk and talk, an interest in independence or autonomy replaces a concern for
trust. The toddler tests the limits of what can be touched, said, and explored. Erikson
believed that toddlers should be allowed to explore their environment as freely as safety
allows and in so doing will develop a sense of independence that will later grow to self-
esteem, initiative, and overall confidence. If a caregiver is overly anxious about the toddler’s
actions for fear that the child will get hurt or violate other’s expectation, the caregiver can
give the child the message that he or she should be ashamed of their behavior and instill a
sense of doubt in their own abilities. Parenting advice based on these ideas would be to
keep your toddler safe, but let him or her learn by doing. A sense of pride seems to rely on
doing rather than being told how capable one is as well (Berger, 2005).

Conclusion

We have explored the dramatic story of the first two years of life. Rapid physical growth,
neurological development, language acquisition, the movement from hands on to mental
learning, an expanding emotional repertoire, and the initial conceptions of self and others
make this period of life very exciting. These abilities are shaped into more sophisticated
mental processes, self-concepts, and social relationships during the years of early
childhood.

Introduction to Early Childhood

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to

1. Summarize overall physical growth during early childhood.
2. Describe growth of structures in the brain during early childhood.
3. Identify examples of gross and fine motor skill development in early
childhood.
4. Identify nutritional concerns for children in early childhood.
5. Examine nutritional content in popular foods consumed by children in early
childhood.
6. Describe sexual development in early childhood.
7. Define preoperational intelligence.
8. Illustrate animism, egocentrism, and centration using children’s games or
media.
9. Describe language development in early childhood.
10. Illustrate scaffolding.
11. Explain private speech.
12. Explain theory of mind.
13. Explain Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development for toddlers and
children in early childhood.
14. Contrast models of parenting styles.
15. Examine concerns about child care.
16. Explain theories of self from Cooley and Mead.
17. Summarize theories of gender role development.
18. Examine concerns about childhood stress and development.

REFERENCES

Ariès, P. (1962). Centuries of childhood; a social history of family life. New York: Knopf.

Baumrind, D. (1971). Current patterns of parental authority. Developmental Psychology

Monograph, 4(1), part 2.

Berk, L. E. (2007). Development through the life span (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Carroll, J. L. (2007). Sexuality now: Embracing diversity (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson.

Cohen, P. N., & Bianchi, S. M. (1999). Marriage, children, and women’s employment: What
do we know? Monthly Labor Review, 22-31.

Cooley, C. H. (1964). Human nature and the social order. New York: Schocken Books.

Employment Characteristics of Families Summary. (2010). U.S. Bureau of Labor

Statistics. Retrieved May 05, 2011, from http://www.bls.gov/news.release/famee.nr0.htm

Gecas, V., & Self, M. (1991). Families and adolescents. In A. Booth (Ed.), Contemporary
families: Looking forward, looking back (National Council on Family Relations).
Minneapolis.

Imai, M., Li, L., Haryu, E., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R. M., & Shigematsu, J. (2008). Novel
noun and verb learning in Chinese, English, and Japanese children: Universality and
language-specificity in novel noun and verb learning. Child Development, 79, 979-1000.

Kimmel, M. S. (2008). The gendered society (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kohn, M. L. (1977). Class and conformity. (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

LeMasters, E. E., & DeFrain, J. D. (1989). Parents in contemporary America: a sympathetic

view. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Maccoby, E., & Jacklin, C. (1987). Gender segregation in childhood. Advances in Child
Development and Behavior, 20, 239-287.

Martinson, F. M. (1981). Eroticism in infancy and childhood. In L. L. Constantine & F. M.

Martinson (Eds.), Children and sex: New findings, new perspectives. (pp. 23-35). Boston:
Little, Brown.

Mead, G. H., & Morris, C. W. (1967). Mind, self, and society; from the standpoint of a social
behaviorist. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Middlebrooks, J. S., & Audage, N. C. (2008). The effects of childhood stress on health
across the lifespan. (United States, Center for Disease Control, National Center for Injury
Prevention and Control). Atlanta, GA.

Nance-Nash, S. (2009, March 5). President’s Fund Repays Liberia’s Market Women |
Womens eNews. Women’s ENews. Retrieved May 05, 2011, from
http://womensenews.org/story/business/090305/presidents-fund-repays-liberias-market-
women

Okami, P., Olmstead, R., & Abramson, P. R. (1997). Sexual experiences in early childhood:
18-year longitudinal data from UCLA Family Lifestyles Project. Journal of Sex
Research, 34(4), 339-347.

Rice, F. P. (1997). Human development: A life-span approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.

Sadker, M., & Sadker, D. M. (1994). Failing at fairness: How America’s schools cheat girls.
New York: C. Scribner’s Sons.

Sandberg, J. F., & Hofferth, S. L. (2001). Changes in children’s time with parents: United
States, 1981-1997. Demography, 38, 423-436.

Schwartz, I. M. (1999). Sexual activity prior to coitus initiation: A comparison between

males and females. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 28(1), 63-69.

Vygotskiĭ, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, Massachusetts

Institute of Technology.

WHO | Gender and genetics: Sex selection and the law. (2010). Retrieved May 05, 2011,
from http://www.who.int/genomics/gender/en/index4.html

Physical Development

Growth in early childhood

Children between the ages of 2 and 6 years
tend to grow about 3 inches in height each year and gain about 4 to 5 pounds in weight
each year. The average 6 year old weighs about 46 pounds and is about 46 inches in
height. The 3 year old is very similar to a toddler with a large head, large stomach, short
arms and legs. But by the time the child reaches age 6, the torso has lengthened and body
proportions have become more like those of adults.

This growth rate is slower than that of infancy and is accompanied by a reduced appetite
between the ages of 2 and 6. This change can sometimes be surprising to parents and lead
to the development of poor eating habits.

Nutritional concerns

Caregivers who have established a feeding routine with their child can find this reduction in
appetite a bit frustrating and become concerned that the child is going to starve. However,
by providing adequate, sound nutrition, and limiting sugary snacks and drinks, the caregiver
can be assured that 1) the child will not starve; and 2) the child will receive adequate
nutrition. Preschoolers can experience iron deficiencies if not given well-balanced nutrition
and if given too much milk. Calcium interferes with the absorption of iron in the diet as well.

Caregivers need to keep in mind that they are setting up taste preferences at this
age. Young children who grow accustomed to high fat, very sweet and salty flavors may
have trouble eating foods that have more subtle flavors such as fruits and
vegetables. Consider the following advice about establishing eating patterns for years to
come (Rice, F.P., 1997). Notice that keeping mealtime pleasant, providing sound nutrition
and not engaging in power struggles over food are the main goals:

Tips for Establishing Healthy Eating Patterns

1. Don’t try to force your child to eat or fight over food. Of course, it is impossible to force
someone to eat. But the real advice here is to avoid turning food into some kind of
ammunition during a fight. Do not teach your child to eat to or refuse to eat in order to gain
favor or express anger toward someone else.

2. Recognize that appetite varies. Children may eat well at one meal and have no appetite at
another. Rather than seeing this as a problem, it may help to realize that appetites do
vary. Continue to provide good nutrition, but do not worry excessively if the child does not
eat.

3. Keep it pleasant. This tip is designed to help caregivers create a positive atmosphere
during mealtime. Mealtimes should not be the time for arguments or expressing
tensions. You do not want the child to have painful memories of mealtimes together or have
nervous stomachs and problems eating and digesting food due to stress.
4. No short order chefs. While it is fine to prepare foods that children enjoy, preparing a
different meal for each child or family member sets up an unrealistic expectation from
others. Children probably do best when they are hungry and a meal is ready. Limiting
snacks rather than allowing children to “graze” continuously can help create an appetite for
whatever is being served.

5. Limit choices. If you give your preschool aged child choices, make sure that you give them
one or two specific choices rather than asking “What would you like for lunch?” If given an
open choice, children may change their minds or choose whatever their sibling does not
choose!

6. Serve balanced meals. This tip encourages caregivers to serve balanced meals. A box of
macaroni and cheese is not a balanced meal. Meals prepared at home tend to have
better nutritional value than fast food or frozen dinners. Prepared foods tend to be higher in
fat and sugar content as these ingredients enhance taste and profit margin because fresh
food is often more costly and less profitable. However, preparing fresh food at home is not
costly. It does, however, require more activity. Preparing meals and including the children in
kitchen chores can provide a fun and memorable experience.

7. Don’t bribe. Bribing a child to eat vegetable by promising desert is not a good idea. For one
reason, the child will likely find a way to get the desert without eating the vegetables (by
whining or fidgeting, perhaps, until the caregiver gives in), and for another reason, because
it teaches the child that some foods are better than others. Children tend to naturally enjoy
a variety of foods until they are taught that some are considered less desirable than
others. A child, for example, may learn the broccoli they have enjoyed is seen as yucky by
others unless it’s smothered in cheese sauce!

To what extent do these tips address cultural practices? How might these tips vary by
culture?

Brain Maturation
Brain weight: If you recall, the brain is about 75 percent its adult weight by two years of
age. By age 6, it is at 95 percent its adult weight. Myelination and the development of
dendrites continues to occur in the cortex and as it does, we see a corresponding change in
what the child is capable of doing. Greater development in the prefrontal cortex, the area of
the brain behind the forehead that helps us to think, strategizes, and controls emotion,
makes it increasingly possible to control emotional outbursts and to understand how to play
games. Consider 4 or 5 year old children and how they might approach a game of
soccer. Chances are every move would be a response to the commands of a coach
standing nearby calling out, “Run this way! Now, stop. Look at the ball. Kick the ball!” And
when the child is not being told what to do, he or she is likely to be looking at the clover on
the ground or a dog on the other side of the fence! Understanding the game, thinking
ahead, and coordinating movement improve with practice and myelination. Not being too
upset over a loss, hopefully, does as well.

Visual Pathways

Have you ever examined the drawings of young children? If you look closely, you can
almost see the development of visual pathways reflected in the way these images change
as pathways become more mature. Early scribbles and dots illustrate the use of simple
motor skills. No real connection is made between an image being visualized and what is
created on paper.
At age 3, the child begins to draw wispy creatures with heads and not much other
detail. Gradually pictures begin to have more detail and incorporate more parts of the
body. Arm buds become arms and faces take on noses, lips and eventually
eyelashes. Look for drawings that you or your child has created to see this fascinating
trend. Here are some examples of pictures drawn by my daughters from ages 2 to 7 years.

Growth in the hemispheres and corpus callosum: Between ages 3 and 6, the left
hemisphere of the brain grows dramatically. This side of the brain or hemisphere is typically
involved in language skills. The right hemisphere continues to grow throughout early
childhood and is involved in tasks that require spatial skills such as recognizing shapes and
patterns. The corpus callosum which connects the two hemispheres of the brain undergoes
a growth spurt between ages 3 and 6 as well and results in improved coordination between
right and left hemisphere tasks. (I once saw a 5 year old hopping on one foot, rubbing his
stomach and patting his head all at the same time. I asked him what he was doing and he
replied, “My teacher said this would help my corpus callosum!” Apparently, his kindergarten
teacher had explained the process!)
Motor Skill Development

Early childhood is a time when children are especially attracted to motion and song. Days
are filled with moving, jumping, running, swinging and clapping and every place becomes a
playground. Even the booth at a restaurant affords the opportunity to slide around in the
seat or disappear underneath and imagine being a sea creature in a cave! Of course, this
can be frustrating to a caregiver, but it’s the business of early childhood. Children continue
to improve their gross motor skills as they run and jump. And frequently ask their caregivers
to “look at me” while they hop or roll down a hill. Children’s songs are often accompanied by
arm and leg movements or cues to turn around or move from left to right. Fine motor
skills are also being refined in activities such as pouring water into a container, drawing,
coloring, and using scissors. Some children’s songs promote fine motor skills as well (have
you ever heard of the song “itsy, bitsy, spider”?). Mastering the fine art of cutting one’s own
fingernails or tying shoes will take a lot of practice and maturation. Motor skills continue to
develop in middle childhood-but for preschoolers, play that deliberately involves these skills
is emphasized.

Go ahead. Sing along and practice your fine motor skills.

Sexual Development in Early Childhood

Historically, children have been thought of as innocent or incapable of sexual arousal

(Aries, 1962). Yet, the physical dimension of sexual arousal is present from birth. But to
associate the elements of seduction, power, love, or lust that is part of the adult meanings
of sexuality would be inappropriate. Sexuality begins in childhood as a response to physical
states and sensation and cannot be interpreted as similar to that of adults in any way
(Carroll, 2007).

Infancy: Boys and girls are capable of erections and vaginal lubrication even before birth
(Martinson, 1981). Arousal can signal overall physical contentment and stimulation that
accompanies feeding or warmth. And infants begin to explore their bodies and touch their
genitals as soon as they have the sufficient motor skills. This stimulation is for comfort or to
relieve tension rather than to reach orgasm (Carroll, 2007).
Early Childhood: Self-stimulation is common in early childhood for both boys and
girls. Curiosity about the body and about others’ bodies is a natural part of early childhood
as well. Consider this example. A mother is asked by her young daughter: “So it’s okay to
see a boy’s privates as long as it’s the boy’s mother or a doctor?” The mother hesitates a
bit and then responds, “Yes. I think that’s alright.” “Hmmm,” the girl begins, “When I grow
up, I want to be a doctor!” Hopefully, this subject is approached in a way that teaches
children to be safe and know what is appropriate without frightening them or causing
shame.

As children grow, they are more likely to show their genitals to siblings or peers, and to take
off their clothes and touch each other (Okami et al., 1997). Masturbation is common for
both boys and girls. Boys are often shown by other boys how to masturbate. But girls tend
to find out accidentally. And boys masturbate more often and touch themselves more
openly than do girls (Schwartz, 1999).

Hopefully, parents respond to this without undue alarm and without making the child feel
guilty about their bodies. Instead, messages about what is going on and the appropriate
time and place for such activities help the child learn what is appropriate.

Candela Citations
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY
 Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. Authored by: Laura Overstreet. Located
at: http://opencourselibrary.org/econ-201/. License: CC BY: Attribution
 picky eater image. Authored by: David Goehring. Located
at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/carbonnyc/6144729060. License: CC BY:
Attribution
Cognitive Development
Early childhood is a time of pretending, blending fact and fiction, and learning to think of the
world using language. As young children move away from needing to touch, feel, and hear
about the world toward learning some basic principles about how the world works, they hold
some pretty interesting initial ideas. For example, how many of you are afraid that you are
going to go down the bathtub drain? Hopefully, none of you do! But a child of three might
really worry about this as they sit at the front of the bathtub. A child might protest if told that
something will happen “tomorrow” but be willing to accept an explanation that an event will
occur “today after we sleep.” Or the young child may ask, “How long are we staying? From
here to here?” while pointing to two points on a table. Concepts such as tomorrow, time,
size and distance are not easy to grasp at this young age. Understanding size, time,
distance, fact and fiction are all tasks that are part of cognitive development in the
preschool years.

Preoperational Intelligence
Piaget’s stage that coincides with early childhood is the preoperational stage. The word
operational means logical, so these children were thought to be illogical. However, they
were learning to use language or to think of the world symbolically. Let’s examine some
Piaget’s assertions about children’s cognitive abilities at this age.
Pretend Play: Pretending is a favorite activity at this time. A toy has qualities beyond the
way it was designed to function and can now be used to stand for a character or object
unlike anything originally intended. A teddy bear, for example, can be a baby or the queen
of a faraway land!

Piaget believed that children’s pretend play helped children solidify new schemes they were
developing cognitively. This play, then, reflected changes in their conceptions or
thoughts. However, children also learn as they pretend and experiment. Their play does not
simply represent what they have learned (Berk, 2007).

Egocentrism: Egocentrism in early childhood refers to the tendency of young children to

think that everyone sees things in the same way as the child. Piaget’s classic experiment
on egocentrism involved showing children a 3 dimensional model of a mountain and asking
them to describe what a doll that is looking at the mountain from a different angle might
see. Children tend to choose a picture that represents their own, rather than the doll’s
view. However, when children are speaking to others, they tend to use different sentence
structures and vocabulary when addressing a younger child or an older adult. This indicates
some awareness of the views of others.
Syncretism: Syncretism refers to a tendency to think that if two events occur
simultaneously, one caused the other. I remember my daughter asking that if she put on
her bathing suit whether it would turn to summer!
Animism: Animism refers to attributing life-like qualities to objects. The cup is alive, the
chair that falls down and hits the child’s ankle is mean, and the toys need to stay home
because they are tired. Watch this segment in which the actor Robin Williams sings a song
to teach children the difference between what is alive and what is not alive. (Interesting, the
puppets in the background sing and dance the phrase “it’s not alive”. This might be a bit
confusing to the viewers!). Cartoons frequently show objects that appear alive and take on
lifelike qualities. Young children do seem to think that objects that move may be alive but
after age 3, they seldom refer to objects as being alive (Berk, 2007).
Classification Errors: Preoperational children have difficulty understanding that an object
can be classified in more than one way. For example, if shown three white buttons and four
black buttons and asked whether there are more black buttons or buttons, the child is likely
to respond that there are more black buttons. As the child’s vocabulary improves and more
schemes are developed, the ability to classify objects improves.

Conservation of Liquid. Does pouring liquid in a tall, narrow container make it have more?
Conservation Errors: Conservation refers to the ability to recognize that moving or
rearranging matter does not change the quantity. Imagine a 2 year old and a 4 year old
eating lunch. The 4 year old has a whole peanut butter and jelly sandwich. He notices,
however, that his younger sister’s sandwich is cut in half and protests, “She has
more!” Watch the following examples of conversation errors of quantity and volume:
Theory of Mind

Imagine showing a child of three a bandaid box and asking the child what is in the
box. Chances are, the child will reply, “bandaids.” Now imagine that you open the box and
pour out crayons. If you ask the child what they thought was in the box before it was
opened, they may respond, “crayons”. If you ask what a friend would have thought was in
the box, the response would still be “crayons”. Why? Before about 4 years of age, a child
does not recognize that the mind can hold ideas that are not accurate. So this 3 year old
changes his or her response once shown that the box contains crayons. The theory of
mind is the understanding that the mind can be tricked or that the mind is not always
accurate. At around age 4, the child would reply, “Crayons” and understand that thoughts
and realities do not always match.

This awareness of the existence of mind is part of social intelligence or the ability to
recognize that others can think differently about situations. It helps us to be self-conscious
or aware that others can think of us in different ways and it helps us to be able to be
understanding or empathic toward others. This mind reading ability helps us to anticipate
and predict the actions of others (even though these predictions are sometimes inaccurate).

The awareness of the mental states of others is important for communication and social
skills. A child who demonstrates this skill is able to anticipate the needs of others. This
video describes a research in which theory of mind is linked to popularity.

Language Development
Vocabulary growth: A child’s vocabulary expands between the ages of 2 to 6 from about
200 words to over 10,000 words through a process called fast-mapping. Words are easily
learned by making connections between new words and concepts already known. The
parts of speech that are learned depend on the language and what is emphasized. Children
speaking verb-friendly languages such as Chinese and Japanese as well as those speaking
English tend to learn nouns more readily. But those learning less verb-friendly languages
such as English seem to need assistance in grammar to master the use of verbs (Imai, et
als, 2008). Children are also very creative in creating their own words to use as labels such
as a “take-care-of” when referring to John, the character on the cartoon, Garfield, who takes
care of the cat.
Literal meanings: Children can repeat words and phrases after having heard them only
once or twice. But they do not always understand the meaning of the words or
phrases. This is especially true of expressions or figures of speech which are taken
literally. For example, two preschool aged girls began to laugh loudly while listening to a
tape-recording of Disney’s “Sleeping Beauty” when the narrator reports, “Prince Phillip lost
his head!” They image his head popping off and rolling down the hill as he runs and
searches for it. Or a classroom full of preschoolers hears the teacher say, “Wow! That was
a piece of cake!” The children began asking “Cake? Where is my cake? I want cake!”
Overregularization: Children learn rules of grammar as they learn language but may apply
these rules inappropriately at first. For instance, a child learns to ad “ed” to the end of a
word to indicate past tense. Then form a sentence such as “I goed there. I doed that.” This
is typical at ages 2 and 3. They will soon learn new words such as went and did to be used
in those situations.
The Impact of Training: Remember Vygotsky and the Zone of Proximal
Development? Children can be assisted in learning language by others who listen
attentively, model more accurate pronunciations and encourage elaboration. The child
exclaims, “I’m goed there!” and the adult responds, “You went there? Say, ‘I went
there.’ Where did you go?” Children may be ripe for language as Chomsky suggests, but
active participation in helping them learn is important for language development as well.
The process of scaffolding is one in which the guide provides needed assistance to the
child as a new skill is learned.
Private Speech: Do you ever talk to yourself? Why? Chances are, this occurs when you
are struggling with a problem, trying to remember something, or feel very emotional about a
situation. Children talk to themselves too. Piaget interpreted this as egocentric speech or a
practice engaged in because of a child’s inability to seeing things from others points
of views. Vygotsky, however, believed that children talk to themselves in order to solve
problems or clarify thoughts. As children learn to think in words, they do so aloud before
eventually closing their lips and engaging in private speech or inner speech. Thinking out
loud eventually becomes thought accompanied by internal speech and talking to oneself
becomes a practice only engaged in when we are trying to learn something or remember
something, etc. This inner speech is not as elaborate as the speech we use when
communicating with others (Vygotsky, 1962).

Candela Citations
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY
 Psyc 200 Lifespan Psychology. Authored by: Laura Overstreet. Located
at: http://opencourselibrary.org/econ-201/. License: CC BY: Attribution
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED CONTENT
 Piaget - Stage 2 - Preoperational - Lack of Conservation. Provided by: Fi3021's
channel. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=GLj0IZFLKvg&feature=youtu.be. License: Other. License Terms: Standard
YouTube License
 Classic Sesame Street - Robin Williams on what is alive. Provided by:
sawing14s. Located at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=3p47bGlZuDA&feature=youtu.be. License: Other. License Terms: Standard
YouTube License

Psychosocial Development

A Look at Self-Concept, Gender Identity, and Family Life

Self-Concept
Early childhood is a time of forming an initial sense of self. A
self-concept or idea of who we are, what we are capable of doing, and how we think and
feel is a social process that involves taking into consideration how others view us. It might
be said, then, that in order to develop a sense of self, you must have interaction with
others. Interactionist theorists, Cooley and Mead offer two interesting explanations of how a
sense of self develops.

Interactionism and Views of Self

Cooley: Charles Horton Cooley (1964) suggests that our self concept comes from looking
at how others respond to us. This process, known as the looking-glass self involves looking
at how others seem to view us and interpreting this as we make judgments about whether
we are good or bad, strong or weak, beautiful or ugly, and so on. Of course, we do not
always interpret their responses accurately so our self-concept is not simply a mirror
reflection of the views of others. After forming an initial self-concept, we may use it as a
mental filter screening out those responses that do not seem to fit our ideas of who we
are. So compliments may be negated, for example. Think of times in your life when you feel
self-conscious. The process of the looking-glass self is pronounced when we are
preschoolers, or perhaps when we are in a new school or job or are taking on a new role in
our personal lives and are trying to gauge our own performances. When we feel more sure
of who we are we focus less on how we appear to others.
Mead: Herbert Mead (1967) offers an explanation of how we develop a social sense of self
by being able to see ourselves through the eyes of others. There are two parts of the
self: the “I” which is the part of the self that is spontaneous, creative, innate, and is not
concerned with how others view us and the “me” or the social definition of who we are.

When we are born, we are all “I” and act without concern about how others view us. But the
socialized self begins when we are able to consider how one important person views
us. This initial stage is called “taking the role of the significant other”. For example, a child
may pull a cat’s tail and be told by his mother, “No! Don’t do that, that’s bad” while receiving
a slight slap on the hand. Later, the child may mimic the same behavior toward the self and
say aloud, “No, that’s bad” while patting his own hand. What has happened? The child is
able to see himself through the eyes of the mother. As the child grows and is exposed to
many situations and rules of culture, he begins to view the self in the eyes of many others
through these cultural norms or rules. This is referred to as “taking the role of the
generalized other” and results in a sense of self with many dimensions. The child comes to
have a sense of self as student, as friend, as son, and so on.

Exaggerated Sense of Self

One of the ways to gain a clearer sense of self is to exaggerate those qualities that are to
be incorporated into the self. Preschoolers often like to exaggerate their own qualities or to
seek validation as the biggest or smartest or child who can jump the highest. I wonder if
messages given in children’s books or television shows that everyone is special are really
meaningful to children who want to separate themselves from others on such qualities. This
exaggeration tends to be replaced by a more realistic sense of self in middle childhood.

Erikson: Initiative vs. Guilt

The trust and autonomy of previous stages develop into a desire to take initiative or to think
of ideas and initiative action. Children may want to build a fort with the cushions from the
living room couch or open a lemonade stand in the driveway or make a zoo with their
stuffed animals and issue tickets to those who want to come. Or they may just want to get
themselves ready for bed without any assistance. To reinforce taking initiative, caregivers
should offer praise for the child’s efforts and avoid being critical of messes or
mistakes. Soggy washrags and toothpaste left in the sink pales in comparison to the smiling
face of a five year old that emerges from the bathroom with clean teeth and pajamas!

Gender Identity, Gender Constancy and Gender Roles

Another important dimension of the self is the sense of self as male or female. Preschool
aged children become increasingly interested in finding out the differences between boys
and girls both physically and in terms of what activities are acceptable for each. While 2
year olds can identify some differences and learn whether they are boys or girls,
preschoolers become more interested in what it means to be male or female. This self-
identification or gender identity is followed sometime later with gender constancy or the
knowledge that gender does not change. Gender roles or the rights and expectations that
are associated with being male or female are learned throughout childhood and into
adulthood.

Freud and the phallic stage: Freud believed that masculinity and femininity were learned
during the phallic stage or psychosexual development. During the phallic stage, the child
develops an attraction to the opposite sexed parent but after recognizing that that parent is
unavailable, learns to model their own behavior after the same sexed parent. The child
develops his or her own sense of masculinity or femininity from this resolution. And,
according to Freud, a person who does not exhibit gender appropriate behavior, such as a
woman who competes with men for jobs or a man who lacks self-assurance and
dominance, has not successfully completed this stage of development. Consequently, such
a person continues to struggle with his or her own gender identity.
Chodorow and mothering: Chodorow, a neoFreudian, believed that mothering promotes
gender stereotypic behavior. Mothers push their sons away too soon and direct their
attention toward problem-solving and independence. As a result, sons grow up confident in
their own abilities but uncomfortable with intimacy. Girls are kept dependent too long and
are given unnecessary and even unwelcome assistance from their mothers. Girls learn to
underestimate their abilities and lack assertiveness, but feel comfortable with intimacy.

Both of these models assume that early childhood experiences result in lifelong gender self-
concepts. However, gender socialization is a process that continues throughout
life. Children, teens, and adults refine and can modify their sense of self based on gender.

Learning through reinforcement and modeling: Learning theorists suggest that gender
role socialization is a result of the ways in which parents, teachers, friends, schools,
religious institutions, media and others send messages about what is acceptable or
desirable behavior as males or females. This socialization begins early-in fact, it may even
begin the moment a parent learns that a child is on the way. Knowing the sex of the child
can conjure up images of the child’s behavior, appearance, and potential on the part of a
parent. And this stereotyping continues to guide perception through life. Consider parents of
newborns, shown a 7 pound, 20 inch baby, wrapped in blue (a color designating males)
describe the child as tough, strong, and angry when crying. Shown the same infant in pink
(a color used in the United States for baby girls), these parents are likely to describe the
baby as pretty, delicate, and frustrated when crying. (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1987). Female
infants are held more, talked to more frequently and given direct eye contact, while male
infants play is often mediated through a toy or activity.

Sons are given tasks that take them outside the house and that have to be performed only
on occasion while girls are more likely to be given chores inside the home such as cleaning
or cooking that is performed daily. Sons are encouraged to think for themselves when they
encounter problems and daughters are more likely to be given assistance even when they
are working on an answer. This impatience is reflected in teachers waiting less time when
asking a female student for an answer than when asking for a reply from a male student
(Sadker and Sadker, 1994). Girls are given the message from teachers that they must try
harder and endure in order to succeed while boys successes are attributed to their
intelligence. Of course, the stereotypes of advisors can also influence which kinds of
courses or vocational choices girls and boys are encouraged to make.

Friends discuss what is acceptable for boys and girls and popularity may be based on
modeling what is considered ideal behavior or looks for the sexes. Girls tend to tell one
another secrets to validate others as best friends while boys compete for position by
emphasizing their knowledge, strength or accomplishments. This focus on
accomplishments can even give rise to exaggerating accomplishments in boys, but girls are
discouraged from showing off and may learn to minimize their accomplishments as a result.

Gender messages abound in our environment. But does this mean that each of us receives
and interprets these messages in the same way? Probably not. In addition to being
recipients of these cultural expectations, we are individuals who also modify these roles
(Kimmel, 2008).

How much does gender matter? In the United States, gender differences are found in
school experiences (even into college and professional school, girls are less vocal in the
classrooms and much more at risk for sexual harassment from teachers, coaches,
classmates, and professors), in social interactions and in media
messages. The stereotypes that boys should be strong, forceful, active, dominant, and
rational and that girls should be pretty, subordinate, unintelligent, emotional, and gabby are
portrayed in children’s toys, books, commercials, video games, movies, television shows
and music. In adulthood, these differences are reflected in income gaps between men and
women where women working full-time earn about 74 percent the income of men, in higher
rates of women suffering rape and domestic violence, higher rates of eating disorders for
females, and in higher rates of violent death for men in young adulthood. Each of these
differences will be explored further in subsequent chapters.

The impact in India: Gender differences in India can be a matter of life and death as
preferences for male children have been strong historically and are still held, especially in
rural areas. (WHO, 2010). Male children are given preference for receiving food, breast
milk, medical care and other resources. It is no longer legal to give parents information on
the sex of their developing child for fear that they will abort a female fetus. Clearly, gender
socialization and discrimination still impact development in a variety of ways across the
globe.

Family Life

Parenting Styles

Relationships between parents and children continue to play a significant role in children’s
development during early childhood. We will explore two models of parenting styles. Keep
in mind that these most parents do not follow any model completely. Real people tend to fall
somewhere in between these styles. And sometimes parenting styles change from one
child to the next or in times when the parent has more or less time and energy for
parenting. Parenting styles can also be affected by concerns the parent has in other areas
of his or her life. For example, parenting styles tend to become more authoritarian when
parents are tired and perhaps more authoritative when they are more energetic. Sometimes
parents seem to change their parenting approach when others are around, maybe because
they become more self-conscious as parents or are concerned with giving others the
impression that they are a “tough” parent or an “easy-going” parent. And of course,
parenting styles may reflect the type of parenting someone saw modeled while growing up.

Baumrind (1971) offers a model of parenting that includes three

styles. The first, authoritarian, is the traditional model of parenting in which parents make
the rules and children are expected to be obedient. Baumrind suggests that authoritarian
parents tend to place maturity demands on their children that are unreasonably high and
tend to be aloof and distant. Consequently, children reared in this way may fear rather than
respect their parents and, because their parents do not allow discussion, may take out their
frustrations on safer targets-perhaps as bullies toward peers.
Permissive parenting involves holding expectations of children that are below what could
be reasonably expected from them. Children are allowed to make their own rules and
determine their own activities. Parents are warm and communicative, but provide little
structure for their children. Children fail to learn self-discipline and may feel somewhat
insecure because they do not know the limits.
Authoritative parenting involves being appropriately strict, reasonable, and
affectionate. Parents allow negotiation where appropriate and discipline matches the
severity of the offense. A popular parenting program that is offered in many school districts
is called “Love and Logic” and reflects the authoritative or democratic style of parenting just
described. Uninvolved parents are disengaged from their children. They do not make
demands on their children and are non-responsive. These children can suffer in school and
in their relationships with their peers (Gecas & Self, 1991).
Lemasters and Defrain (1989) offer another model of parenting. This model is interesting
because it looks more closely at the motivations of the parent and suggests that parenting
styles are often designed to meet the psychological needs of the parent rather than the
developmental needs of the child. The martyr is a parent who will do anything for the child;
even tasks that the child should do for himself or herself. All of the good deeds performed
for the child, in the name of being a “good parent”, may be used later should the parent
want to gain compliance from the child. If a child goes against the parent’s wishes, the
parent can remind the child of all of the times the parent helped the child and evoke a
feeling of guilt so that the child will do what the parent wants. The child learns to be
dependent and manipulative as a result. (Beware! A parent busy whipping up cookies may
really be thinking “control”!)
The pal is like the permissive parent described in Baumrind’s model above. The pal wants
to be the child’s friend. Perhaps the parent is lonely or perhaps the parent is trying to win a
popularity contest against an ex-spouse. Pals let children do what they want and focus
most on being entertaining and fun and set few limitations. Consequently, the child may
have little self-discipline and may try to test limits with others.
The police officer/drill sergeant style of parenting is similar to the authoritarian parent
described above. The parent focuses primarily making sure that the child is obedient and
that the parent has full control of the child. Sometimes this can be taken to extreme by
giving the child tasks that are really designed to check on their level of obedience. For
example, the parent may require that the child fold the clothes and place items back in the
drawer in a particular way. If not, the child might be scolded or punished for not doing things
“right”. This type of parent has a very difficult time allowing the child to grow and learn to
make decisions independently. And the child may have a lot of resentment toward the
parent that is displaced on others.
The teacher-counselor parent is one who pays a lot of attention to expert advice on
parenting and who believes that as long as all of the steps are followed, the parent can rear
a perfect child. “What’s wrong with that?” you might ask. There are two major problems with
this approach. First, the parent is taking all of the responsibility for the child’s behavior-at
least indirectly. If the child has difficulty, the parent feels responsible and thinks that the
solution lies in reading more advice and trying more diligently to follow that advice. Parents
can certainly influence children, but thinking that the parent is fully responsible for the
child’s outcome if faulty. A parent can only do so much and can never have full control over
the child. Another problem with this approach is that the child may get an unrealistic sense
of the world and what can be expected from others. For example, if a teacher-counselor
parent decides to help the child build self-esteem and has read that telling the child how
special he or she is or how important it is to compliment the child on a job well done, the
parent may convey the message that everything the child does is exceptional or
extraordinary. A child may come to expect that all of his efforts warrant praise and in the
real world, this is not something one can expect. Perhaps children get more of a sense of
pride from assessing their own performance than from having others praise their efforts.
So what is left? Lemasters and Defrain (1989) suggest that the athletic coach style of
parenting is best. Before you draw conclusions here, set aside any negative experiences
you may have had with coaches in the past. The principles of coaching are what are
important to Lemasters and Defrain. A coach helps players form strategies, supports their
efforts, gives feedback on what went right and what went wrong, and stands at the sideline
while the players perform. Coaches and referees make sure that the rules of the game are
followed and that all players adhere to those rules. Similarly, the athletic coach as parent
helps the child understand what needs to happen in certain situations whether in
friendships, school, or home life, and encourages and advises the child about how to
manage these situations. The parent does not intervene or do things for the child. Rather,
the parent’s role is to provide guidance while the child learns first hand how to handle these
situations. And the rules for behavior are consistent and objective and presented in that
way. So, a child who is late for dinner might hear the parent respond in this way, “Dinner
was at six o’clock.” Rather than, “You know good and well that we always eat at six. If you
expect me to get up and make something for you now, you have got another thing
coming! Just who do you think you are showing up late and looking for food? You’re
grounded until further notice!”

The most important thing to remember about parenting is that you can be a better, more
objective parent when you are directing your actions toward the child’s needs and while
considering what they can reasonably be expected to do at their stage of
development. Parenting is more difficult when you are tired and have psychological needs
that interfere with the relationship. Some of the best advice for parents is to try not to take
the child’s actions personally and be as objective as possible.
The impact of class and culture cannot be ignored when examining parenting
styles. The two models of parenting described above assume that authoritative and athletic
coaching styles are best because they are designed to help the parent raise a child who is
independent, self-reliant and responsible. These are qualities favored in “individualistic”
cultures such as the United States, particularly by the middle class. African-American,
Hispanic and Asian parents tend to be more authoritarian than non-Hispanic
whites. However, in “collectivistic” cultures such as China or Korea, being obedient and
compliant are favored behaviors. Authoritarian parenting has been used historically and
reflects cultural need for children to do as they are told. In societies where family members’
cooperation is necessary for survival, as in the case of raising crops, rearing children who
are independent and who strive to be on their own makes no sense. But in an economy
based on being mobile in order to find jobs and where one’s earnings are based on
education, raising a child to be independent is very important.

Working class parents are more likely than middle class parents to focus on obedience and
honesty when raising their children. In a classic study on social class and parenting styles
called Class and Conformity, Kohn (1977) explains that parents tend to emphasize qualities
that are needed for their own survival when parenting their children. Working class parents
are rewarded for being obedient, reliable, and honest in their jobs. They are not paid to be
independent or to question the management; rather, they move up and are considered
good employees if they show up on time, do their work as they are told, and can be counted
on by their employers. Consequently, these parents reward honesty and obedience in their
children. Middle class parents who work as professionals are rewarded for taking initiative,
being self-directed, and assertive in their jobs. They are required to get the job done without
being told exactly what to do. They are asked to be innovative and to work
independently. These parents encourage their children to have those qualities as well by
rewarding independence and self-reliance. Parenting styles can reflect many elements of
culture.

Child Care Concerns

About 77.3 percent of mothers of school-aged and 64.2 percent of mothers of preschool
aged children in the United States work outside the home (Cohen and Bianchi, 1999;
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010). Since more women have been entering the workplace,
there has been a concern that families do not spend as much time with their children. This,
however, is not true. Between 1981 and 1997, the amount of time that parents spent with
children has increased overall (Sandberg and Hofferth, 2001).

Seventy-five percent of children under age 5 are in scheduled child care programs. Others
are cared for by family members, friends, or are in Head Start Programs. Older children are
often in after school programs, before school programs, or stay at home alone after school
once they are older. Quality childcare programs can enhance a child’s social skills and can
provide rich learning experiences. But long hours in poor quality care can have negative
consequences for young children in particular. What determines the quality of child
care? One consideration is the teacher/child ratio. States specify the maximum number of
children that can be supervised by one teacher. In general, the younger the children, the
more teachers required for a given number of children. The higher the teacher to child ratio,
the more time the teacher has for involvement with the children and the less stressed the
teacher may be so that the interactions can be more relaxed, stimulating and
positive. The more children there are in a program, the less desirable the program as
well. This is because the center may be more rigid in rules and structure to accommodate
the large number of children in the facility.
The physical environment should be colorful, stimulating, clean, and
safe. The philosophy of the organization and the curriculum available should be child-
centered, positive, and stimulating. Providers should be trained in early childhood education
as well. A majority of states do not require training for their child care providers. And while
formal education is not required for a person to provide a warm, loving relationship to a
child, knowledge of a child’s development is useful for addressing their social, emotional,
and cognitive needs in an effective way. By working toward improving the quality of
childcare and increasing family-friendly workplace policies such as more flexible scheduling
and perhaps childcare facilities at places of employment, we can accommodate families
with smaller children and relieve parents of the stress sometimes associated with managing
work and family life.

Global Concerns: The Market Women of Liberia

Work and mothering go hand in hand in many parts of the world. Consider the market
women of Liberia. These are women who work as street vendors and are primary providers
for their families. They come together in marketplaces along with their children to sell their
goods while keeping a watchful eye on their children. Recently, they have been supported
by President Sirleaf whose grandmother was a market woman. President Sirleaf has
worked to raise funds to improve the marketplaces and conditions for mothers and
children. The hope has been to make these marketplaces more safe, to provide childcare,
and social services to improve the lives of mothers and children (Nance-Nash, 2009).

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=heYBJd2uvZo&feature=youtu.be

Introduction to Middle Childhood

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to

1. Describe physical growth during middle childhood.
2. Prepare recommendations to avoid health risks in school-aged children.
3. Describe recognized examples of concrete operational intelligence.
4. Define conservation, reversibility, and identity in concrete operational
intelligence.
5. Explain information processing theory of memory.
6. Characterize language development in middle childhood.
7. Compare preconventional, conventional, and postconventional moral
development.
8. Define learning disability and describe dyslexia and attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder.
9. Evaluate the impact of labeling on children’s self-concept and social
relationships.
10. Explain the rationale for identifying childhood conditions as spectrum
disorders.
11. Explain the controversy over the use of standardized testing in schools.
12. Compare Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences and Sternberg’s triarchic
theory of intelligence.
13. Compare aptitude and achievement tests.
14. Apply the ecological systems model to explore children’s experiences in
schools.
15. Examine social relationships in middle childhood.
16. Characterized the incidence and impact of sexual abuse in middle
childhood.
17. Analyze the impact of family structure on children’s development.
18. Describe the developmental stages of stepfamilies.

Introduction

Middle childhood is the period of life that begins when children enter school and lasts until
they reach adolescence. Think for a moment about children this age that you may
know. What are their lives like? What kinds of concerns do they express and with what
kinds of activities are their days filled? If it were possible, would you want to return to this
period of life? Why or why not? Early childhood and adolescence seem to get much more
attention than middle childhood. Perhaps this is because growth patterns slow at this time,
the id becomes hidden during the latent stage, according to Freud, and children spend
much more time in schools, with friends, and in structured activities. It may be easy for
parents to lose track of their children’s development unless they stay directly involved in
these worlds. I think it is important to stop and give full attention to middle childhood to stay
in touch with these children and to take notice of the varied influences on their lives in a
larger world.

REFERENCES:

Arditti, J. A. (1999). Rethinking relationships between divorced mothers and their children:
Capitalizing on family strengths. Family Relations, 48, 109-119.

Asperger syndrome: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. (2006). National Library of

Medicine – National Institutes of Health. Retrieved May 05, 2011, from
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001549.htm

Berk, L. (2007). Development through the life span (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Boulton, M. J. (1999). Concurrent and longitudinal relations between children’s playground

behavior and social preference, victimization, and bullying. Child Development, 70, 944-
954.

Chao, R. (2001). Extending research on the consequences of parenting styles for Chinese
Americans and European Americans. Child Development, 72, 1832-1843.

Cillesen, A. H., & Mayeaux, L. (2004). From censure to reinforcement: Developmental

changes in the association between aggression and social status.. Child Development, 75,
147-163.

Considered, A. T. (n.d.). Youth Soccer Coaches Encouraged to Ease Regimen : NPR. NPR
: National Public Radio : News & Analysis, World, US, Music & Arts : NPR. Retrieved May
05, 2011, from http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5428473
Davis, N. J. (1999). Youth crisis: Growing up in the high-risk society. Westport, CT:
Praeger.

Drexler, P. (2005). Raising boys without men. Emmaus, PA: Rodale.

Finkelhor, D. (1984). Child sexual abuse: New theory and research. New York: Free Press.

Finkelhor, D., Hotaling, G., Lewis, I. A., & Smith, C. (1990). Sexual abuse in a national
survey of adult men and women: Prevalence, characteristics, and risk factors. Child Abuse
and Neglect, 14, 19-28.

Furstenberg, F. F., & Cherlin, A. J. (1991). Divided families: What happens to children when
parents part. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic
Books.

Gardner, H. (1998). Are there additional intelligences? The case for naturalist, spiritual, and
existentialist intelligences. In J. Kane (Ed.), Education, information, and transformation:
Essays on learning and thinking. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New
York, NY: Basic Books.

Guttmann, J. (1993). Divorce in psychosocial perspective: Theory and research. Hillsdale,

NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates.

Harmanci, R. (2006, December 17). Sex inuendo: Under the tree over the punch bowl.
Cultural shift: Little girls, sexy dolls-toy industry markets to ‘Kids growing older younger.
Retrieved January 3, 2007, from
http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2006/12/17/MNGoMN18MP1.DTL

Hetherington, E. M., & Kelly, J. (2002). For better or for worse: Divorce reconsidered. New
York: W.W. Norton.

Horvat, E. M. (2004). Moments of social inclusion and exclusion: Race, class, and cultural
capital in family-school relationships. In A. Lareau (Author) & J. H. Ballantine & J. Z. Spade
(Eds.), Schools and society: A sociological approach to education (2nd ed., pp. 276-286).
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Irvine, M. (2006). 10 is the new 15 as kids grow up faster. Retrieved January 3, 2007, from
http://ww.foxnews.com/wires/2006Nov26/0.4670.TeenTweens.00.html

Kohlberg, L. (1963). The development of children’s oreintations toward a moral order:

Sequence in the development of moral thought. Vita Humana, 16, 11-36.

McLanahan, S., & Sandefur, G. D. (1994). Growing up with a single parent: What hurts,
what helps. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

McLaren, P. (1999). Schooling as a ritual performance: Toward a political economy of

educational symbols and gestures (3rd ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Papernow, P. L. (1993). Becoming a stepfamily: Patterns of development in remarried

families. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Pervasive Developmental Disorders Information Page. (n.d.). National Institute of
Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). Retrieved May 05, 2011, from
http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/pdd/pdd.htm

Seccombe, K., & Warner, R. L. (2004). Marriages and families: Relationships in social
context. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Spade, J. Z. (2004). Learning the student role: Kindergarten as Academic Boot Camp. In H.
Gracey (Author) & J. H. Ballantine (Ed.), Schools and society: A sociological approach to
education (2nd ed., pp. 144-148). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Special issues for tweens and teens. (n.d.). Retrieved December 23, 2006, from
http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/parents/marketing/issues_teens_marketing.cfm?
RenderForPrint=1

Squires, R. (2006, November 3). Marketers hijack sexuality: Expert decries young girls’ loss
of childhood. Winnipeg Sun. Retrieved January 3, 2007, from
http://www.jeankilbourne.com/news.htm.

Sternberg, R. J. (1997). Successful intelligence: How practical and creative intelligence

determine success in life. New York: Plume.

Sternberg, R. J. (1999). A triarchic approach to understanding and assessment of

intelligence in multicultural populations. Journal of School Psychology, 37, 145-159.

Physical Development

Growth Rates and Motor Skills

Rates of growth generally slow during Middle Childhood. Typically, a child will gain about 5-
7 pounds a year and grow about 2 inches per year. They also tend to slim down and gain
muscle strength and lung capacity making it possible to engage in strenuous physical
activity for long periods of time. The brain reaches its adult size at about age 7. The school-
aged child can is better able to plan, coordinate activity using both left and right
hemispheres of the brain, and to control emotional outbursts. Paying attention is also
improved as the prefrontal cortex matures. And as the myelin continues to develop, the
child’s reaction time also improves as well. One result of the slower rate of growth is an
improvement in motor skills. Children of this age tend to sharpen their abilities to perform
both gross motor skills such as riding a bike and fine motor skills such as cutting their
fingernails.

Organized Sports: Pros and

Cons
Middle childhood seems to be a great time to introduce children to organized sports. And in
fact, many parents do. Nearly 3 million children play soccer in the United States (listen to
NPR’s “Youth Soccer Coaches Encouraged to Ease Regimen” story from 5/24/06). This
activity promises to help children build social skills, improve athletically and learn a sense of
competition. It has been suggested, however, that the emphasis on competition and athletic
skill can be counterproductive and lead children to grow tired of the game and want to
quit. In many respects, it appears that children’s activities are no longer children’s activities
once adults become involved and approach the games as adults rather than children. The
U. S. Soccer Federation recently advised coaches to reduce the amount of drilling engaged
in during practice and to allow children to play more freely and to choose their own
positions. The hope is that this will build on their love of the game and foster their natural
talents.

New Concerns

Childhood Obesity

Rates: About 16 to 33 percent of American children are obese (U. S. Department of Health
and Human Services, 2005). This is defined as being at least 20 percent over their ideal
weight. The percentage of obesity in school aged children has increased substantially
since the 1960s and has in fact doubled since the 1980s.

Reasons: This is true in part because of the introduction of a steady diet of television and
other sedentary activities. In addition, we have come to emphasize high fat, fast foods as a
culture. Pizza, hamburgers, chicken nuggets and “lunchables” with soda have replaced
more nutritious foods as staples.
Consequences: Children who are overweight tend to be ridiculed and teased by others.
This can certainly be damaging to their self-image and popularity. In addition, obese
children run the risk of suffering orthopedic problems such as knee injuries, and an increase
risk of heart disease and stroke in adulthood. It’s hard for a child who is obese to become a
non-obese adult. In addition, the number of cases of pediatric diabetes has risen
dramatically in recent years.
Recommendations: Dieting is not really the answer. If you diet, your basal metabolic rate
tends to decrease thereby making the body burn even fewer calories in order to maintain
the weight. Increased activity is much more effective in lowering the weight and improving
the child’s health and psychological well-being. Exercise reduces stress and being an
overweight child, subjected to the ridicule of others can certainly be stressful. Parents
should take caution against emphasizing diet alone to avoid the development of any
obsession about dieting that can lead to eating disorders as teens. Again, increasing a
child’s activity level is most helpful.
A Look at School Lunches: Many children in the United States buy their lunches in the
school cafeteria, so it might be worthwhile to look at the nutritional content of school
lunches. You can obtain this information through your local school district’s website. An
example of a school menu and nutritional analysis from a school district in north central
Texas is a meal consisting of pasta alfredo, bread stick, peach cup, tomato soup, and a
brownie, and 2% milk and is in compliance with Federal Nutritional Guidelines of 108%
calories, 24 % protein, 55 % carbohydrates, 27% fat, and 8% saturated fats, according to
the website. Students may also purchase chips, cookies, or ice cream along with their
meals. Many school districts rely on the sale of desert and other items in the lunchrooms to
make additional revenues. Many children purchase these additional items and so our look
at their nutritional intake should also take this into consideration.

Consider another menu from an elementary school in the state of Washington. This sample
meal consists of chicken burger, tater tots, fruit and veggies and 1% or nonfat milk. This
meal is also in compliance with Federal Nutrition Guidelines but has about 300 fewer
calories. And, children are not allowed to purchase additional deserts such as cookies or
ice cream.

Of course, children eat away from school as well. Listen to NPR’s Kids Have Easy Access
to Junk Food to hear a story about how advertising and fast food restaurant locations may
influence children’s diets.

Cognitive Development
Recall from our last lesson on early childhood are in the preoperational stage, according to
Piaget, and during this stage children are learning to think symbolically about the world.

Concrete Operational Thought

From ages 7 to 11, the school-aged child is in what Piaget

referred to as the concrete operational stage of cognitive development. This involves
mastering the use of logic in concrete ways. The child can use logic to solve problems tied
to their own direct experience but has trouble solving hypothetical problems or considering
more abstract problems. The child uses inductive reasoning which means thinking that the
world reflects one’s own personal experience. For example, a child has one friend who is
rude, another friend who is also rude, and the same is true for a third friend. The child may
conclude that friends are rude. (We will see that this way of thinking tends to change during
adolescence being replaced with deductive reasoning.)
The word concrete refers to that which is tangible; that which can be seen or touched or
experienced directly. The concrete operational child is able to make use of logical principles
in solving problems involving the physical world. For example, the child can understand
principles of cause and effect, size, and distance.

Classification: As children’s experiences and vocabularies grow, they build schema and
are able to classify objects in many different ways. Look at the word below and write a list of
the ways in which it could be classified:

BALL

(Compare your list with the one at the end of the lesson.)

Identity: One feature of concrete operational thought is the understanding that objects
have an identity or qualities that do not change even if the object is altered in some
way. For instance, mass of an object does not change by rearranging it. A piece of chalk is
still chalk even when the piece is broken in two.
Reversibility: The child learns that some things that have been changed can be returned
to their original state. Water can be frozen and then thawed to become liquid again. But
eggs cannot be unscrambled. Arithmetic operations are reversible as well: 2 + 3 = 5 and 5 –
3 = 2. Many of these cognitive skills are incorporated into the school’s curriculum through
mathematical problems and in worksheets about which situations are reversible or
irreversible. (If you have access to children’s school papers, look for examples of these.)
Reciprocity: Remember the example in our last lesson of children thinking that a tall
beaker filled with 8 ounces of water was “more” than a short, wide bowl filled with 8 ounces
of water? Concrete operational children can understand the concept of reciprocity which
means that changing one quality (in this example, height or water level) can be
compensated for by changes in another quality (width). So there is the same amount of
water in each container although one is taller and narrower and the other is shorter and
wider.

These new cognitive skills increase the child’s understanding of the physical
world. Operational or logical thought about the abstract world comes later.

Information Processing Theory

Information processing theory is a classic theory of memory that compares the way in which
the mind works to computer storing, processing and retrieving information.

There are three levels of memory:

1) Sensory register: Information first enters our sensory register. Stop reading and look
around the room very quickly. (Yes, really. Do it!) Okay. What do you remember? Chances
are, not much. Everything you saw and heard entered into your sensory register. And
although you might have heard yourself sigh, caught a glimpse of your dog walking across
the room, and smelled the soup on the stove, you did not register those
sensations. Sensations are continuously coming into our brains, and yet most of these
sensations are never really perceived or stored in our minds. They are lost after a few
seconds because they were immediately filtered out as irrelevant. If the information is not
perceived or stored, it is discarded quickly.
2) Working memory (short-term memory): If information is meaningful (either because it
reminds us of something else or because we must remember it for something like a history
test we will be taking in 5 minutes), it makes its way into our working memory. This consists
of information of which we are immediately aware. All of the things on your mind at this
moment are part of your working memory. There is a limited amount of information that can
be kept in the working memory at any given time. So, if you are given too much information
at a time, you may lose some of it. (Have you ever been writing down notes in a class and
the instructor speaks too quickly for you to get it all in your notes? You are trying to get it
down and out of your working memory to make room for new information and if you cannot
“dump” that information onto your paper and out of your mind quickly enough, you lose
what has been said.)

Information in our working memory must be stored in an effective way in order to be

accessible to us for later use. It is stored in our long-term memory or knowledge base.

3) Knowledge base (long-term memory): This level of memory has an unlimited capacity
and stores information for days, months or years. It consists of things that we know of or
can remember if asked. This is where you want information to ultimately be stored. The
important thing to remember about storage is that it must be done in a meaningful or
effective way. In other words, if you simply try to repeat something several times in order to
remember it, you may only be able to remember the sound of the word rather than the
meaning of the concept. So if you are asked to explain the meaning of the word or to apply
a concept in some way, you will be lost. Studying involves organizing information in a
meaningful way for later retrieval. Passively reading a text is usually inadequate and should
be thought of as the first step in learning material. Writing key words, thinking of examples
to illustrate their meaning, and considering ways that concepts are related are all
techniques helpful for organizing information for effective storage and later retrieval.

During middle childhood, children are able to learn and remember due to an improvement
in the ways they attend to and store information. As children enter school and learn more
about the world, they develop more categories for concepts and learn more efficient
strategies for storing and retrieving information. One significant reason is that they continue
to have more experiences on which to tie new information. New experiences are similar to
old ones or remind the child of something else about which they know. This helps them file
away new experiences more easily.

They also have a better understanding of how well they are performing on a task and the
level of difficulty of a task. As they become more realistic about their abilities, they can
adapt studying strategies to meet those needs. While preschoolers may spend as much
time on an unimportant aspect of a problem as they do on the main point, school aged
children start to learn to prioritize and gage what is significant and what is not. They
develop metacognition or the ability to understand the best way to figure out a problem.
They gain more tools and strategies (such as “i before e except after c” so they know that
“receive” is correct but “recieve” is not.)

Language Development

Vocabulary

One of the reasons that children can classify objects in so many ways is that they have
acquired a vocabulary to do so. By 5th grade, a child’s vocabulary has grown to 40,000
words. It grows at the rate of 20 words per day, a rate that exceeds that of preschoolers.
This language explosion, however, differs from that of preschoolers because it is facilitated
by being able to association new words with those already known and because it is
accompanied by a more sophisticated understanding of the meanings of a word.

New Understanding
The child is also able to think of objects in less literal ways. For example, of asked for the
first word that comes to mind when one hears the word “pizza”, the preschooler is likely to
say “eat” or some word that describes what is done with a pizza. However, the school-aged
child is more likely to place pizza in the appropriate category and say “food” or
“carbohydrate”.

This sophistication of vocabulary is also evidenced in the fact that school-aged children are
able to tell jokes and delight in doing do. They may use jokes that involve plays on words
such as “knock-knock” jokes or jokes with punch lines. Preschoolers do not understand
plays on words and rely on telling “jokes” that are literal or slapstick such as “A man fell
down in the mud! Isn’t that funny?”

Grammar and Flexibility

School-aged children are also able to learn new rules of grammar with more flexibility.
While preschoolers are likely to be reluctant to give up saying “I goed there”, school-aged
children will learn this rather quickly along with other rules of grammar.

While the preschool years might be a good time to learn a second language (being able to
understand and speak the language), the school years may be the best time to be taught a
second language (the rules of grammar).

How many ways can you classify “ball”? It’s a word, a round object, a toy, a shape, a
rolling object, a piece of playground equipment, another word for “fun”, etc.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg (1963) built on the work of Piaget and was interested in finding out how
our moral reasoning changes as we get older. He wanted to find out how people decide
what is right and what is wrong. In order to explore this area, he read a story containing a
moral dilemma to boys of different age groups. In the story, a man is trying to obtain an
expensive drug that his wife needs in order to treat her cancer. The man has no money and
no one will loan him the money he requires. He begs the pharmacist to reduce the price,
but the pharmacist refuses. So, the man decides to break into the pharmacy to steal the
drug. Then Kohlberg asked the children to decide whether the man was right or wrong in
his choice. Kohlberg was not interested in whether they said the man was right or wrong, he
was interested in finding out how they arrived at such a decision. He wanted to know what
they thought made something right or wrong.
Pre-conventional Moral Development

The youngest subjects seemed to answer based on what would happen to the man as a
result of the act. For example, they might say the man should not break into the pharmacy
because the pharmacist might find him and beat him. Or they might say that the man
should break in and steal the drug and his wife will give him a big kiss. Right or wrong, both
decisions were based on what would physically happen to the man as a result of the act.
This is a self-centered approach to moral decision-making. He called this most superficial
understanding of right and wrong pre-conventional moral development.

Conventional Moral Development

Middle childhood boys seemed to base their answers on what other people would think of
the man as a result of his act. For instance, they might say he should break into the store,
and then everyone would think he was a good husband. Or, he shouldn’t because it is
against the law. In either case, right and wrong is determined by what other people think. A
good decision is one that gains the approval of others or one that complies with the
law. This he called conventional moral development.

Post-conventional Moral Development

Older children were the only ones to appreciate the fact that this story has different levels of
right and wrong. Right and wrong are based on social contracts established for the good of
everyone or on universal principles of right and wrong that transcend the self and social
convention. For example, the man should break into the store because, even if it is against
the law, the wife needs the drug and her life is more important than the consequences the
man might face for breaking the law. Or, the man should not violate the principle of the right
of property because this rule is essential for social order. In either case, the person’s
judgment goes beyond what happens to the self. It is based on a concern for others; for
society as a whole or for an ethical standard rather than a legal standard. This level is
called post-conventional moral development because it goes beyond convention or what
other people think to a higher, universal ethical principle of conduct that may or may not be
reflected in the law. Notice that such thinking (the kind supreme justices do all day in
deliberating whether a law is moral or ethical, etc.) requires being able to think abstractly.
Often this is not accomplished until a person reaches adolescence or adulthood.

EXERCISES

Consider your own decision-making processes. What guides your decisions? Are you primarily
concerned with your personal well-being? Do you make choices based on what other people will
think about your decision? Or are you guided by other principles? To what extent is this approach
guided by your culture?

Developmental Problems
Children’s cognitive and social skills are evaluated as
they enter and progress through school. Sometimes this evaluation indicates that a child
needs special assistance with language or in learning how to interact with others.
Evaluation and diagnosis of a child can be the first step in helping to provide that child with
the type of instruction and resources needed. But diagnosis and labeling also have social
implications. It is important to consider that children can be misdiagnosed and that once a
child has received a diagnostic label, the child, teachers, and family members may tend to
interpret actions of the child through that label. The label can also influence the child’s self-
concept. Consider, for example, a child who is misdiagnosed as learning disabled. That
child may expect to have difficulties in school, lack confidence, and out of these
expectations, have trouble indeed. This self-fulfilling prophecy or tendency to act in such a
way as to make what you predict will happen comes true, calls our attention to the power
that labels can have whether or not they are accurately applied. It is also important to
consider that children’s difficulties can change over time; a child who has problems in
school, may improve later or may live under circumstances as an adult where the problem
(such as a delay in math skills or reading skills) is no longer relevant. That person,
however, will still have a label as learning disabled. It should be recognized that the
distinction between abnormal and normal behavior is not always clear; some abnormal
behavior in children is fairly common. Misdiagnosis may be more of a concern when
evaluating learning difficulties than in cases of autism spectrum disorder where unusual
behaviors are clear and consistent.

Keeping these cautionary considerations in mind, let’s turn our attention to some
developmental and learning difficulties.

Autism Spectrum Disorders

The estimate published by the Center for Disease Control (2006) is that about 1 out of
every 166 children in the United States has an autism spectrum disorder. Autism spectrum
disorders include autism, Asperger’s disorder and pervasive developmental
disabilities. Many of these children are not identified until they reach school age. In 2003,
about 141,000 children received special education through the public schools (Center for
Disease Control, 2006). These disorders are found in all racial and ethnic groups and are
more common in boys than in girls. All of these disorders are marked by difficulty in social
interactions, problems in various areas of communication, and in difficulty with altering
patterns or daily routines. There is no single cause of ASDs and the causes of these
disorders are to a large extent, unknown. In cases involving identical twins, if one twin has
autism, the other is also autistic about 75 percent of the time. Rubella, fragile X syndrome
and PKU that has been untreated are some of the medical conditions associated with risks
of autism.

None of these disorders is curable. Some individuals benefit from medications that alleviate
some of the symptoms of ASDs. But the most effective treatments involve behavioral
intervention and teaching techniques used to promote the development of language and
social skills, and to structure learning environments that accommodate the needs of these
children.
Autism is a developmental disorder more commonly known than Asperger’s or Pervasive
Developmental disorders. A person with autism has difficulty with and a lack of interest in
learning language. An autistic child may respond to a question by repeating the question or
might rarely speak. Sometimes autistic children learn more difficult words before simple
words or complicated tasks before easier ones. The person has difficulty reading social
cues such as the meanings of non-verbal gestures such as a wave of the hand or the
emotion associated with a frown. Intense sensitivity to touch or visual stimulation may also
be experienced. Autistic children have poor social skills and are unable to communicate
with others or empathize with others emotionally. An autistic views the world differently and
learns differently than others. Autistic children tend to prefer routines and patterns and
become upset when routines are altered. For example, moving the furniture or changing the
daily schedule can be very upsetting.

Asperger’s syndrome is considered by some to be the same as high functioning

autism. Others suggest that Asperger’s disorder is different from autism in that language
development is generally not delayed (Medline Plus, 2006). A person with Asperger’s
syndrome does not experience cognitive developmental delays, but has difficulty in social
interactions. This person may be identified as strange by others, may have difficulty reading
or identifying with other people’s emotions, and may prefer routine and become upset if
routines are disrupted. Many people with Asperger’s syndrome may have above average
intelligence and may have an intense focus of interests in a particular field. For example, a
person may be extremely interested in and knowledgeable about cars. Another might be
very interested in the smell of people’s shoes.

Pervasive developmental disorder is a term used to refer to difficulties in socialization and

delays in developing communicative skills. This is usually recognized before 3 years of
age. A child with PDD may interact in unusual ways with toys, people, or situations, and
may engage in repetitive movement.

Learning Disabilities

What is a learning disability? The spectrum disorders just described impact many areas of
the child’s life. And if a child is mentally retarded, that child is typically slow in all areas of
learning. However, a child with a learning disability has problems in a specific area or with
a specific task or type of activity related to education. A learning difficulty refers to a deficit
in a child’s ability to perform an expected academic skill (Berger, 2005). These difficulties
are identified in school because this is when children’s academic abilities are being tested,
compared, and measured. Consequently, once academic testing is no longer essential in
that person’s life (as when they are working rather than going to school) these disabilities
may no longer be noticed or relevant, depending on the person’s job and the extent of the
disability.

Dyslexia is one of the most commonly diagnosed disabilities and involves having difficulty
in the area of reading. This diagnosis is used for a number of reading difficulties. For
example, the child may reverse letters or have difficulty reading from left to right or may
have problems associating letters with sounds. It appears to be rooted in some neurological
problems involving the parts of the brain active in recognizing letters, verbally responding,
or being able to manipulate sounds (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke,
2006). Treatment typically involves altering teaching methods to accommodate the person’s
particular problematic area.
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is considered a neurological and behavioral
disorder in which a person has difficulty staying on task, screening out distractions, and
inhibiting behavioral outbursts. The most commonly recommended treatment involves the
use of medication, structuring the classroom environment to keep distractions at a
minimum, tutoring, and teaching parents how to set limits and encourage age-appropriate
behavior (NINDS, 2006).

Learning and Intelligence

Schools and Testing

The
Controversy over Testing In Schools
Children’s academic performance is often measured with the use of standardized
tests. Achievement tests are used to measure what a child has already
learned. Achievement tests are often used as measures of teaching effectiveness within a
school setting and as a method to make schools that receive tax dollars (such as public
schools, charter schools, and private schools that receive vouchers) accountable to the
government for their performance. In 2001, President George W. Bush signed into effect
the No Child Left Behind Act mandating that schools administer achievement tests to
students and publish those results so that parents have an idea of their children’s
performance and the government has information on the gaps in educational achievement
between children from various social class, racial, and ethnic groups. Schools that show
significant gaps in these levels of performance are to work toward narrowing these
gaps. Educators have criticized the policy for focusing too much on testing as the only
indication of performance levels.
Aptitude tests are designed to measure a student’s ability to learn or to determine if a
person has potential in a particular program. These are often used at the beginning of a
course of study or as part of college entrance requirements. The Scholastic Aptitude Test
(SAT) and Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test (PSAT) are perhaps the most familiar
aptitude tests to students in grades 6 and above. Learning test taking skills and preparing
for SATs has become part of the training that some students in these grades receive as
part of their pre-college preparation. Other aptitude tests include the MCAT (Medical
College Admission Test), the LSAT (Law School Admission Test), and the GRE (Graduate
Record Examination). Intelligence tests are also a form of aptitude test which designed to
measure a person’s ability to learn.

Theories of Intelligence

Intelligence tests and psychological definitions of intelligence have been heavily criticized
since the 1970s for being biased in favor of Anglo-American, middle-class respondents and
for being inadequate tools for measuring non-academic types of intelligence or
talent. Intelligence changes with experience and intelligence quotients or scores do not
reflect that ability to change. What is considered smart varies culturally as well and most
intelligence tests do not take this variation into account. For example, in the west, being
smart is associated with being quick. A person who answers a question the fastest is seen
as the smartest. But in some cultures, being smart is associated with considering an idea
thoroughly before giving an answer. A well-thought out, contemplative answer is the best
answer.

EXERCISES

What do you think? As an adult, what kind of intellectual skills do you consider to be most important
for your success? Consequently, how would you define intelligence?

Multiple Intelligences

Gardner (1983, 1998, 1999) suggests that there are not one, but nine domains of
intelligence. The first three are skills that are measured by IQ tests:

 Logical-mathematical: the ability to solve mathematical problems; problems of logic,

numerical patterns
 Linguistic: vocabulary, reading comprehension, function of language
 Spatial: visual accuracy, ability to read maps, understand space and distance

The next six represent skills that are not measured in standard IQ tests but are talents or
abilities that can also be important for success in a variety of fields: These are:

 Musical: ability to understand patterns in music, hear pitches, recognize rhythms and
melodies
 Bodily-kinesthetic: motor coordination, grace of movement, agility, strength
 Naturalistic: knowledge of plants, animals, minerals, climate, weather
 Interpersonal: understand the emotion, mood, motivation of others; able to
communicate effectively
 Intrapersonal: understanding of the self, mood, motivation, temperament, realistic
knowledge of strengths, weaknesses
 Existential: concern about and understanding of life’s larger questions, meaning of
life, or spiritual matters

Gardner contends that these are also forms of intelligence. A high IQ does not always
ensure success in life or necessarily indicate that a person has common sense, good
interpersonal skills or other abilities important for success.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Another alternative view of intelligence is presented by Sternberg (1997; 1999). Sternberg

offers three types of intelligences. Sternberg provided background information about his
view of intelligence in a conference I attended several years ago. He described his
frustration as a committee member charged with selecting graduate students for a program
in psychology. He was concerned that there was too much emphasis placed on aptitude
test scores and believed that there were other, less easily measured, qualities necessary
for success in a graduate program and in the world of work. Aptitude test scores indicate
the first type of intelligence-academic.

 Academic (componential): includes the ability to solve problems of logic, verbal

comprehension, vocabulary, and spatial abilities.

Sternberg noted that students who have high academic abilities may still not have what is
required to be a successful graduate student or a competent professional. To do well as a
graduate student, he noted, the person needs to be creative. The second type of
intelligence emphasizes this quality.

 Creative (experiential): the ability to apply newly found skills to novel situations.

A potential graduate student might be strong academically and have creative ideas, but still
be lacking in the social skills required to work effectively with others or to practice good
judgment in a variety of situations. This common sense is the third type of intelligence.

 Practical (contextual): the ability to use common sense and to know what is called for
in a situation.

This type of intelligence helps a person know when problems need to be solved. Practical
intelligence can help a person know how to act and what to wear for job interviews, when to
get out of problematic relationships, how to get along with others at work, and when to
make changes to reduce stress.

Let’s apply these theories of intelligence to the world of children. To what extent are these
types of intelligences cultivated at home and in the schools?

The World of School

Remember the ecological systems model that we explored in Lesson 2? This model helps
us understand an individual by examining the contexts in which the person lives and the
direct and indirect influences on that person’s life. School becomes a very important
component of children’s lives during middle childhood and one way to understand children
is to look at the world of school. We have discussed educational policies that impact the
curriculum in schools above. Now let’s focus on the school experience from the standpoint
of the student, the teacher and parent relationship, and the cultural messages or hidden
curriculum taught in school in the United States.
Parental Involvement in School: Parents vary in their level of involvement with their
children’s schools. Teachers often complain that they have difficulty getting parents to
participate in their child’s education and devise a variety of techniques to keep parents in
touch with daily and overall progress. For example, parents may be required to sign a
behavior chart each evening to be returned to school or may be given information about the
school’s events through websites and newsletters. There are other factors that need to be
considered when looking at parental involvement. To explore these, first ask yourself if all
parents who enter the school with concerns about their child be received in the same
way? If not, what would make a teacher or principal more likely to consider the parent’s
concerns? What would make this less likely?

Lareau and Horvat (2004) found that teachers seek a particular type of involvement from
particular types of parents. While teachers thought they were open and neutral in their
responses to parental involvement, in reality teachers were most receptive to support,
praise and agreement coming from parents who were most similar in race and social class
with the teachers. Parents who criticized the school or its policies were less likely to be
given voice. Parents who have higher levels of income, occupational status, and other
qualities favored in society have family capital. This is a form of power that can be used to
improve a child’s education. Parents who do not have these qualities may find it more
difficult to be effectively involved. Lareau and Horvat (2004) offer three cases of African-
American parents who were each concerned about discrimination in the schools. Despite
evidence that such discrimination existed, their children’s white, middle-class teachers were
reluctant to address the situation directly. Note the variation in approaches and outcomes
for these three families:

The Masons: This working class, African-American couple, a minister and a beautician,
voiced direct complaints about discrimination in the schools. Their claims were thought to
undermine the authority of the school and as a result, their daughter was kept in a lower
reading class. However, her grade was boosted to “avoid a scene” and the parents were
not told of this grade change.
The Irvings: This middle class, African-American couple was concerned that the school
was discriminating against black students. They fought against it without using direct
confrontation by staying actively involved in their daughter’s schooling and making frequent
visits to the school so make sure that discrimination could not occur. They also talked with
other African-American teachers and parents about their concerns.
Ms. Caldron: This poor, single-parent was concerned about discrimination in the
school. She was a recovering drug addict receiving welfare. She did not discuss her
concerns with other parents because she did not know the other parents and did not
monitor her child’s progress or get involved with the school. She felt that her concerns
would not receive attention. She requested spelling lists from the teacher on several
occasions but did not receive them. The teacher complained that Ms. Caldron did not sign
forms that were sent home for her signature.

Working within the system without direct confrontation seemed to yield better results for the
Irvings, although the issue of discrimination in the school was not completely
addressed. Ms. Caldron was the least involved and felt powerless in the school setting. Her
lack of family capital and lack of knowledge and confidence keep her from addressing her
concerns with the teachers. What do you think would happen if she directly addressed the
teachers and complained about discrimination? Chances are, she would be dismissed as
undermining the authority of the school, just as the Masons, and might be thought to lack
credibility because of her poverty and drug addiction. The authors of this study suggest that
teachers closely examine their biases against parents. Schools may also need to examine
their ability to dialogue with parents about school policies in more open ways. What
happens when parents have concerns over school policy or view student problems as
arising from flaws in the educational system? How are parents who are critical of the school
treated? And are their children treated fairly even when the school is being
criticized? Certainly, any efforts to improve effective parental involvement should address
these concerns.

Student Perspectives

Imagine being a 3rd-grader for one day in public school. What would the daily routine
involve? To what extent would the institution dictate the activities of the day and how much
of the day would you spend on those activities? Would always be ‘on task’? What would
you say if someone asked you how your day went? Or “What happened in school
today?” Chances are, you would be more inclined to talk about whom you sat at lunch with
or who brought a puppy to class than to describe how fractions are added.

Ethnographer and Professor of Education Peter McLaren (1999) describes the student’s
typical day as filled with constrictive and unnecessary ritual that has a damaging effect on
the desire to learn. Students move between various states as they negotiate the demands
of the school system and their own personal interests. The majority of the day (298
minutes) takes place in the student state. This state is one in which the student focuses on
a task or tries to stay focused on a task, is passive, compliant, and often frustrated. Long
pauses before getting out the next book or finding materials sometimes indicate that
frustration. The street corner state is one in which the child is playful, energetic, excited,
and expresses personal opinions, feelings, and beliefs. About 66 minutes a day take place
in this state. Children try to maximize this by going slowly to assemblies or when getting a
hall pass-always eager to say ‘hello’ to a friend or to wave if one of their classmates is in
another room. This is the state in which friends talk and play. In fact, teachers sometimes
reward students with opportunities to move freely or to talk or to be themselves. But when
students initiate the street corner state on their own, they risk losing recess time, getting
extra homework, or being ridiculed in front of their peers. The home state occurs when
parents or siblings visit the school. Children in this state may enjoy special privileges such
as going home early or being exempt from certain school rules in the mother’s presence. Or
it can be difficult if the parent is there to discuss trouble at school with a staff
member. The sanctity state is a time in which the child is contemplative, quiet, or prayerful
and is a very brief part of the day.

Since students seem to have so much enthusiasm and energy in street corner states, what
would happen if the student and street corner states could be combined? Would it be
possible? Many educators feel concern about the level of stress children experience in
school. Some stress can be attributed to problems in friendship. And some can be a result
of the emphasis on testing and grades, as reflected in a Newsweek article entitled “The
New First Grade: Are Kids Getting Pushed Too Fast Too Soon?” (Tyre, 2006). This article
reports concerns of a principal who worries that students begin to burn out as early as
3rd grade. In the book, The Homework Myth: Why Our Kids Get Too Much of a Bad Thing,
Kohn (2006) argues that neither research nor experience support claims that homework
reinforces learning and builds responsibility. Why do schools assign homework so
frequently? A look at cultural influences on education my provide some answers.

Cultural Influences
Another way to examine the world of school is to look at the cultural values, concepts,
behaviors and roles that are part of the school experience but are not part of the formal
curriculum. These are part of the hidden curriculum but are nevertheless very powerful
messages. The hidden curriculum includes ideas of patriotism, gender roles, the ranking of
occupations and classes, competition, and other values. Teachers, counselors, and other
students specify and make known what is considered appropriate for girls and
boys. The gender curriculum continues into high school, college, and professional
school. Students learn a ranking system of occupations and social classes as
well. Students in gifted programs or those moving toward college preparation classes may
be viewed as superior to those who are receiving tutoring.

Gracy (2004) suggests that cultural training occurs early. Kindergarten is an “academic boot
camp” in which students are prepared for their future student role-that of complying with an
adult imposed structure and routine designed to produce docile, obedient, children who do
not question meaningless tasks that will become so much of their future lives as
students. A typical day is filled with structure, ritual, and routine that allows for little creativity
or direct, hands-on contact. “Kindergarten, therefore, can be seen as preparing children not
only for participation in the bureaucratic organization of large modern school systems, but
also for the large-scale occupational bureaucracies of modern society.” (Gracy, 2004, p.
148)

What do you think? Let’s examine a kindergarten class schedule taken from a website
found by going to Google and typing in “kindergarten schedule”. You can find more of these
on your own. Most look similar to this one:

7:55 to 8:20 Math tubs (manipulatives) and small group math lessons
8:20 to 8:35 Class meeting/restroom and drinks
8:35 to 8:55 Math board/calendar
8:55 to 9:10 Whole class math lesson
9:10 to 9:20 Daily news chart
9:20 to 9:50 Shared reading (big books/poem and song charts)
9:50 to 10:15 Language Arts Centers
10:15 to 10:30 Morning recess
10:30 to 10:50 Alphabet/phonics lesson and paper
10:50 to 11:10 Reading Workshop (more centers)
11:10 to 11:20 Picture and word chart
11:20 to 11:40 Writing workshop (journals)
11:40 to 12:20 Lunch and recess
12:20 to 12:50 Rainbow Reading Lab (sequenced file folder activities) or computer
lab or internet computers. Children are divided into two groups and do one of these
activities each day, title 1 teacher is in my room at this time.
12:50 to 1:20 Theme related activity or art class one day per week
1:20 to 1:35 Afternoon recess (or still in art one day per week)
1:35 to 2:10 Nap/rest time
2:10 to 2:50 Special classes (music, counseling, pe, or library)
2:50 to 3:05 Show and Tell and get ready to go home

(Source: Classroom_Schedules).

To what extent do you think that students are being prepared for their future student
role? What are the pros and cons of such preparation? Look at the curriculum for
kindergarten and the first few grades in your own school district. Emphasizing math and
reading in preschool and kindergarten classes is becoming more common in some school
districts. It is not without controversy, however. Some suggest that emphasis is warranted
in order to help students learn math and reading skills that will be needed throughout school
and in the world of work. This will also help school districts improve their accountability
through test performance. Others argue that learning is becoming too structured to be
enjoyable or effective and that students are being taught only to focus on performance and
test taking. Students learn student incivility or lack of sincere concern for politeness and
consideration of others is taught in kindergarten through 12th grades through the “what is
on the test” mentality modeled by teachers. Students are taught to accept routinized,
meaningless information in order to perform well on tests. And they are experiencing the
stress felt by teachers and school districts focused on test scores and taught that their
worth comes from their test scores. Genuine interest, an appreciation of the process of
learning, and valuing others are important components of success in the workplace that are
not part of the hidden curriculum in today’s schools.

Psychosocial Development

Now let’s turn our attention to concerns related to self-

concept, the world of friendships, and family life.

Self-Concept

Children in middle childhood have a more realistic sense of self than do those in early
childhood. That exaggerated sense of self as “biggest” or “smartest” or “tallest” gives way to
an understanding of one’s strengths and weaknesses. This can be attributed to greater
experience in comparing one’s own performance with that of others and to greater cognitive
flexibility. A child’s self-concept can be influenced by peers and family and the messages
they send about a child’s worth. Contemporary children also receive messages from the
media about how they should look and act. Movies, music videos, the internet, and
advertisers can all create cultural images of what is desirable or undesirable and this too
can influence a child’s self-concept.
The Tweens

Advertisers have created a new consumer group known as the “tweens”. This group spends
an estimated $51 billion dollars annually and has another $170 billion a year spent on them
(Irvine, 2006). Tweens range in age from 8 to 12 years and are characterized as
sophisticated, early-maturing teenagers concerned primarily with their appearance, weight,
and sexuality (“The ‘Tween Market'” Media Awareness Network, 2007). Tweens are
primarily targeted as consumers of media, clothing, and products that make them look
“cool” and feel independent. For example, attitude t-shirts have been very popular among
female tweens for the past several years and the slogans on these shirts reflect what might
be considered “cool”. Here are a few found in a national retail clothing store that focuses on
fashion for tweens.

 Your boyfriend gave me this shirt.

 I live to shop
 It’s all about me
 You wish

In general, toys are not marketed to this age group as they once were. However, some toys
designed to appeal to slightly younger children tend to sexualize children (Harmanci,
2006). For an example of such sexy children’s dolls, go to www.bratz.com. Jean
Kilbourne, a noted expert on the impact of advertising on self-image, responds to the
promotion of such products as examples of how “marketers are hijacking our children’s
sexuality” at the expense of childhood (Squire, 2006).

Sexual Abuse in Middle Childhood

Being sexually abused as a child can have a powerful impact on self-
concept. Childhood sexual abuse is defined as any sexual contact between a child and an
adult or a much older child. Incest refers to sexual contact between a child and family
members. In each of these cases, the child is exploited by an older person without regard
for the child’s developmental immaturity and inability to understand the sexual behavior
(Steele, 1986). The concept of false self-training (Davis, 1999) refers to holding a child
to adult standards while denying the child’s developmental needs. Sexual abuse is just one
example of false self-training. Children are held to adult standards of desirableness and
sexuality while their level of cognitive, psychological, and emotional immaturity is
ignored. Consider how confusing it might be for a 9 year old girl who has physically matured
early to be thought of as a potential sex partner. Her cognitive, psychological, and
emotional state do not equip her to make decisions about sexuality or, perhaps, to know
that she can say no to sexual advances. She may feel like a 9 year old in all ways and be
embarrassed and ashamed of her physical development. Girls who mature early have
problems with low self-esteem because of the failure of others (family members, teachers,
ministers, peers, advertisers, and others) to recognize and respect their developmental
needs. Overall, youth are more likely to be victimized because they do not have control
over their contact with offenders (parents, babysitters, etc.) and have no means of escape
(Finkelhor and Dzuiba-Leatherman, in Davis, 1999).

Researchers estimate that 1 out of 4 girls and one out of 10 boys has been sexually abused
(Valente, 2005). The median age for sexual abuse is 8 or 9 years for both boys and girls
(Finkelhor et. al. 1990). Most boys and girls are sexually abused by a male. Although rates
of sexual abuse are higher for girls than for boys, boys may be less likely to report abuse
because of the cultural expectation that boys should be able to take care of themselves and
because of the stigma attached to homosexual encounters (Finkelhor et. al. 1990). Girls are
more likely to be abused by family member and boys by strangers. Sexual abuse can
create feelings of self-blame, betrayal, and feelings of shame and guilt (Valente,
2005). Sexual abuse is particularly damaging when the perpetrator is someone the child
trusts and may lead to depression, anxiety, problems with intimacy, and suicide (Valente,
2005). The topic of the sexualization of girls in media and society was of chief concern by
the American Psychological Association in 2007 and their findings and recommendations to
reduce this problem can be accessed here.

Industry vs. Inferiority

According to Erikson, children in middle childhood are very busy or industrious. They are
constantly doing, planning, playing, getting together with friends, achieving. This is a very
active time and a time when they are gaining a sense of how they measure up when
compared with friends. Erikson believed that if these industrious children can be successful
in their endeavors, they will get a sense of confidence for future challenges. If not, a sense
of inferiority can be particularly haunting during middle childhood.

The Society of Children

Friendships take on new importance as judges of one’s worth, competence, and

attractiveness. Friendships provide the opportunity for learning social skills such as how to
communicate with others and how to negotiate differences. Children get ideas from one
another about how to perform certain tasks, how to gain popularity, what to wear, say, and
listen to, and how to act. This society of children marks a transition from a life focused on
the family to a life concerned with peers. Peers play a key role in a child’s self-esteem at
this age as any parent who has tried to console a rejected child will tell you. No matter how
complimentary and encouraging the parent may be, being rejected by friends can only be
remedied by renewed acceptance.

Peer Relationships: Most children want to be liked and accepted by their friends. Some
popular children are nice and have good social skills. These popular-prosocial children tend
to do well in school and are cooperative and friendly. Popular-antisocial children may gain
popularity by acting tough or spreading rumors about others (Cillessen & Mayeux,
2004). Rejected children are sometimes excluded because they are shy and
withdrawn. The withdrawn-rejected children are easy targets for bullies because they are
unlikely to retaliate when belittled (Boulton, 1999). Other rejected children are ostracized
because they are aggressive, loud, and confrontational. The aggressive-rejected children
may be acting out of a feeling of insecurity. Unfortunately, their fear of rejection only leads
to behavior that brings further rejection from other children. Children who are not accepted
are more likely to experience conflict, lack confidence, and have trouble adjusting.

Family Life

During middle childhood, children spend less time with parents and more time with
peers. And parents may have to modify their approach to parenting to accommodate the
child’s growing independence. Using reason and engaging in joint decision-making
whenever possible may be the most effective approach (Berk, 2007). However, Asian-
American, African-American, and Mexican-American parents are more likely than
European-Americans to use an authoritarian style of parenting. This authoritarian style of
parenting that using strict discipline and focuses on obedience is also tempered with
acceptance and warmth on the part of the parents. And children raised in this manner tend
to be confident, successful and happy (Chao, 2001; Stewart and Bond, 2002).
Family Tasks

One of the ways to assess the quality of family life is to consider the tasks of families.

Berger (2005) lists five family functions:

1. Providing food, clothing and shelter

2. Encouraging Learning
3. Developing self-esteem
4. Nurturing friendships with peers
5. Providing harmony and stability

Notice that in addition to providing food, shelter, and clothing, families are responsible for
helping the child learn, relate to others, and have a confident sense of self. The family
provides a harmonious and stable environment for living. A good home environment is one
in which the child’s physical, cognitive, emotional, and social needs are adequately
met. Sometimes families emphasize physical needs, but ignore cognitive or emotional
needs. Other times, families pay close attention to physical needs and academic
requirements, but may fail to nurture the child’s friendships with peers or guide the child
toward developing healthy relationships. Parents might want to consider how it feels to live
in the household. Is it stressful and conflict-ridden? Is it a place where family members
enjoy being?

Family Change
Divorce: A lot of attention has been given to the impact of divorce on the life of
children. The assumption has been that divorce has a strong, negative impact on the child
and that single-parent families are deficient in some way. However, 75-80 percent of
children and adults who experience divorce suffer no long term effects (Hetherington &
Kelly, 2002). Children of divorce and children who have not experienced divorce are more
similar than different (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002).

Mintz (2004) suggests that the alarmist view of divorce was due in part to the newness of
divorce when rates in the United States began to climb in the late 1970s. Adults reacting to
the change grew up in the 1950s when rates were low. As divorce has become more
common and there is less stigma associated with divorce, this view has changed
somewhat. Social scientists have operated from the divorce as deficit model emphasizing
the problems of being from a “broken home” (Seccombe &Warner, 2004). But more
recently, a more objective view of divorce, repartnering, and remarriage indicates that
divorce, remarriage and life in stepfamilies can have a variety of effects. The exaggeration
of the negative consequences of divorce has left the majority of those who do well hidden
and subjected them to unnecessary stigma and social disapproval (Hetherington & Kelly,
2002).

The tasks of families listed above are functions that can be fulfilled in a variety of family
types-not just intact, two-parent households. Harmony and stability can be achieved in
many family forms and when it is disrupted, either through divorce, or efforts to blend
families, or any other circumstances, the child suffers (Hetherington & Kelly, 2002).

Factors Affecting the Impact of Divorce

As you look at the consequences (both pro and con) of divorce and remarriage on children,
keep these family functions in mind. Some negative consequences are a result of financial
hardship rather than divorce per se (Drexler, 2005). Some positive consequences reflect
improvements in meeting these functions. For instance, we have learned that a positive
self-esteem comes in part from a belief in the self and one’s abilities rather than merely
being complimented by others. In single-parent homes, children may be given more
opportunity to discover their own abilities and gain independence that fosters self-esteem.
If divorce leads to fighting between the parents and the child is included in these
arguments, the self-esteem may suffer.

The impact of divorce on children depends on a number of factors. The degree of conflict
prior to the divorce plays a role. If the divorce means a reduction in tensions, the child may
feel relief. If the parents have kept their conflicts hidden, the announcement of a divorce
can come as a shock and be met with enormous resentment. Another factor that has an
great impact on the child concerns financial hardships they may suffer, especially if financial
support is inadequate. Another difficult situation for children of divorce is the position they
are put into if the parents continue to argue and fight-especially if they bring the children
into those arguments.

Short-term consequences: In roughly the first year following divorce, children may exhibit
some of these short-term effects:
1. Grief over losses suffered. The child will grieve the loss of the parent they no longer
see as frequently. The child may also grieve about other family members that are no longer
available. Grief sometimes comes in the form of sadness, but it can also be experienced as
anger or withdrawal. Preschool-aged boys may act out aggressively while the same aged
girls may become more quiet and withdrawn. Older children may feel depressed.
2. Reduced Standard of Living. Very often, divorce means a change in the amount of
money coming into the household. Children experience in new constraints on spending or
entertainment. School-aged children, especially, may notice that they can no longer have
toys, clothing or other items to which they’ve grown accustomed. Or it may mean that there
is less eating out or being able to afford satellite television, and so on. The custodial parent
may experience stress at not being able to rely on child support payments or having the
same level of income as before. This can affect decisions regarding healthcare, vacations,
rents, mortgages and other expenditures. And the stress can result in less happiness and
relaxation in the home. The parent who has to take on more work may also be less
available to the children.
3. Adjusting to Transitions. Children may also have to adjust to other changes
accompanying a divorce. The divorce might mean moving to a new home and changing
schools or friends. It might mean leaving a neighborhood that has meant a lot to them as
well.
Long-Term consequences: Here are some effects are found after the first year.
1. Economic/Occupational Status. One of the most commonly cited long-term effects of
divorce is that children of divorce may have lower levels of education or occupational
status. This may be a consequence of lower income and resources for funding education
rather than to divorce per se. In those households where economic hardship does not
occur, there may be no impact on economic status (Drexler, 2005).
2. Improved Relationships with the Custodial Parent (usually the mother): In the United
States and Canada, children reside with the mother in 88 percent of single-parent
households (Berk, 2007). Children from single-parent families talk to their mothers more
often than children of two-parent families (McLanahan and Sandefur, 1994). Most children
of divorce lead happy, well-adjusted lives and develop stronger, positive relationships with
their custodial parent (Seccombe and Warner, 2004). In a study of college-age
respondents, Arditti (1999) found that increasing closeness and a movement toward more
democratic parenting styles was experienced. Others have also found that relationships
between mothers and children become closer and stronger (Guttman, 1993) and suggest
that greater equality and less rigid parenting is beneficial after divorce (Steward, Copeland,
Chester, Malley, and Barenbaum, 1997).
3. Greater emotional independence in sons. Drexler (2005) notes that sons who are
raised by mothers only develop an emotional sensitivity to others that is beneficial in
relationships.
4. Feeling more anxious in their own love relationships. Children of divorce may feel
more anxious about their own relationships as adults. This may reflect a fear of divorce if
things go wrong, or it may be a result of setting higher expectations for their own
relationships.
5. Adjustment of the custodial parent. Furstenberg and Cherlin (1991) believe that the
primary factor influencing the way that children adjust to divorce is the way the custodial
parent adjusts to the divorce. If that parent is adjusting well, the children will benefit. This
may explain a good deal of the variation we find in children of divorce. Adults going though
divorce should consider good self-care as beneficial to the children-not as self-indulgent.

Here are some tips for taking care of the self during divorce:

1. Take care of your own mental health. Don’t be a martyr. Do what is necessary to heal.
2. Allow children to grieve and express their feelings without becoming defensive. Give
the child the freedom to express feelings and be supportive and neutral as they voice
their emotions over the loss.
3. Try to have an amicable relationship with the ex-spouse and keep the children’s best
interests in mind.
4. Do not put-down or badmouth the ex-spouse. This puts the child in a very
uncomfortable position. You don’t have to hide the truth from them either, but they will
uncover the truth on their own. Be neutral. Children want to love their parents,
regardless of the circumstances.
5. Focus on establishing a comfortable, consistent healthy environment for the children
as they adjust.

Repartnering

Repartnering refers to forming new, intimate relationships after divorce. This includes
dating, cohabitation and remarriage.

Parental considerations about dating: Dating as a single parent can pose certain
challenges. Time and money are considerations. A single mother may not have time for
dating and may not have the money needed for child-care while she is out. Children can
also resent a parent taking time away to date. Parents may struggle with whether or not to
introduce a date to the children or to demonstrate affection in front of the children. When a
dating relationship becomes serious, a boyfriend or girlfriend might expect the parent to
prove their concern for them above the children. This puts a parent in a very uncomfortable
situation. Sometimes, this vying for attention does not occur until the couple begins to
consider sharing a long-term relationship.
Parental considerations about cohabitation: Having time, money and resources to date
can be difficult. And having privacy for a dating relationship can also be problematic.
Divorced parents may cohabit as a result. Cohabitation involves living together in a
sexually intimate relationship without being married. This can be difficult for children to
adjust to because cohabiting relationships in the United States tend to be short-lived. About
50 percent last less than 2 years (Brown, 2000). The child who starts a relationship with the
parent’s live-in partner may have to sever this relationship later. And even in long-term
cohabiting relationships, once it’s over, continued contact with the child is rare.
Is remarriage more difficult than divorce? The remarriage of a parent may be a more
difficult adjustment for a child than the divorce of a parent (Seccombe & Warner, 2004).
Parents and children typically have different ideas of how the stepparent should act.
Parents and stepparents are more likely to see the stepparent’s role as that of parent. A
more democratic style of parenting may become more authoritarian after a parent
remarries. And biological parents are more likely to continue to be involved with their
children jointly when neither parent has remarried. They are least likely to jointly be
involved if the father has remarried and the mother has not.

Characteristics of Stepfamilies

About 60 percent of divorced parents remarry within a few years (Berk, 2007). Largely due
to high rates of divorce and remarriage, we have seen the number of stepfamilies in
America grow considerably in the last 20 years although rates of remarriage are declining
(Seccombe & Warner, 2004). Stepfamilies are not new. In the 1700-1800s there were
many stepfamilies, but they were created because someone died and remarried. Most
stepfamilies today are a result of divorce and remarriage. And such origins lead to new
considerations. Stepfamilies are different from intact families and more complex in a
number of ways that can pose unique challenges to those who seek to form successful
stepfamily relationships (Visher & Visher, 1985). Stepfamilies are also known as blended
families and stepchildren as “bonus children” by social scientists interested in emphasizing
the positive qualities of these families.

1. Stepfamilies have a biological parent outside the stepfamily and a same sex adult in
the family as natural parent. This can lead to animosity on part of a rejecting child.
This can also lead to confusion on part of stepparent as to what their role is within the
family.
2. Child may be a part of two households, each with different rules.
3. Members may not be as sure that others care and may require more demonstrations
of affection for reassurance. For example, stepparents expect more gratitude and
acknowledgment from the stepchild than they would with a biological child.
Stepchildren experience more uncertainty/insecurity in their relationship with the
parent and fear the parents will see them as sources of tension. And stepparents may
feel guilty for a lack of feelings they may initially have toward their partner’s children.
Children who are required to respond to the parent’s new mate as though they were
the child’s “real” parent often react with hostility, rebellion, or withdrawal. Especially if
there has not been time for the relationship to develop.
4. Stepfamilies are born of loss. Members may have lost a home, a neighborhood, family
members or at least their dream of how they thought life would be. These losses must
be acknowledged and mourned. Remarriage quickly after a divorce makes expressing
grief more difficult. Family members are looking for signs that all is well at the same
time that members are experiencing grief over losses.
5. Stepfamilies are structurally more complex. There are lost of triangles and lots of ways
to divide and conquer the new couple.
6. Sexual attractions are more common in stepfamilies. Members have not grown up
together and sexual attractions need to be understood, and controlled. Also a new
couple may need to tone down sexual displays when around the children (can bring
on jealousy, etc.) until there is greater acceptance of the new partner.

Sociologist Andrew Cherlin suggests that one reason people remarry is because divorce is
so socially awkward. There are no clear guidelines for family/friends, how to treat divorcees,
etc. As a result, people remarry to avoid this “displacement.” The problem is that remarriage
is similarly ill-defined. This is reflected in the lack of language to support the institution of
remarriage. What does one call their stepparent? Who is included when thinking of “the
family”? For couples with joint custody, where is “home”? And there are few guidelines
about how ex-spouses and new spouses or other kin should interact. This is especially an
issue when children are involved
In light of this incompleteness, here are some tips for those in stepfamilies. Most of these
tips are focused on the stepparent. These come from an article entitled “The Ten
Commandments of Step parenting” by Turnbull and Turnbull.

1. Provide neutral territory. If there is a way to do so, relocate the new family in a new,
more neutral home. Houses have histories and there are many memories attached to
family homes. This territoriality can cause resentments.
2. Don’t try to fit a preconceived role. Stepparents need to realize that they cannot just
walk into a situation and expect to fill a role. They need to stay in tuned with what
works in this new family rather than being dogmatic about their new role.
3. Set limits and enforce them. Don’t allow children to take advantage of the parent’s guilt
or adjustment by trying to gain special privileges as a result of the change. Limits
provide security, especially if they are reasonable limits.
4. Allow an outlet for feelings by the children for their natural parent. This tip is for the
natural parent. Avoid the temptation to “encourage” the child to go against your ex-
spouse. Instead, remain neutral when comments are made.
5. Expect ambivalence, not instant love. Stepparents need to realize that their
acceptance has to be earned, and sometimes it is long in coming. The relationship has
to be given time to grow. Trust has to be established. One day they may be loved, the
next, hated. Adjustment takes time.

Developmental Stages of Step-famililes

Stepfamilies go through periods of adjustments and developmental stages that take about 7
years for completion (Papernow, 1993). The early stages of stepfamily adjustment include
periods of fantasy in which members may hope for immediate acceptance. This is followed
by the immersion stage in which children have to adjust to their parent’s date being
transformed into a new stepfather or stepmother. This acceptance can be accompanied by
a sense of betrayal toward the natural parent on the part of the children. The awareness
stage involves members beginning to become aware of how they feel in the family and
taking steps to map our their territory. Children may begin to feel as if they’ve been set
aside for other family members and the couple may begin to focus their attention toward
one another. Biological parents may feel resentful.

The middle stages include mobilization, in which family members begin to recognize their
differences. Stepparents may be less interested in pleasing family members and more
interested in taking a stand and being respected as family members. Children may start to
voice their frustrations at being pulled in different directions by biological and stepparents.
The next step is that of taking action. Now step-couples and stepparents begin to
reorganize the family based on more realistic expectations and understandings of how
members feel.

The later stages include contact between stepfamily members that is more intimate and
genuine. A clearer role for the stepparent emerges. Finally, the stepfamily seems to have
more security and stability than ever before.

Conclusions

Middle childhood is a complex period of the life span. New understandings and social
situations bring variety to children’s lives as they form new strategies for the world
ahead. We next turn our attention to adolescents.

Study Guide: Childhood

Study Guide for Exam Two:

1. Characterize physical growth for the first two years. Be sure to include a
description of the ways the brain develops.
2. Describe the newborn’s sensory abilities.
3. Give examples of gross and fine motor skills during the first two years. Then
consider the kinds of motor skills being developed during preschool and middle
childhood.
4. What are some nutritional concerns during infancy? What is marasmus?
Kwashiorkor?
5. Characterize physical growth in early childhood.
6. What are some nutritional concerns during the preschool (play) years? What
happens to appetite from ages 2-6? What are the chief concerns during middle
childhood in terms of nutrition?
7. Explain Piaget’s theory of cognitive development for childhood. Include the
substages of sensorimotor intelligence, preoperational intelligence (including
animism, egocentrism, centration), and concrete operational intelligence
(including identity, reversibility, conservation). Remember assimilation and
accommodation.
8. Use Erikson’s theory to explain psychosocial development from birth through
childhood. Four stages or ‘crises’ comprise childhood (trust vs. mistrust etc.)
9. Explain language development from birth through childhood. Include ideas
such as babbling, first words, holophrasic speech, overregularization, etc.
10. Recall Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural development. What is private speech?
11. Explain theories of language development.
12. Describe emotional development in the first year. Also, what is separation
anxiety? Stranger wariness? When do these occur?
13. What is self-awareness? Theory of mind? When do these changes occur? Why
are these significant for development?
14. Define temperament and goodness of fit.
15. Contrast styles of attachment.
16. Explain Baumrind’s parenting styles. Describe Lemasters and Defrain’s model.
What impact does culture play in parenting styles?
17. What is the society/culture of children?
18. Define family capital. What is meant by the “hidden curriculum” in school?
19. Contrast theories of self from Cooley and Mead.
20. Discuss the impact of stress on development.
21. What is false self-training?
22. Summarize theories of gender role development.
23. Describe the developmental stages of stepfamilies.
24. What conclusion is made when examining family structure (intact, single-
parent, etc.) and the impact structure has on children? What helps children
make their way through stressful situations?
25. Explain Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.
26. Compare aptitude and achievement tests. Explain Gardner’s theory of multiple
intelligences and Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligences.
27. Characterize autism spectrum disorders and ADHD.
28. Review your notes over film/audio clips.

Introduction to Adolescense
Adolescence is a period that begins with puberty and ends with the transition to adulthood
(approximately ages 10–20). Physical changes associated with puberty are triggered by
hormones. Cognitive changes include improvements in complex and abstract thought, as
well as development that happens at different rates in distinct parts of the brain and
increases adolescents’ propensity for risky behavior because increases in sensation-
seeking and reward motivation precede increases in cognitive control. Adolescents’
relationships with parents go through a period of redefinition in which adolescents become
more autonomous, and aspects of parenting, such as distal monitoring and psychological
control, become more salient. Peer relationships are important sources of support and
companionship during adolescence yet can also promote problem behaviors. Same-sex
peer groups evolve into mixed-sex peer groups, and adolescents’ romantic relationships
tend to emerge from these groups. Identity formation occurs as adolescents explore and
commit to different roles and ideological positions. Nationality, gender, ethnicity,
socioeconomic status, religious background, sexual orientation, and genetic factors shape
how adolescents behave and how others respond to them, and are sources of diversity in
adolescence.

Adolescence Defined
Adolescence is a developmental stage that has been defined as starting with puberty and
ending with the transition to adulthood (approximately ages 10–20). Adolescence has
evolved historically, with evidence indicating that this stage is lengthening as individuals
start puberty earlier and transition to adulthood later than in the past. Puberty today begins,
on average, at age 10–11 years for girls and 11–12 years for boys. This average age of
onset has decreased gradually over time since the 19th century by 3–4 months per decade,
which has been attributed to a range of factors including better nutrition, obesity, increased
father absence, and other environmental factors (Steinberg, 2013[1]). Completion of formal
education, financial independence from parents, marriage, and parenthood have all been
markers of the end of adolescence and beginning of adulthood, and all of these transitions
happen, on average, later now than in the past. In fact, the prolonging of adolescence has
prompted the introduction of a new developmental period called emerging adulthood that
captures these developmental changes out of adolescence and into adulthood, occurring
from approximately ages 18 to 29 (Arnett, 2000[2]).

Adolescence is often characterized as a period of transformation, primarily, in terms of physical, cognitive, and
social-relational change. [Image: Lorenia]

Candela Citations
CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY
 Authored by: Jennifer Lansford . Provided by: Duke University. Located
at: http://nobaproject.com/modules/adolescent-development?r=LDE2MjU3. Proje
ct: The Noba Project. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-
ShareAlike

1. Steinberg, L. (2013). Adolescence (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. ↵

through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469–480. ↵

2. Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens

Examiners Report 2016
100% (2)
Examiners Report 2016
50 pages
Kay Chemicals-Wendys Program
100% (1)
Kay Chemicals-Wendys Program
16 pages
TWinSoft Training Uk 20220301 Ovarro
100% (1)
TWinSoft Training Uk 20220301 Ovarro
135 pages
AC Troubleshooting Guide Generic
100% (2)
AC Troubleshooting Guide Generic
2 pages
Development of Babies In The Womb
No ratings yet
Development of Babies In The Womb
3 pages
1022_PSY SEM5 UNIT2 (1)
No ratings yet
1022_PSY SEM5 UNIT2 (1)
19 pages
Child Adolescence Presentation
No ratings yet
Child Adolescence Presentation
13 pages
The Course of Prenatal Development
No ratings yet
The Course of Prenatal Development
17 pages
Child Development: Manahil
No ratings yet
Child Development: Manahil
8 pages
Educ 1 - 4
No ratings yet
Educ 1 - 4
71 pages
Development of The Learners at Various Stage: Submitted by
No ratings yet
Development of The Learners at Various Stage: Submitted by
22 pages
Module 3. Stages of Human Development: at The End of This Module, You Will Be Able To
No ratings yet
Module 3. Stages of Human Development: at The End of This Module, You Will Be Able To
7 pages
unit 4
No ratings yet
unit 4
32 pages
Infancy
No ratings yet
Infancy
45 pages
Development of The Learners at Various Stages
No ratings yet
Development of The Learners at Various Stages
18 pages
Chapter 9 The Voyage Through The Life Span
100% (2)
Chapter 9 The Voyage Through The Life Span
9 pages
UNIT-8-1
No ratings yet
UNIT-8-1
35 pages
Module 10
No ratings yet
Module 10
5 pages
Development of The Learners at The Various Stages
No ratings yet
Development of The Learners at The Various Stages
21 pages
Notes On INFANCY AND BABYHOOD
No ratings yet
Notes On INFANCY AND BABYHOOD
18 pages
SAA 441
No ratings yet
SAA 441
31 pages
Psychology II Essentials
From Everand
Psychology II Essentials
Linda Leal
3/5 (1)
Gen Psych Chapter 5
No ratings yet
Gen Psych Chapter 5
27 pages
Stages of Development
No ratings yet
Stages of Development
39 pages
Prenatal Development: EDUC 50 - Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
No ratings yet
Prenatal Development: EDUC 50 - Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
19 pages
Developmental Stages of The Learner
No ratings yet
Developmental Stages of The Learner
15 pages
prenatal development
No ratings yet
prenatal development
31 pages
Region 7
No ratings yet
Region 7
14 pages
Phases of Prenatal Development Notes
No ratings yet
Phases of Prenatal Development Notes
4 pages
Physical development unit2
No ratings yet
Physical development unit2
38 pages
Prenatal
No ratings yet
Prenatal
2 pages
INFANCY
No ratings yet
INFANCY
6 pages
The Stages of Pregnancy
No ratings yet
The Stages of Pregnancy
11 pages
Written Report Psych
No ratings yet
Written Report Psych
17 pages
Dev Psych - Module 3
0% (1)
Dev Psych - Module 3
3 pages
Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks
100% (1)
Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks
6 pages
Infancy Ppt
No ratings yet
Infancy Ppt
33 pages
Unit 2
No ratings yet
Unit 2
15 pages
Lesson 3 - Human Development
No ratings yet
Lesson 3 - Human Development
81 pages
Child and Adolscnt 5
No ratings yet
Child and Adolscnt 5
18 pages
Human Growth SEM-01 - A1
100% (1)
Human Growth SEM-01 - A1
85 pages
Brenda 311 Assignment
No ratings yet
Brenda 311 Assignment
7 pages
Stages of Prenatal Development
100% (1)
Stages of Prenatal Development
4 pages
Physical Development 2
No ratings yet
Physical Development 2
83 pages
MODULE 3 Lesson 1,2,3 Prof Lanit
No ratings yet
MODULE 3 Lesson 1,2,3 Prof Lanit
16 pages
How To Have an Easy and Safe Pregnancy and Bring Forth a Healthy Baby: A Pregnancy Book for First Time Moms for a Successful and Healthy Journey through Pregnancy, Childbirth and Newborn
From Everand
How To Have an Easy and Safe Pregnancy and Bring Forth a Healthy Baby: A Pregnancy Book for First Time Moms for a Successful and Healthy Journey through Pregnancy, Childbirth and Newborn
Clarissa Valdez
No ratings yet
Educ 102 Handouts Module 9
No ratings yet
Educ 102 Handouts Module 9
3 pages
Anetta Assignment
No ratings yet
Anetta Assignment
12 pages
Final Module 9 Prenatal Development.activity 2(2)
No ratings yet
Final Module 9 Prenatal Development.activity 2(2)
5 pages
The Process of Prenatal Development Occurs in Three Main Stages
No ratings yet
The Process of Prenatal Development Occurs in Three Main Stages
2 pages
Block-2
No ratings yet
Block-2
108 pages
Vikram Batra
No ratings yet
Vikram Batra
10 pages
Prenatal Development and Birth: Prepared by Ms. Sana Aslam
No ratings yet
Prenatal Development and Birth: Prepared by Ms. Sana Aslam
12 pages
NannyTraining Unit 5 Physical Development of Children
No ratings yet
NannyTraining Unit 5 Physical Development of Children
18 pages
Stages of Human Development
No ratings yet
Stages of Human Development
6 pages
WEEK 7_8_LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENTS
No ratings yet
WEEK 7_8_LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENTS
19 pages
Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles (1)
No ratings yet
Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles (1)
14 pages
Unit 2- Physical Development
No ratings yet
Unit 2- Physical Development
79 pages
Development of Learners at Various Stage
No ratings yet
Development of Learners at Various Stage
11 pages
Prenatal: Physical Development Milestones
No ratings yet
Prenatal: Physical Development Milestones
4 pages
Module 4 Infancy Dev Psy Material
No ratings yet
Module 4 Infancy Dev Psy Material
25 pages
U2, CH4,DP (1)
No ratings yet
U2, CH4,DP (1)
3 pages
Edu Finished
No ratings yet
Edu Finished
5 pages
D.Ed Notes
No ratings yet
D.Ed Notes
8 pages
Rentzetal 2018chauliogryllacris
No ratings yet
Rentzetal 2018chauliogryllacris
12 pages
Chapter 2 - Positive Thinking - Vy - E - 2021
No ratings yet
Chapter 2 - Positive Thinking - Vy - E - 2021
129 pages
Sample Synopsis
No ratings yet
Sample Synopsis
10 pages
Visit Report
No ratings yet
Visit Report
3 pages
GJR25 - Data Sheet
No ratings yet
GJR25 - Data Sheet
4 pages
EZ7700 Series Online Colorimetric Analysers For Total Nitrogen
No ratings yet
EZ7700 Series Online Colorimetric Analysers For Total Nitrogen
4 pages
English Precis and Composition CSS Syllabus
No ratings yet
English Precis and Composition CSS Syllabus
3 pages
Value For Money Audit
100% (2)
Value For Money Audit
11 pages
Electric Car Reva
No ratings yet
Electric Car Reva
15 pages
RK 3-Day Split, 2024
No ratings yet
RK 3-Day Split, 2024
3 pages
Admitcard Test2
100% (1)
Admitcard Test2
2 pages
FSG Reports
0% (1)
FSG Reports
4 pages
General Design Considerations: "Storage Tanks"
No ratings yet
General Design Considerations: "Storage Tanks"
28 pages
LTM Implementations 11 2 1
No ratings yet
LTM Implementations 11 2 1
212 pages
Spec Ops Essays - JSOU - MAY 15
No ratings yet
Spec Ops Essays - JSOU - MAY 15
68 pages
School Catalog Basis Peoria-2022
No ratings yet
School Catalog Basis Peoria-2022
11 pages
Technical Communication For Engineers Improving Professional and Technical Skills
No ratings yet
Technical Communication For Engineers Improving Professional and Technical Skills
11 pages
GDS Online Engagement Application: Personal Details
No ratings yet
GDS Online Engagement Application: Personal Details
2 pages
Cauwenberge Cinema Verite
No ratings yet
Cauwenberge Cinema Verite
13 pages
ISO 9001 2015 Cluases PDF
No ratings yet
ISO 9001 2015 Cluases PDF
1 page
01B1. SLB Drilling Parameters & Trend Monitoring
No ratings yet
01B1. SLB Drilling Parameters & Trend Monitoring
56 pages
RSL Guitar Syllabus Guide 2018 DIGITAL 31may2019 PDF
No ratings yet
RSL Guitar Syllabus Guide 2018 DIGITAL 31may2019 PDF
87 pages
Forerunnercemanual
No ratings yet
Forerunnercemanual
22 pages
How To Build 60W Bass Amplifier (Circuit Diagram)
No ratings yet
How To Build 60W Bass Amplifier (Circuit Diagram)
9 pages
Bhutan Solid Waste Management
No ratings yet
Bhutan Solid Waste Management
7 pages
Service Manual L32B1120
No ratings yet
Service Manual L32B1120
57 pages