MAIN TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO DYNAMICS

Introduction
This topic will discuss the basic concepts of dynamics, position, displacement, velocity,
and acceleration.

Learning Outcomes
Intended Learning Outcomes
1. Acquire awareness of the principles governing the motion of particles.

Topic Outcomes
1. Learn the concept of dynamics.
2. Learn the concepts of position, displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
3. Solve problems related to displacement, velocity and acceleration.

WHAT IS DYNAMICS?
Dynamics is the branch of mechanics which deals with the study of bodies in motion.
The experiments which form the foundation of dynamics require the use of three kinds of units:
force, length, and time. (Singer)
It is divided into two branches called kinetics and kinematics.
1. Kinematics is the geometry of motion and used to define the motion of a particle or body
without consideration of the forces causing the motion. (e.g. displacement, velocity, and
acceleration). (Singer)

2. Kinetics is the analysis of the forces causing the motion. (Hibbeler, 2015). It relates the
force acting on a body to its mass and acceleration. (Singer)

The motion of the particle may either be rectilinear motion or curvilinear motion.
Rectilinear motion refers to the particle as it moves along a straight line while particle in a
curvilinear motion moves along a curved line in two or three dimensions. (Beer, 2019)

Application of Dynamics in Engineering

1. Structural design of any vehicle such as automobile or airplane. (Hibbeler,2015)
2. Design of mechanical devices such as motors, pumps, movable tools, industrial
manipulators, and machinery. (Hibbeler,2015)
 3. Predictions of the motions of artificial satellites, projectiles, and spacecraft.
(Hibbeler,2015)

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Body. It denotes a system of particles which form an object of appreciable size. (Singer)
Particle. It usually denotes an object of point size. (Singer). It has a mass but negligible size and
shape.
Position. It is used to specify the location of a particle at any given instant.

DISPLACEMENT
Displacement is defined to be the change in position of an object. (Hibbeler, 2015). Say,
a particle moves from the initial position 𝑠0 to a final position 𝑠𝑓 , then the displacement is the
difference in distance between the two positions.

Source: Beer, 2019

Mathematically, displacement can be defined as:

∆𝒔 = 𝒔𝒇 − 𝒔𝒐
where:
Δs – displacement
sf – final position
so – initial position
If the final position (sf) is to the right of the initial position (s0), the displacement is
positive. Likewise, if the final position (sf) is to the left of the initial position (s0), the
displacement is negative. (Hibbeler,2015)
 The displacement is a vector quantity. (Hibbeler,2015). This means it has a direction as
well as a magnitude and is represented visually as an arrow that points from the initial position to
the final position. (Khanacademy.org)
VELOCITY

Velocity is defined as a vector measurement of the rate and direction of motion; the
speed at which something moves in one direction. The speed of a car traveling north on a major
freeway and the speed a rocket launching into space can both be measured using velocity.

In calculus terms, velocity is the first derivative of position with respect to time. You can
calculate velocity by using a simple formula that includes rate, distance, and time.

𝑑𝑠
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡

The average velocity of the particle over the time interval Δt is defined as the quotient
of the displacement Δs and the time interval Δt as

∆𝑠
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
∆𝑡

The average velocity is expressed in meters per second (m/s) or in feet per
second (ft/s).

The instantaneous velocity v of a particle at the instant t is determined by allowing

the time interval Δt to become infinite similarly small. Thus,

∆𝑠
𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

The instantaneous velocity is also expressed in m/s or ft/s.

The most common way to calculate the constant velocity of an object moving in a straight
line is with this formula:

𝑠
𝑣=
𝑡

where:

v - velocity or rate of speed

s - distance travelled

t - time it takes to complete the movement

 The SI (international) units for velocity are m/s (meters per second), but velocity may
also be expressed in any units of distance per time [e.g. miles per hour (mph), kilometers per
hour (kph), and kilometers per second (km/s)].

Difference Between Speed and Velocity

Speed is a scalar quantity that indicates the rate of motion distance per time. Its units are
length and time. Speed is often described simply as the distance traveled per unit of time. It is
how fast an object is moving.

Velocity is a vector quantity that gives the rate of motion of a particle in a certain
direction.

ACCELERATION
Acceleration is defined as a vector quantity that indicates the rate of change of velocity.
It has dimensions of length and time over time.

Acceleration is often referred to as “speeding up”, but it really measures changes in

velocity. An object is accelerating if it is changing its velocity.

Acceleration can be experienced every day in a vehicle. You step on the accelerator and
the car speeds up, increasing its velocity.

Consider the velocity v of the particle at time t and also its velocity v + Δv at a later time t
+ Δt.

If the velocity of the particle is known at any two points, the average acceleration during
the time interval ∆t is defined as:

∆𝑣
𝑎𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
∆𝑡

The average acceleration is expressed in m/s2 or in ft/s2.

 The instantaneous acceleration a of the particle at the instant t is obtained by again
allowing the time interval Δt to approach zero.

The instantaneous acceleration at time t is a vector that is found by taking the smaller
and smaller values of ∆t and corresponding small values of ∆v, so that

Thus,
∆𝑣
𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

The instantaneous acceleration is also expressed in m/s2 or ft/s2.

The limit of the quotient, which is, the derivative of v with respect to t, measures the rate
of change of the velocity. We have

𝑑𝑣 𝑑2𝑠 𝑑𝑣
𝑎= 𝑜𝑟 𝑎= 𝑜𝑟 𝑎=𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

The acceleration a is represented by an algebraic number that can be positive or negative.

A positive value of a indicates that the velocity (i.e., the algebraic number v) increases. This may
mean that the particle is moving faster in the positive direction or that it is moving more slowly in
the negative direction; in both cases, Δv is positive. A negative value of a indicates that the velocity
decreases; either the particle is moving more slowly in the positive direction, or it is moving faster
in the negative direction.

Sometimes the term deceleration is used to refer to a when the speed of the particle (i.e.,
the magnitude of v) decreases; the particle is then moving more slowly. For example, the particle
of Fig. 11.5 is decelerating in parts b and c; it is truly accelerating (i.e., moving faster) in parts a
and d.
 Another way to define acceleration is,

𝒗𝒇 − 𝒗𝒐
𝒂=
𝒕
where:
a- acceleration
vf – final velocity
vo – initial velocity
t – time

Relationship Between Velocity and Acceleration

Velocity and acceleration are all related to each other, though they represent different
measurements. Velocity is a vector quantity that indicates displacement, time, and direction
while acceleration is the rate at which an object changes its velocity.

Procedure for Analysis: Velocity and Acceleration

A. Coordinate System

1. Establish a position coordinate s along the path and specify its fixed origin and positive
direction.
2. Since motion is along a straight line, the vector quantities position, velocity, and
acceleration can be represented as algebraic scalars. For analytical work the sense of s, v,
and a is then defined by their algebraic signs.
3. The positive sense for each of these scalars can be indicated by an arrow shown alongside
each kinematic equation as it is applied.

B. Kinematic Equations.
1. If a relation is known between any two of the four variables a, v, s, and t, then a third
variable can be obtained by using one of the kinematic equations, a = dv/dt, v = ds/dt or
a ds = v dv, since each equation relates all three variables.
2. Whenever integration is performed, it is important that the position and velocity be
known at a given instant in order to evaluate either the constant of integration if an
indefinite integral is used, or the limits of integration if a definite integral is used.
EXAMPLE 1.1:
The car in the figure moves in a straight line such that for a short time its velocity is
𝑓𝑡
defined by 𝑣 = (3𝑡 2 + 2𝑡) 𝑠 , where t is in seconds. Determine its position and
acceleration when (a) t= 3s, (b) t=0 and (c) s= 0

Given:
𝑣 = (3𝑡 2 + 2𝑡)
Required:
position =?
acceleration =?
Solution:
Since v is f(t) , the car’s position can be determined from 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑠⁄𝑑𝑡 , since
this
equation relates velocity (v), distance (s) and time (t).

𝑑𝑠
𝑣= = (3𝑡 2 + 2𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑠 = (3𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 )𝑑𝑡
𝑠 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ (3𝑡 2 + 2𝑡)𝑑𝑡
0 0

[𝑠]0𝑠 = [𝑡 3 + 𝑡 2 ]𝑡0

𝑠 = 𝑡3 + 𝑡2

(a) When t = 3s, 𝑠 = (3)3 + (3)2 s = 36

ft
(b) When t =0, 𝑠 = (0)3 + (0)2 s=0
(c) When s = 0, 0 = 𝑡 3 + 𝑡 2 t=0
EXAMPLE 1.2:
A small projectile is fired vertically downward into a fluid medium with an initial
velocity of 60 m/s. Due to the drag resistance of the fluid the projectile experiences a
𝑚
deceleration of 𝑎 = (−0.4𝑣 3 ) 𝑠 2 , where v is in m/s. Determine the projectile’s velocity
and position 4s after it is fired.

Given:

t = 4s
Required:
Velocity, v =?
Position =?
Solution:
𝑑𝑣
(a) Since a = f(v), we must determine the velocity as a function of time using 𝑎 = ,
𝑑𝑡
because this equation relates velocity, acceleration, and time.
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = −0.4𝑣 3
𝑑𝑡
𝑣 𝑡
𝑑𝑣
∫ 3
= ∫ 𝑑𝑡
60 −0.4𝑣
𝑚
0
𝑠

1 1 1
( ) 2 |𝑣60 = 𝑡 − 0
−0.4 −2 𝑣

1 1 2
[ 2 − ]=𝑡
0.8 𝑣 (60)2
 1
−
1 2 𝑚
𝑣 = {[ + 0.8𝑡] }
(60)2 𝑠

Here , the positive roots is taken since the projectile will continue to move
downward.

When t = 4s,
1
−
1 2 𝑚
𝑣 = {[ 2
+ 0.8(4)] }
(60) 𝑠

𝒎
𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟗 ↓
𝒔
𝑑𝑠
(b) Since v = f(t), we can obtain the projectile’s position from 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 , because the
equation relates distance, velocity, and time. Using the initial condition distance, s = 0
and time, t =0 then:
1
−
𝑑𝑠 1 2
𝑣= = [ + 0.8𝑡]
𝑑𝑡 (60)2
1
𝑠 𝑡 1 −
2
∫0 𝑑𝑠 = ∫0 [(60)2 + 0.8𝑡] 𝑑𝑡

1
2 1 2
𝑠= [ + 0.8𝑡] |𝑡0
0.8 (60)2

1
1 1 2 1
𝑠= {[ + 0.8𝑡] − }𝑚
0.4 (60)2 60

When t = 4s

1
1 1 2 1
𝑠 = {[ + 0.8(4)] − }𝑚
0.4 (60)2 60

𝒔 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟑 𝒎
Important Points
1. Dynamics is concerned with bodies in motion.
2. Kinematics is the study of the geometry of motion.
3. Kinetics is the study of the forces that causes the motion.
4. The motion of the particle may move either in a straight line or in a curved line.
5. Speed refers to the magnitude of velocity.
6. A particle that is slowing down is decelerating,
7. The differential equations of kinematics are given by the equations:
𝑑𝑠
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑠
𝑎= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑡

𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑠
CHAPTER TEST

A. Concepts
1. Cite the applications of dynamics.
2. What is the difference between kinetics and kinematics?
3. Differentiate speed and velocity.
4. Differentiate velocity and acceleration.

B. Problems
𝑚
1. A particle travels along a straight line with an acceleration of 𝑎 = (10 − 0.2𝑠) 𝑠 2 , where s
𝑚
is measured in meters. Determine the velocity of the particle when s= 10m if 𝑣 = 5 𝑠 at s=
0.
2. Starting from rest, a particle moving in a straight line has an acceleration of 𝑎 =
𝑚
(2𝑡 − 6) 2 , where t is in seconds. What is the particle’s velocity when t =6s and what is the
𝑠
position when t = 11s?

𝑓𝑡
3. A freight train travels at 𝑣 = 60 ( 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡 ) 𝑠 , where t= is the elapsed time in seconds.
Determine the distance travelled in 3 seconds, and the acceleration at this time.
 𝑓𝑡
4. Car B is travelling a distance d ahead of A. Both cars are travelling a at 60 when the
𝑠
𝑓𝑡
driver of B suddenly applies the brakes, causing his car to decelerate at 12 𝑠 2 . It takes the
driver of car A 0.75s to react (this is the normal reaction time for drivers). When he applies
𝑓𝑡
his brakes, he decelerates at 15 𝑠 2 . Determine the minimum distance d between the cars to
avoid collision.

5. The acceleration of a rocket traveling upward is given by a = (6 + 0.02s) m>s2, where s is

in meters. Determine the time needed for the rocket to reach an altitude of s = 100 m.
Initially, v = 0 and s = 0 when t = 0.

6. A sphere is fired downward into a medium with an initial speed of 27 m/s. If it

𝑚
experiences a deceleration of 𝑎 = (−6𝑡) 𝑠 2, where t is in seconds, determine the distance
traveled before it stops.

References
Books
1. Hibbeler, R. C. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics, Fourteenth Edition. Pearson
Prentice Hall
 2. Beer, Ferdinand et al. (2019) Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics and Dynamics,
Twelfth Edition, McGraw-Hill Education
3. Singer, Ferdinand L, Engineering Mechanics, Harper and Row Publisher’s Incorporated

Websites
1. https://byjus.com /
2. https://www.real-world-physics-problems.com
3. https://brainly.in
4. onlinetutoring.zohosites.com
5. https://www.fisicalab.com
6. https://www.math.arizona.edu
7. https://msu.edu
8. https://aapt.scitation.org
MAIN TOPIC 2: KINEMATICS OF PARTICLES
Introduction
This topic will discuss the different path of motion of particles as well as the mathematical
formula to use in each situation.

Learning Outcomes
Intended Learning Outcome
1. Acquire awareness of the principles governing the motion of particles, velocity and
acceleration.
2. Discuss the principles of Newton’s Second Law and its applications.

Topic Outcomes
1. Identify the difference between rectilinear and curvilinear motion.
2. Apply the kinematics equations in solving rectilinear and curvilinear motion problems.

KINEMATICS OF PARTICLES

Depending on the path of the particles, the motion may either be:
1. Rectilinear Motion
2. Curvilinear Motion

RECTILINEAR MOTION OF PARTICLES

Rectilinear motion is another name for straight-line motion. This type of motion
describes the movement of a particle or a body.

A body is said to experience rectilinear motion if any two particles of the body travel the
same distance along two parallel straight lines.

Following are the rectilinear motion examples:

• Use of elevators in public places is an example of rectilinear motion.

• Gravitational forces acting on objects resulting in free fall is an example of rectilinear
motion.
• Kids sliding down from a slide is a rectilinear motion.
• Motion of planes in the sky is a rectilinear motion.
Types of Rectilinear Motion

There are three types of rectilinear motion and they are:

1. Uniform rectilinear motion
2. Uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion
3. Rectilinear movement with non-uniform acceleration:

The three-basic equation of rectilinear motion are as follows:

𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡
1
𝑠 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑣𝑓 2 = 𝑣𝑜 2 + 2𝑎𝑠
Where,
t - the time of motion in seconds
s - the distance(m) covered during the time t.
vo - the initial velocity(m/s), at t="0.
vf - the final velocity(m/s) after time t.
a - the rate of acceleration(m/s2)

Uniform Rectilinear Motion

When an object travels at a constant speed with zero acceleration it is known as uniform
rectilinear motion.
𝑑𝑠
= 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑥𝑓 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑡
𝑥0 0

𝑥𝑓 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑣 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑥0 0

𝑥
[𝑠]𝑥0𝑓 = 𝑣[𝑡]𝑡0

𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣 (𝑡 − 0)

𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝟎 + 𝒗𝒕
 EXAMPLE:
A racing vehicle has an initial velocity of 10 m/s and it covers a distance of 225 m in 10 s.
Find its acceleration.

Given:
vO = 10 m/s
s = 225 m
t = 10 s

Required:
a -acceleration

Solution:
1. Using the second equation of rectilinear motion
1
𝑠 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
2. Rearranging equation
2 (𝑠 − 𝑣𝑜 𝑡)
𝑎=
𝑡2
3. Substituting the values of known quantities, then it becomes
𝑚
2 [225 𝑚 − 10 𝑠 (10𝑠)]
𝑎=
(10𝑠)2

𝒎
𝒂 = 𝟐. 𝟓
𝒔𝟐

The racing car is accelerating at 2.5 m/s2.

Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion

One of the most common cases of straight-line motion is that in which the acceleration is
constant. (Singer)
A body moves with constant acceleration motion or uniformly accelerated rectilinear
motion is when its trajectory is a straight line and its acceleration is constant and different from
0. This implies that the velocity increases or decreases its magnitude uniformly.

The equation may be derived by starting with the definition of acceleration, that is,
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑓 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎𝑑𝑡
𝑣0 0
 𝑣𝑓 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑣0 0

𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣0 = 𝑎𝑡

𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒕

Then, let us now consider the definition of velocity, that is,

𝑑𝑠
= 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑠𝑓 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ (𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 )𝑑𝑡
𝑠0 0

𝑠 1
[𝑠]𝑠0𝑓 = (𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡) [𝑡]𝑡0
2

𝟏 𝟐
𝒔 = 𝒗𝒐 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟐

Finally, let us consider the differential equation of kinematics,

𝑣𝑓 𝑠
∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 ∫ 𝑑𝑠
𝑣0 0

𝑣
𝑣2 𝑓
[ ] = 𝑎[𝑠]0𝑠
2 𝑣
0
𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝟎 𝟐 + 2as
𝟐

Therefore, the three kinematic equations of uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion are
as follows:
𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒐 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒗𝒐 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐
𝒗𝒇 𝟐 = 𝒗𝒐 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔
 Example:
A car if traveling at 67 mph (30 m/s) when the driver steps on the brake slowing the car down
at a rate of 3 m/s2. How long and what distance will be required for the car to stop on dry
pavement?
Given:
vo = 30 m/s
a = -3 m/s2 (deceleration)
Required: t – time
s- distance
Solution:
1. Use the equation below to find the distance, s:
𝑣𝑓 2 = 𝑣𝑜 2 + 2𝑎𝑠

2. Substitute the known values to solve for the distance, s :

𝑚 2 𝑚
0 = (30 ) + 2 (−3 2 ) 𝑠
𝑠 𝑠
𝒔 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝒎
3. Solve for time, t:
(a) Using the equation:
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑜 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑚 𝑚
0 = 30 + (−3 2 ) 𝑡
𝑠 𝑠
𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔

(b) Using the equation:

1
𝑠 = 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑚 1 𝑚
150𝑚 = (30 ) 𝑡 + (−3 2 )𝑡 2
𝑠 2 𝑠
1.5 𝑡 2 − 30𝑡 + 150 = 0
𝒕 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔

Rectilinear Movement with Non-Uniform Acceleration

When an object travels at an irregular speed and acceleration it is known as rectilinear
movement with non-uniform acceleration.
When bodies are acted upon by variable forces, they move with variable acceleration.).
Since the acceleration may vary in many ways, there is no general equation as in constant
acceleration. (Singer)
Basically, there are three principal variables s, v and a, related by a common parameter
which is t. Each of these principal variables may be expressed in terms of time t , or even a
combination of the others. (Singer)
Below are the cases of rectilinear movement with non-uniform acceleration:
Case 1: The displacement is given in terms of time; i.e. s = f(t) to find velocity and acceleration.
𝑑𝑠
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣 𝑑2𝑠
𝑎= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

Case 2: The acceleration is expressed in terms of time; a = f(t) to find velocity and distance.
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑡

𝑣𝑓 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎𝑑𝑡
𝑣0 0

Case 3: The velocity is given in terms of time; v= f(t); to find acceleration and distance. This
case is a combination of Case I and Case II. Differentiating the given velocity-time relation
determines the acceleration,
𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡

while integrating it determines the displacement,

∫ 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑡
Case 4: One of the principal variables is expressed in terms of adjacent variable; i.e., a =f(v) or
v=f(s).
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑠
The procedure here is to use either 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡 or 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 to relate to the given variable in terms of
the time.
Say, a = f(v), apply
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = 𝑓(𝑣)
𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑣𝑓
𝑑𝑣
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫
𝑡0 𝑣0 𝑓(𝑣)

Case 5: The given variables are not adjacent, i.e. a =f(s). In this case, we substitute the given
relation in 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎𝑑𝑠 , separate the variables and integrate to obtain one variable in terms of its
adjacent variable.
EXAMPLE:
A rope of length L connects the wheel A and the weight B by passing over a pulley of
negligible size at C as shown in the figure. At the instant when x= 9ft, the center of wheel A
has a velocity vA = 10 ft/s and an acceleration aA = 4 ft/s2, both rightward. What is then the
velocity and acceleration of B?

GIVEN:
z = 15 ft
x = 9 ft

REQUIRED: vB
aB

SOLUTION:
1. From the figure
ℎ=𝐿−𝑧+𝑦 Equation (a)
𝑧 2 = 𝑥 2 + ℎ2 Equation (b)
𝑑𝑦
2. By differentiating Equation (a) , with respect to time and noting that 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣𝐵 , we
obtain:
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
0 = − 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 or 𝑣𝐵 = 𝑑𝑡 Equation (c )

3. Next, we differentiate Equation (b)

𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥
2𝑧 𝑑𝑡 = 2𝑥 𝑑𝑡 or 𝑧𝑣𝐵 = 𝑥𝑣𝐴 Equation (d)

4. Another differentiation of Equation (d) :

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑑𝑡𝐵 + 𝑣𝐵 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑡𝐴 + 𝑣𝐴 𝑑𝑡

or
 𝑧𝑎𝐵 + 𝑣𝐵 2 = 𝑥𝑎𝐴 + 𝑣𝐴 2 Equation (e)

5. Substituting the value of z and x to Equations (d) and (e):

𝑧𝑣𝐵 = 𝑥𝑣𝐴

15 𝑓𝑡 𝑣𝐵 = 9 (10)

𝒇𝒕
𝒗𝑩 = 𝟔. 𝟎 ↑
𝒔

6. Substituting the value of z and x to Equations (e):

𝑧𝑎𝐵 + 𝑣𝐵 2 = 𝑥𝑎𝐴 + 𝑣𝐴 2

15 𝑎𝐵 + (6)2 = 9(4) + (10)2

𝒇𝒕
𝒂𝑩 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 ↑
𝒔𝟐

Comparison Between Uniform Acceleration and Non-uniform acceleration:

Comparison Uniform Motion Non Uniform Motion

Parameters

Average Speed The motion is similar to the actual The motion is different
speed of the object. from the actual speed of
the object.

Rectilinear Motion It has zero acceleration. It has non-zero

acceleration.

Graph Distance-time graph shows a straight Distance-time graph

line shows a curved line

Distance Covers equal distances in equal time Covers unequal distances

interval. in equal time interval.
Source: byjus.com

CURVILINEAR MOTION
Curvilinear motion is defined as motion that occurs when a particle travels along a
curved path. The curved path can be in two dimensions (in a plane), or in three dimensions.
 In curvilinear motion, the displacement vector will change in both magnitude and
inclination. (Singer)

Source: Beer, 2019

Consider particle which occupies position P defined by 𝑟⃗ at time t and P’

defined by 𝑟⃗ at 𝑡 + ∆𝑡,
∆𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑣⃗ = lim = (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)
∆𝑡 →0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

∆𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑣 = lim = ( 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)
∆𝑡 →0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Source: Beer, 2019

Consider velocity 𝑣⃗ of particle at time t and velocity ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑣′ at 𝑡 + ∆𝑡,
∆𝑣⃗ 𝑑𝑣⃗
𝑎⃗ = lim = (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
∆𝑡 →0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

In general acceleration vector is not tangent to the particle path and the velocity
vector as shown in the figure above.
 Following are the curvilinear motion examples:
• cyclist racing on curved tracks of velodrome
• earth moving around the sun
• a car taking a turn on a road
• a ball thrown upwards at an angle
• throwing of a javelin
• motion of a snake
• motion of cycle wheels
• motion of an earthworm
• motion of a spring
• Curved jet motion,
• Large sea waves,
• Running race in curved track

Rectangular Components of Curvilinear Motion

The motion of a particle can best be described along a path that can be expressed in terms
of x, y and z coordinates.

Position
Position vector of a particle at time t is defined by a vector between origin O of a fixed
reference frame and the position occupied by particle.

If a particle is at point (x, y, z) on the curved path s as shown in the figure, then its
location is defined mathematically by the position vector:
𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘

If the particle moves, the x, y, z components of r will be functions of time:

𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡)

𝑦 = 𝑦 (𝑡 )
𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑡)
 Such that,
𝑟 = 𝑟 (𝑡)
Therefore, defined mathematically as,
𝒓 = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐

Velocity
The velocity of the particle is the first derivative of r:

𝑑𝑟 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝑣= = (𝑥𝑖 ) + (𝑦𝑗) + (𝑧𝑘)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

When taking the derivative, it is necessary to account for changes in both the magnitude
and direction of each of the vector’s components. Thus, the derivative of the i component of r is:

Acceleration
The equation of the particle is obtained by taking the first derivative of:
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑥̇ 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑦̇ 𝑣𝑧 = 𝑧̇

𝒅𝒗
𝒂= = 𝒂𝒙 𝒊 + 𝒂𝒚 𝒋 + 𝒂𝒛 𝒌
𝒅𝒕

where:
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑣̇ 𝑥 = 𝑥̈ (first derivative of 𝑣𝑥 )
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑣̇ 𝑦 = 𝑦̈ (first derivative of 𝑣𝑦 )
𝑎𝑧 = 𝑣̇ 𝑧 = 𝑧̈ (first derivative of 𝑣𝑧 )

𝒂 = √𝒂𝒙 𝟐 + 𝒂𝒚 𝟐 + 𝒂𝒛 𝟐

Procedure for Analysis

Coordinate System
1. A rectangular coordinate system can be used to solve problems for which the motion can
conveniently be expressed in terms of its x, y, z components.
Kinematic Quantities.
1. Since rectilinear motion occurs along each coordinate axis, the motion along each axis is
found using v = ds/dt and a = dv/dt; or in cases where the motion is not expressed as a
function of time, the equation ads = vdv can be used.
2. In two dimensions, the equation of the path y = f(x) can be used to relate the x and y
components of velocity and acceleration by applying the chain rule of calculus.
3. Once the x, y, z components of v and a have been determined, the magnitudes of these
vectors are found from the Pythagorean theorem, and their coordinate direction angles
from the components of their unit vectors.
EXAMPLE:
At any instant, the horizontal position of the weather balloon in the figure is defined by 𝑥 =
𝑥2
(8𝑡)𝑓𝑡, where t is in seconds. If the equation of the path is 𝑦 = , determine the magnitude
10
and direction of the velocity and the acceleration when t= 2s.

Given:
t = 2s
x = 8t
𝑥2
𝑦= 10

Solution:
For the velocity
1. The velocity component in the x-direction is:

𝑑 𝑓𝑡
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑥̇ = (8𝑡) = 8 →
𝑑𝑡 𝑠

2. To find the relationship between the velocity components, use the chain rule of
calculus.
When x = 8(2) = 16 ft, the velocity component in the y-direction is:

𝑑 𝑥2 2𝑥𝑥̇ 2(16)(8)
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑦̇ = ( )= =
𝑑𝑡 10 10 10

𝑓𝑡
𝑣𝑦 = 25.6 ↑
𝑠

3. When t = 2s, the magnitude of velocity is therefore

 𝑓𝑡 2 𝑓𝑡 2
𝑣 = √(8 ) + (25.6 )
𝑠 𝑠

𝒇𝒕
𝒗 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟖
𝒔

4. The direction is tangent to the path,

𝑣𝑦
𝜃𝑣 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑣𝑥

25.6
𝜃𝑣 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
8

𝜽𝒗 = 𝟕𝟐. 𝟔°

For the acceleration

1. The relationship between the acceleration components is determined using the
chain rule:

𝑑
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑣̇𝑥 = (8)
𝑑𝑡

𝑎𝑥 = 0 (x-component)

𝑑 2𝑥𝑥̇ 2𝑥̇ 𝑥̇ 2𝑥𝑥̈

𝑎𝑦 = 𝑣̇𝑦 = ( )= +
𝑑𝑡 10 10 10

2 (8)2 2 (16)(0)
𝑎𝑦 = +
10 10
𝑓𝑡
𝑎𝑦 = 12.8 (y-component)
𝑠2

2. Thus the acceleration a is,

𝑎 = √(0)2 + (12.8)2

𝒇𝒕
𝒂 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟖
𝒔𝟐

3. The direction of a is,

 12.8
𝜃𝑎 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
0

𝜽𝒂 = 𝟗𝟎°

EXAMPLE:
For a short time, the path of the plane is described by 𝑦 = (0.001𝑥 2 ). If the plane is rising
with a constant upward velocity of 10 m/s, determine the magnitudes of the velocity and
acceleration of the plane when it reaches an altitude of y=100m.
Given:
y= 100m
vy = 10 m/s

Solution:
1. When y =100m, then
𝑦 = (0.001𝑥 2 )
100 = 0.001𝑥 2
𝑥 = 316.2 𝑚
𝑚
2. Also, due to constant velocity𝑣𝑦 = 10 ,
𝑠

𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 𝑡
𝑚
100𝑚 = (10 ) ( 𝑡)
𝑠

𝑡 = 10 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

For the velocity

1. Using the chain rule, find the relationship between the velocity components:

𝑦 = (0.001𝑥 2 )

𝑑
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑦̇ = (0.001𝑥 2 ) = (0.002𝑥)𝑥̇ = 0.002𝑥𝑣𝑥
𝑑𝑡
𝑚
10 = 0.002 ( 316.2𝑚)( 𝑣𝑥 )
𝑠
 𝑚
𝑣𝑥 = 15.81
𝑠

2. The magnitude of the velocity is therefore,

𝑣 = √𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑦 2

𝑚 2 𝑚 2
𝑣 = √(15.81 ) + (10 )
𝑠 𝑠

𝒎
𝒗 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕
𝒔

For the acceleration

1. Using the chain rule, find the relation between the acceleration components:
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑣̇𝑦 = (0.002𝑥̇ ) 𝑥̇ + 0.002𝑥 (𝑥̈ ) = 0.002 (𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑎𝑥 )

𝑚
When x= 316.2m, 𝑣𝑥 = 15.81 , 𝑣̇𝑦 = 𝑎𝑦 = 0
𝑠

𝑚 2
0 = 0.002 [(15.81 ) + 316.2 𝑚 (𝑎𝑥 )]
𝑠
𝑚
𝑎𝑥 = −0.791
𝑠2

2. The magnitude of the plane’s acceleration is,

𝑎 = √ 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑦 2

𝑚 2 𝑚 2
𝑎 = √(−0.791 ) + (0 )
𝑠2 𝑠2

𝒎
𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟏
𝒔𝟐

Tangential and Normal Components of Curvilinear Motion

The velocity vector of particle is tangent to the path of the particle while in general, the
acceleration vector is not.
 (a) (b)

𝑒𝑡 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Referring to the figure (a), the ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑒′𝑡 are the tangential unit vectors for the path P and
P’ respectively.
But if they were drawn with respect to the same origin as shown if figure (b), ∆ ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑒𝑡 =
𝑒𝑡 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑒′𝑡 and ∆θ is the angle between them.

∆𝜃
∆𝑒𝑡 = 2 sin ( )
2
∆𝜃
∆𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑡 sin ( )
lim = lim 2 𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑛 𝑛
∆𝜃→0 ∆𝜃 ∆𝜃→0 ∆𝜃
2

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝒕
𝒅𝒆
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒆𝒏 =
𝒅𝜽

Where:
𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑡 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒′𝑡 – tangential vectors
Θ – angle between the tangential vectors
𝑒𝑛 – normal components
 With the velocity vector expressed as 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗,
𝑡 the acceleration of the particle may be
expressed as,
𝑑𝑣⃗ 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑒⃗
𝑎⃗ = = 𝑒𝑡 + 𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑒⃗ 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑠
𝑎= 𝑒𝑡 + 𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡

But,
𝑑𝑒
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑡 𝑑𝑠
= ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒𝑛 and 𝜌𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝑠 and =𝑣
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑡

Therefore,

𝑑𝑣 𝑣2
𝑎= 𝑒 + 𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑡 𝜌 𝑛

The normal and tangential components of the acceleration are:

𝒅𝒗
𝒂𝒕 =
𝒅𝒕
𝒗𝟐
𝒂𝒏 =
𝝆

The tangential components of the acceleration reflect the change of speed while the
normal components reflect the change of direction.
The tangential component may either be positive or negative while the normal component
always points towards the center of path curvature.
The relationship for the normal and tangential components also apply for particle moving
along a space curve.
 The plane containing the tangential and normal vectors is called an osculating plane. The
normal to the osculating plane is found from:
𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑏 = ( ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒𝑡 )( ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒𝑛 )
Where,
𝑛 – principal normal
𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑒⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑏 - principal binormal

Important Points:
• Curvilinear motion can cause changes in both the magnitude and direction of the position,
velocity, and acceleration vectors.
• The velocity vector is always directed tangent to the path,
• In general, the acceleration vector is not tangent to the path but rather, it is tangent to the
hodograph.
• If the motion is described using rectangular coordinates, then the components along each

WHAT IS PROJECTILE?

Projectile is any object thrown into space upon which the only acting force is the gravity.
In other words, the primary force acting on a projectile is gravity. This doesn’t necessarily mean
that the other forces do not act on it, just that their effect is minimal compared to gravity. The path
followed by a projectile is known as a trajectory. A baseball batted or thrown and the instant the
bullet exits the barrel of a gun are all examples of projectile.
A projectile is any object that once projected or dropped continues in motion by its own
inertia and is influenced only by the downward force of gravity.

WHAT IS PROJECTILE MOTION?

When a particle is thrown obliquely near the earth’s surface, it moves along a curved path
under constant acceleration that is directed towards the center of the earth (we assume that the
particle remains close to the surface of the earth). The path of such a particle is called a projectile
and the motion is called projectile motion. Air resistance to the motion of the body is to be
assumed absent in projectile motion.
In a projectile Motion, there are two simultaneous independent rectilinear motions:

1. Along x-axis: uniform velocity, responsible for the horizontal (forward) motion of the
particle.
2. Along y-axis: uniform acceleration, responsible for the vertical (downwards) motion of
the particle.

Below are the steps for a projectile motion analysis:

1. Calculate the components of velocity.

• The horizontal velocity component vx ,

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣 cos 𝛼

• The vertical velocity component vy,

𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣 sin 𝛼

2. Write down the equations of motion.

Distance

• Horizontal distance traveled can be expressed as

𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑡
 Where: t – time

• Vertical distance from the ground is described by,

𝑔𝑡 2
𝑦 = ℎ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑡 −
2

Acceleration

• Horizontal acceleration is equal to 0.

• Vertical acceleration is equal to -g (because only gravity acts on the projectile).

3. Calculate the time of flight.

• Flight ends when the projectile hits the ground. We can say that it happens when the
vertical distance from the ground is equal to 0.
• In the case where initial height is 0, the formula can be written as:

𝑔𝑡 2
𝑣𝑦 𝑡 − =0
2

Then, from that equation, we find that the time of flight is

2𝑣𝑦 2𝑣 sin ∝
𝑡= =
𝑔 𝑔

• However, if we're throwing the object from some elevation (h ≠0), then the formula
we obtain is a quadratic equation:

𝑔𝑡 2
ℎ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑡 − =0
2

After solving this equation, and we get:

𝑣 sin 𝛼 + √𝑣 sin 𝛼 2
𝑡= + 2𝑔ℎ
𝑔

4. Calculate the range of the projectile.

• The range of the projectile is the total horizontal distance traveled during the flight
time. Again, if we're launching the object from the ground (initial height = 0), then
we can write the formula as
𝑣 2 sin 2𝛼
𝑅=
𝑔
 • For initial elevation differing from 0 (h ≠ 0). Then, the formula will be:

𝑅 = 𝑣 cos ∝

5. Calculate the maximum height.

• When the projectile reaches the maximum height, is stops moving up and starts
falling. It means that its vertical velocity component changes from positive to
negative, in other words, it is equal to 0 for a brief moment at time t
𝑣𝑦 = 0

• In the case of launching a projectile from some initial height h, we need to simply add
that value into the final formula:

𝑣 2 sin(𝛼 )2
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ0 +
2𝑔

Projectile Motion Equations

1. Launching the object from the ground (initial height h = 0)

• Horizontal velocity component:

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣 cos ∝
• Vertical velocity component:
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣 sin ∝
• Time of flight:
2𝑣𝑦
𝑡=
𝑔

• Range of the projectile:

2𝑣𝑥 𝑣𝑦
𝑅=
𝑔
• Maximum height:

𝑣𝑦 2
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝑔

2. Launching the object from some elevation (initial height h > 0)

• Horizontal velocity component:

𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣 cos ∝
• Vertical velocity component:
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣 sin ∝
 • Time of flight:
𝑣𝑦 + √𝑣𝑦 2 + 2𝑔ℎ
𝑡=
𝑔

• Range of the projectile:

𝑣𝑥 [√𝑣𝑦 2 + 2𝑔ℎ ]
𝑅=
𝑔
• Maximum height:
𝑣𝑦 2
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 =ℎ+
2𝑔

CHAPTER TEST
A. Concepts
1. It refers to the motion along a straight-line path.
2. What are the types of rectilinear motion?
3. Free flight of a projectile follows a _________ path.
4.
B. Problems
1. A stone is dropped down a well and 5 seconds later the sound of the splash is heard. If the
velocity of the sound is 1120 ft/s, what is the depth of the well?
2. A stone is dropped from a captive balloon at an elevation of 1000 ft. Two seconds later,
𝑓𝑡
another stone is projected vertically upward from the ground with a velocity of 248 𝑠 . If
𝑓𝑡
g=32 𝑠 2 , when and where will the stones pass each other.
𝑓𝑡
3. An automobile moving at a constant velocity of 45 𝑠 passes a gasoline station. Two
seconds later, another automobile leaves the gasoline station and accelerates at the
𝑓𝑡
constant rate of 6 𝑠 2. How soon will the second automobile overtake the first?
4. A train moving with a constant acceleration travels 24 ft during the 10th second of its
motion and 18 ft during the 12th second of its motion. Find its initial velocity and its
constant acceleration.
5. An automobile moving at a constant velocity of 45 ft/s passes a gasoline station. Two
seconds later, another automobile leaves the gasoline station and accelerates a at a
constant rate of 6 ft/s2. How soon will the second automobile overtake the first?
6. The velocity of a particle moving along the x-axis is defined by 𝑣 = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 + 6𝑥
𝑓𝑡
where v is in and x is in feet. Compute the value of the acceleration when x = 2ft.
𝑠
7. The box slides down the slope described by the equation y = (0.05x2) m, where x is in
meters. If the box has x components of velocity and acceleration of vx = -3 m/s and ax =
1.5 m/s2 at x = 5 m, determine the y components of the velocity and the acceleration of
the box at this instant.
 8. A particle travels along the curve from A to B in 2 s. It takes 4 s for it to go from B to C
and then 3 s to go from C to D. Determine its average speed when it goes from A to D.

9. The velocity of the water jet discharging from the orifice can be obtained from 𝑣 =
√2𝑔ℎ, where h = 2 m is the depth of the orifice from the free water surface. Determine
the time for a particle of water leaving the orifice to reach point B and the horizontal
distance x where it hits the surface.

References
Books
1. Hibbeler, R. C. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics, Fourteenth Edition. Pearson
Prentice Hall
2. Beer, Ferdinand et al. (2019) Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics and Dynamics,
Twelfth Edition, McGraw-Hill Education
3. Singer, Ferdinand L , Engineering Mechanics, Harper and Row Publisher’s Incorporated

Websites
1. https://byjus.com/
2. https://www.real-world-physics-problems.com
3. https://brainly.in
4. onlinetutoring.zohosites.com
5. https://www.fisicalab.com
6. https://www.math.arizona.edu
7. https://msu.edu
8. https://aapt.scitation.org
Main Topic 3: Kinetics of a particle
Introduction
In this lecture you will learn the basic concepts of kinetics and how to solve engineering
problems involving the Newton’s second law of motion. It includes the discussion of dynamic
equilibrium and the equations of motion.

Learning Outcomes
Intended Learning Outcome 2 (Syllabus)
1. Discuss the principles of Newton’s Second Law and its applications.
Topic Outcomes
1. Recognize the concept of kinetics.
2. Acquire awareness of the Newton’s second law of motion and its applications.
3. Model physical systems by drawing complete free-body diagram and kinetic diagrams

Kinetics
Kinetics is a branch of dynamics that deals with the relationship between the change in
motion of a body and the forces that cause this change. The basis for kinetics is Newton’s second
law, which states that when an unbalanced force acts on a particle, the particle will accelerate in
the direction of the force with a magnitude that is proportional to the force. (Hibbeler, 2016, p.
113)

Newton’s Second Law of motion

Newton’s second law is a quantitative description of the changes that a force can produce
on the motion of a body. It is one of the most important in all of physics. For a body whose mass
“m” is constant, it can be written in the form F = ma, where “F” (force) and “a” (acceleration) are
both vector quantities. If a body has a net force acting on it, it is accelerated in accordance with
the equation. Conversely, if a body is not accelerated, there is no net force acting on it.
(Encyclopaedia Britannica, n.d.).
This law can be verified experimentally by applying a known unbalanced force “F” to a
particle, and then measuring the acceleration “a”. Since the force and acceleration are directly
proportional, the constant of proportionality, “m”, may be determined from the ratio m = F / a.
This positive scalar m is called the mass of the particle. Being constant during any acceleration, m
provides a quantitative measure of the resistance of the particle to a change in its velocity, that is
its inertia. (Hibbeler, 2016, p. 113)
According to the book “Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics and Dynamics Twelfth
Edition by Beer, et al., (2019)”, Newton’s second law of motion is best understood by imagining
the following experiment as stated in the previous paragraph: A particle is subjected to a force F1
of constant direction and constant magnitude F1. Under the action of that force, the particle moves
in a straight line and in the direction of the force (Fig. 1 a). By determining the position of the
particle at various instants, we find that its acceleration has a constant magnitude a1. If we repeat
the experiment with forces F2, F3, . . . of a different magnitude or direction (Fig. 1 b and c), we
find each time that the particle moves in the direction of the force acting on it and that the
magnitudes a1, a2, a3, . . . of the accelerations are proportional to the magnitudes F1, F2, F3, . . . of
the corresponding forces. Thus,
𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐹3
= = = ⋯ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3

Figure 1. Experiments show that a force applied to a particle gives the particle an acceleration
proportional to the magnitude of the force and in the same direction as the force.

The constant value obtained for the ratio of the magnitudes of the forces and accelerations
is a characteristic of the particle under consideration; it is called the mass of the particle and is
denoted by m. When a particle of mass m is acted upon by a force F, the force F and the
acceleration a of the particle must therefore satisfy the relation.

This relation provides a complete formulation of Newton’s second law; it states not only
that the magnitudes of F and a are proportional, but also (because m is a positive scalar) that the
vectors F and a have the same direction (Fig. 2). Note that the equation above still holds when F
is not constant but varies with time in magnitude or direction. The magnitudes of F and a remain
proportional, and the two vectors have the same direction at any given instant. However, they are
not, in general, tangent to the path of the particle. When a particle is subjected simultaneously to
several forces, the equation above should be replaced by
Newton’s second law, multiple forces:

where ΣF represents the sum or resultant of all the forces acting on the particle.

Figure 2. By Newton’s second law, the proportionality constant between an applied force and the
resulting acceleration is the particle’s mass m
System of Units
There are two systems of consistent kinetic units that are currently used: The International
System of Units (SI units) and the system of US customary units (English Units).
International System of Units (SI units)
• The base units are the units of length, mass, and time and are called, respectively,
the meter (m), the kilogram (kg), and the second (s)
• SI units are said to form an absolute system of units
• The three base units chosen are independent of the location where measurements
are made, and they always have the same meaning.
US customary units (English units)
• The base units are the units of length, force, and time and are called, respectively,
the foot (ft), the pound (lb), and the second (s).
• The second is the same as the corresponding SI unit. The foot is equal to 0.3048 m.
The pound is defined as the weight of a platinum standard, called the standard
pound, which is kept at the National Institute of Standards and Technology outside
Washington, DC
• U.S. customary units do not form an absolute system of units because of their
dependence upon the earth’s gravitational attraction.
• U.S. customary units are said to form a gravitational system of units.

Conversion of Units
The conversion from U.S. customary units to SI units, and vice versa can be obtained by
multiplying the conversion factors as stated below.

The usage of pounds in dynamics refers to pounds-force (lbf). Although it cannot be used as a
consistent unit of mass, the mass of the standard pound is, by definition,

1 pound-mass = 0.4536 kg
This constant can be used to determine the mass in SI units (kilograms) of a body that has been
characterized by its weight in U.S. customary units (pounds).
Dynamic Equilibrium: Equations of Motion
When more than one force acts on a particle, the resultant force is determined by a vector
summation of all the force. In this case, the equation of motion may be written as

𝜮𝑭 = 𝒎 𝒂
We can illustrate the application of this equation by drawing a free-body diagram. A free-
body diagram is a graphical representation showing the relative magnitude and direction of all
forces acting upon an object or a particle in a given situation. Since the resultant of this forces
produces the vector ma, its magnitude and direction can be represented graphically on the kinetic
diagram.

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

If the sum of all the forces is zero, it means that the particle or object is not accelerating of
has zero acceleration, thus, the object or particle is at rest or moving at a constant velocity. This
condition is called Static Equilibrium. If the particle or object is moving with acceleration, the sum
of all the forces produces the vector ma. This condition is called the Dynamic Equilibrium.

Free-body diagram and Kinetic Diagram

Two of the most important tools you will use in solving dynamics problems, particularly
those involving Newton’s second law, are the free-body diagram (FBD) and the kinetic diagram
(KD). These diagrams will help you to model dynamic systems and apply appropriate equations
of motion. (Beer, et al., 2019, p. 729)

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

 According to the book “Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics and Dynamics Twelfth
Edition by Beer, et al., (2019)”, free-body diagram is usually done in Statics and consists of the
following steps.
• Body: Define your system by isolating the body (or bodies) of interest. If a problem
has multiple bodies, you may have to draw multiple free-body diagrams and kinetic
diagrams.
• Axes: Draw an appropriate coordinate system (e.g., Cartesian, normal and
tangential, or radial and transverse).
• Support Forces: Replace supports or constraints with appropriate forces (e.g., two
perpendicular forces for a pin, normal forces, friction forces). Applied Forces and
Body
• Forces: Draw any applied forces and body forces (also sometimes called field
forces) on your diagram (e.g., weight, magnetic forces, a known pulling force).
• Dimensions: Add any angles or distances that are important for solving the
problem.
Kinetic diagram is done in Dynamics and unlike in Statics, the inertial term in Newton’s
second law is not equal to zero. The only difference between FBD and KD is the inertial term.
• Body: This is the same body as in the free-body diagram; place this beside the
free-body diagram.
• Inertial Terms: Draw the ma term to be consistent with the coordinate system.
Generally, draw this term in different components. If they are unknown quantities,
it is best to draw them in the positive directions as defined by your coordinates.

Inertial Reference Frame

When applying the equation of motion, it is important that the acceleration of the particle
be measured with respect to a reference frame that is either fixed or translates with a constant
velocity. In this way, the observer will not accelerate, and measurements of the particle’s
acceleration will be the same from any reference of this type. Such a frame of reference is
commonly known as a Newtonian or inertial reference frame.

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

Equations of Motion in Different Coordinate Systems
We can resolve vectors into components using several different coordinate systems
depending on the type of problem we are solving. We have three common coordinate systems that
are being used to solve these vectors. These are the following:
• Cartesian (Rectangular)
• Tangential and Normal
• Radial and Transverse

Equations of Motion: Rectangular Components

According to the book “Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics, Fourteenth Edition by R.C.
Hibbeler”, when a particle moves relative to an inertial x, y, z frame of reference, the forces acting
on the particle, as well as its acceleration, can be expressed in terms of their x, y, z components.
We may write the following three scalar equations:

𝜮𝑭𝒙 = 𝒎 𝒂𝒙
𝜮𝑭𝒚 = 𝒎 𝒂𝒚
𝜮𝑭𝒛 = 𝒎 𝒂𝒛

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

The equations of motion are used to solve problems which require a relationship between
the forces acting on a particle and the accelerated motion they cause. These are the procedures on
how to solve these problems:
1. Free-Body Diagram
• Select the inertial coordinate system. Most often, rectangular or x, y, z coordinates are
chosen to analyze problems for which the particle has rectilinear motion.
• Once the coordinates are established, draw the particle’s free-body diagram. Drawing this
diagram is very important since it provides a graphical representation that accounts for all
the forces (𝜮F) which act on the particle, and thereby makes it possible to resolve these
forces into their x, y, z components.
 • The direction and sense of the particle’s acceleration a should also be established. If the
sense is unknown, for mathematical convenience assume that the sense of each acceleration
component acts in the same direction as its positive inertial coordinate axis.
• The acceleration may be represented as the ma vector on the kinetic diagram.
• Identify the unknowns in the problem.

2. Equation of motion
• If the forces can be resolved directly from the free-body diagram, apply the equations of
motion in their scalar component form.
• If the geometry of the problem appears complicated, which often occurs in three
dimensions, Cartesian vector analysis can be used for the solution.

3. Kinematics
• If the velocity/ position of the particle is to be found, it will be necessary to apply the
necessary kinematic equations once the acceleration is determined from 𝜮F = ma.
• In all cases, make sure the positive inertial coordinate directions used for writing the
kinematic equations are the same as those used for writing the equations of motion;
otherwise, simultaneous solution of the equations will result in errors.
• If the solution for an unknown vector component yields a negative scalar, it indicates that
the component acts in the direction opposite to that which was assumed.

Equations of Motion: Tangential and Normal Components

According to the book “Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics, Fourteenth Edition by R.C.
Hibbeler”, when a particle moves along a curved path which is known, the equation of motion for
the particle may be written in the tangential, normal, and binormal directions. Note that there is no
motion of the particle in the binormal direction since the particle is constrained to move along the
path.

𝜮𝑭𝒕 = 𝒎 𝒂𝒕
𝜮𝑭𝒏 = 𝒎 𝒂𝒏
𝜮𝑭𝒃 = 𝒎 𝒂𝒃

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

Where: at (= dv/dt) represents the time rate of change in the magnitude of velocity.
an (= v2/𝜌) represents the time rate of change in the velocity’s direction.
 When a problem involves the motion of a particle along a known curved path, normal and
tangential coordinates should be considered for the analysis since the acceleration components can
be readily formulated. The procedures on how to solve these problems are as follows:
1. Free-Body Diagram
• Establish the inertial t, n, b coordinate system at the particle and draw the particle’s free-
body diagram.
• The particle’s normal acceleration an always acts in the positive n direction.
• If the tangential acceleration at is unknown, assume it acts in the positive t direction
• There is no acceleration in the b direction.
• Identify the unknowns in the problem

2. Equation of motion
• Apply the equations of motion
o 𝜮𝑭𝒕 = 𝒎 𝒂𝒕
o 𝜮𝑭𝒏 = 𝒎 𝒂𝒏
o 𝜮𝑭𝒃 = 𝒎 𝒂𝒃

3. Kinematics
• Formulate the tangential and normal components of acceleration.

Equations of Motion: Radial and Transverse Components

According to the book “Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics, Fourteenth Edition by R.C.
Hibbeler”, when all the forces acting on a particle are resolved into cylindrical components, the
equation of motion may be written in the radial and transverse components.

𝜮𝑭𝒓 = 𝒎 𝒂𝒓
𝜮𝑭𝜽 = 𝒎 𝒂𝜽
𝜮𝑭𝒛 = 𝒎 𝒂𝒛

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

 Cylindrical or polar coordinates are a suitable choice for the analysis of a problem for
which data regarding the angular motion of the radial line r are given, or in cases where the path
can be conveniently expressed in terms of these coordinates. Once these coordinates have been
established, the equations of motion can then be applied in order to relate the forces acting on the
particle to its acceleration components. The following is a summary of this procedure.
1. Free-Body Diagram
• Establish the r, 𝜽, z inertial coordinate system and draw the particle’s free-body diagram.
• Assume that ar, au, az act in the positive directions of r, 𝜽, z if they are unknown.
• Identify the unknowns in the problem

2. Equation of motion
• Apply the equations of motion
o 𝜮𝑭𝒓 = 𝒎 𝒂𝒓
o 𝜮𝑭𝜽 = 𝒎 𝒂𝜽
o 𝜮𝑭𝒛 = 𝒎 𝒂𝒛

3. Kinematics
• Formulate the radial and transverse components of acceleration.
• If any of the acceleration components is computed as a negative quantity, it indicates that
it acts in its negative coordinate direction

Sample Problems
Equations of Motion: Rectangular Components
Example 1:
A 10-kg projectile is fired vertically upward from the ground, with an initial velocity of 50
m/s, Determine the maximum height to which it will travel if (a) atmospheric resistance is
neglected.
Given: mass = 10 kg
velocity = 50 m/s
Required: maximum height, h

Solution:

W= 𝒎𝒈 = 10 𝑘𝑔(9.81𝑚/𝑠 2 ) = 98.1 N

𝜮𝑭𝒚 = 𝒎𝒂𝒚
−𝟗𝟖. 𝟏 = (𝟏𝟎)𝒂𝒚
𝒂𝒚 = −𝟗. 𝟖𝟏 𝒎/𝒔𝟐

By using the formula 𝑣 2 = 𝑣𝑜2 + 2𝑎𝑆

(0)2 = (50)2 + 2(−9.81)(ℎ)
ℎ = (50)2 + 2(−9.81)(ℎ)
𝒉 = 𝟏𝟐𝟕 𝒎

Example 2:
The 50-kg crate shown in the figure below rests on a horizontal surface for which the
coefficient of kinetic friction is 𝜇𝑘 = 0.3. If the crate is subjected to a 400-N towing force as
shown, determine the velocity of the crate in 3 s starting from rest.

Given: mass = 50 kg
F = 400 N
𝜇𝑘 = 0.3
t = 3 sec

Required: final velocity, v

Solution:

W= 𝒎𝒈 = 50 𝑘𝑔(9.81𝑚/𝑠 2 ) = 490.5 N

𝜮𝑭𝒚 = 𝒎𝒂𝒚 ; 𝑎𝑦 = 0
W – Nc – Fsin𝜽 = (𝒎)(𝟎)
490.5 – Nc – 400sin(30o)= (50)(0)
Nc = 290.5 𝑁

𝐅 = 𝝁𝒌 𝐍𝐜 = 0.3Nc

𝜮𝑭𝒙 = 𝒎𝒂𝒙 ; 𝒂𝒙 = ?
Fcos𝜽 – F – = (𝒎)(𝒂𝒙 )
490.5 cos (30o) – 0.3(290.5) = (50)(𝒂𝒙 )
𝑎𝑥 = 5.185 𝑚/𝑠 2

By using the formula 𝒗 = 𝒗𝒐 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕 , @ t = 3 sec

𝑣 = 0 + (5.185)(3)
𝒗 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟔 𝒎/𝒔

Equations of Motion: Tangential and Normal Components

Example 1:
The 3-kg disk D is attached to the end of a cord as shown in the figure below. The other
end of the cord is attached to a ball-and-socket joint located at the center of a platform. If the
platform rotates rapidly, and the disk is placed on it and released from rest as shown, determine
the time it takes for the disk to reach a speed great enough to break the cord. The maximum
tension the cord can sustain is 100 N, and the coefficient of kinetic friction between the disk and
the platform is 𝜇𝑘 = 0.1.

Given: mass = 3 kg
r =1m
𝜇𝑘 = 0.1
T = 100 N
Required: time, t
Solution:

Example 2:
The 60-kg skateboarder in the figure below coasts down the circular track. If he starts from
rest when 𝜃 = 0o, determine the magnitude of the normal reaction the track exerts on him when
𝜃 = 60o. Neglect his size for the calculation.

Given: mass = 60 kg
r =4m

Required: Normal reaction, N

 Solution:

Equations of Motion: Radial and Transverse Components

Example 1:
The smooth 0.5-kg double-collar in the figure below can freely slide on arm AB and the
circular guide rod. If the arm rotates with a constant angular velocity of 𝜃̇ = 3 rad/s, determine
the force the arm exerts on the collar at the instant 𝜃 = 45o. Motion is in the horizontal plane.
Given: mass = 0.5 kg
𝜃̇ = 3 rad/s
𝜃 = 45o
r = 0.4 m

Required: Normal reaction, Nc

Force, F
Solution:

Using chain rule, the fi rst and sec ond time derivatives of
Main Topic 3: Kinetics of a particle
Subtopic: Principles of Work and Energy
Introduction
In this lecture, we will analyze motion of a particle using the concepts of work and energy.
The resulting equation will be useful for solving problems that involve force, velocity, and
displacement.

Learning Outcomes
Intended Learning Outcome 3 (Syllabus)
1. Calculate linear, projectile, circular, and rotational motion problems using the concepts
and principles of work, energy, impulse, and momentum.
Topic Outcomes
1. Develop the principle of work and energy and apply it to solve problems that involve
force, velocity, and displacement
2. Apply the theorem of conservation of energy to solve kinetic problems
3. Analyze problems that involve power and efficiency

Work and Energy

In science and engineering, work and energy have very specific definitions that involve
forces, displacements, masses, and velocities. These two concepts are of great value in analyzing
a wide range of engineering problems. (Beer, et al., 2019, p. 801).
The difference between work and energy are tabulated below.
Work Energy
The action did on the object causing some It is described as a property of a system or the
displacement ability to do work
Work = force times distance There are various equations depending upon the
types of energy
The components of the force are parallel to Energy is the result of the work performed
the displacement
If the applied force is in the same direction The is no direction component here as it is a
of the displacement than work is positive scalar quantity
and negative if it is opposite direction
Source: (https://byjus.com/physics/difference-between-work-and-energy)
Work of a Force
The work done on a system by a constant force is the product of the component of the force
in the direction of motion times the distance through which the force acts. This is expressed in
equation form as
𝑾 = 𝑭𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝛉
where W is work, F is the magnitude of the force on the system, d is the magnitude of the
displacement of the system, and θ is the angle between the force vector F and the displacement
vector d.

Source: (https://openstax.org/books/college-physics/pages/7-1-work-the-scientific-definition)

Work is expressed in units acquired by multiplying units of length by units of force. If we

use English units, work is expressed in ft·lb or in·lb. If we use SI units, work is expressed in N·m.
The unit of work N·m is called a joule (J).

Work of a Variable Force

If the particle acted upon by the force F undergoes a finite displacement along its path from
r1 to r2 or s1 to s2 , the work of force F is determined by integration.

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

 This relation may be obtained by using experimental data to plot a graph of F cos 𝜃 vs. s.
Then the area under this graph bounded by s1 and s2 represents the total work.
Work of a Constant Force Moving Along a Straight Line
If the force Fc has a constant magnitude and acts at a constant angle 𝜽 from its straight-line
path, then the component of Fc in the direction of displacement is always Fc cos 𝜽. The work done
by Fc when the particle is displaced from s1 to s2 is determined by integration.

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

Work of a Weight
Consider a particle of weight W, which moves up along the path s shown in the figure
below from position s1 to position s2. At an intermediate point, the displacement dr = dxi + dyj +
dzk. Since W = -Wj we have this equation

or

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

The work is independent of the path and is equal to the magnitude of the particle’s weight
times its vertical displacement. The W is negative since its direction opposes the reference plane
x-z, but the 𝛥y is positive since it is above reference plane x-z. If the particle is displaced downward
(-𝛥y), the Work of the weight will be positive.

Work of a Spring Force

If an elastic spring is elongated a distance ds, then the work done by the force that acts on
the attached particle is dU = -Fsds = -ks ds. The work is negative since Fs acts in the opposite sense
to ds. If the particle displaces from s1 to s2, the work of Fs is then,

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

This Work represents the trapezoidal area under the line Fs = ks.

Principle of Work and Energy

The work-energy principle states that an increase in the kinetic energy of a rigid body is
caused by an equal amount of positive work done on the body by the resultant force acting on that
body. Conversely, a decrease in kinetic energy is caused by an equal amount of negative work
done by the resultant force. Consider the particle which is located on the path defined relative to
an inertial coordinate system. If the particle has a mass m and is subjected to a system of external
forces represented by the resultant FR = 𝛴F, then the equation of motion for the particle in the
tangential direction is 𝛴Ft = mat

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

Procedure for Analysis
Work (Free-Body Diagram)
• Establish the inertial coordinate system and draw a free-body diagram of the particle in
order to account for all the forces that do work on the particle as it moves along its path.
Principle of Work and Energy.
1
• Apply the principle of work and energy, 𝛴U1-2 = 2 𝑚(v22 - v12).
• The kinetic energy at the initial and final points is always positive, since it involves the
speed squared.
• A force does work when it moves through a displacement in the direction of the force.
• Work is positive when the force component is in the same sense of direction as its
displacement, otherwise it is negative.
• Forces that are functions of displacement must be integrated to obtain the work.
Graphically, the work is equal to the area under the force-displacement curve.
• The work of a weight is the product of the weight magnitude and the vertical
displacement. It is positive when the weight moves downwards.
1
• The work of a spring is of the form Us = ks2, where k is the spring stiffness and s is the
2
stretch or compression of the spring.

Power and Efficiency

Power
The term “power” provides a useful basis for choosing the type of motor or machine
which is required to do a certain amount of work in a given time. For example, two pumps may
each be able to empty a reservoir if given enough time; however, the pump having the larger
power will complete the job sooner. This is given by the formula,

Power is a scalar, where in this formulation v represents the velocity of the particle which
is acted upon by the force F. The basic units of power used in the SI and English systems are the
watt (W) and horsepower (hp), respectively.

For conversion between the two systems of units, 1 hp = 746 W.

Efficiency
The mechanical efficiency of a machine is defined as the ratio of the output of useful
power produced by the machine to the input of power supplied to the machine.

If energy supplied to the machine occurs during the same time interval at which it is
drawn, then the efficiency may also be expressed in terms of the ratio.

Power output will be always be less than power input and so the efficiency of a machine
is always less than 1. This is due to frictional losses developed in the machine.

Procedure for Analysis

• First determine the external force F acting on the body which causes the motion. This
force is usually developed by a machine or engine placed either within or external to the
body.
• If the body is accelerating, it may be necessary to draw its free body diagram and apply
the equation of motion (𝜮F = ma) to determine F.
• Once F and the velocity v of the particle where F is applied have been found, the power
is determined by multiplying the force magnitude with the component of velocity acting
in the direction of F, (i.e., P = Fv = Fv cos 𝜽).
• In some problems the power may be found by calculating the work done by F per unit of
𝛥𝑈
time (Pavg = ).
𝛥𝑡

Conservative Forces and Potential Energy

Conservative Force
If the work of a force is independent of the path and depends only on the force’s initial and
final positions on the path, then we can classify this force as a conservative force.
Examples of conservative forces are
• weight of a particle
• force developed by a spring
Energy
Energy is defined as the capacity for doing work. It is a conserved quantity; the law of
conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed.
The SI unit of energy is the joule, which is the energy transferred to an object by the work of
moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 Newton.
Examples of Energy
• Kinetic Energy
• Potential Energy
•
Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy is a measure of the particle’s capacity to do work, which is associated with
the motion of the particle. It is equal to the work that must be done on the particle to bring it from
a state of rest to a speed v.
𝟏
𝑲𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝟐
𝟐

Potential Energy
Potential energy is a measure of the amount of work a conservative force will do when it
moves from a given position to the datum.
Gravitational Potential Energy
Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in an object as the result of its vertical
position or height. The energy is stored as the result of the gravitational attraction of the Earth for
the object. (https://www.physicsclassroom.com)
It is given by the formula

Where W is weight and y is the displacement. The sign of y depends on the datum line. If
y is above the datum line, y is positive. If it is below the datum line, y is negative.

Elastic Potential Energy

Elastic potential energy is Potential energy stored as a result of deformation of an elastic
object, such as the stretching of a spring. It is equal to the work done to stretch the spring, which
depends upon the spring constant k as well as the distance stretched. According to Hooke's law,
the force required to stretch the spring will be directly proportional to the amount of stretch.
(http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu)

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

Conservation of Energy
When a particle is acted upon by a system of both conservative and nonconservative forces,
the portion of the work done by the conservative forces can be written in terms of the difference
in their potential energies. As a result, the principle of work and energy can be written as

𝑷𝑬𝟏 + 𝑲𝑬𝟏 + 𝑭𝒏𝒄 𝒔 = 𝑷𝑬𝟐 + 𝑲𝑬𝟐

Where:
PE = mgh
1
KE = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

Fnc = all the nonconservative forces

s = distance travelled by the particle

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

Note: The term 𝑭𝒏𝒄 𝒔 is zero if there is no nonconservative forces like friction.
Procedure for Analysis
The conservation of energy equation can be used to solve problems involving velocity,
displacement, and conservative force systems. It is generally easier to apply than the principle of
work and energy because this equation requires specifying the particle’s kinetic and potential
energies at only two points along the path, rather than determining the work when the particle
moves through a displacement. For application it is suggested that the following procedure be
used.
Potential Energy.
• Draw two diagrams showing the particle located at its initial and final points along the path.
• If the particle is subjected to a vertical displacement, establish the fixed horizontal datum
from which to measure the particle’s gravitational potential energy Vg.
• Data pertaining to the elevation y of the particle from the datum and the stretch or
compression s of any connecting springs can be determined from the geometry associated
with the two diagrams.
• Recall Vg = Wy, where y is positive upward from the datum and negative downward from
1
the datum; also, for a spring, Ve = 2 ks2, which is always positive.

Conservation of Energy
• Apply the equation PE1 + KE1 + Fnc s = PE2 + KE2.
1
• When determining the kinetic energy, KE = 2 mv2, remember that the particle’s speed v
must be measured from an inertial reference frame.

Sample Problems
Principle of Work and Energy
Exercise 1.
The 3500-lb automobile shown in the figure below travels down the 10° inclined road at
a speed of 20 ft/s. If the driver jams on the brakes, causing his wheels to lock, determine how
far s the tires skid on the road. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the wheels and the
road is 𝜇𝑘 = 0.5.
Given: mass = 3500 lb
angle = 10o
v = 20 ft/s
𝜇𝑘 = 0.5
Required: distance, s
Solution:

By using principles of work and energy:

Exercise 2.
For a short time the crane in the figure lifts the 2.50-Mg beam with a force of F = (28+3s2)
kN. Determine the speed of the beam when it has risen s = 3 m. Also, how much time does it
take to attain this height starting from rest?

Given: mass = 2.5 Mg

s = 3m
 Required: speed, v
time, t
Solution:

By using principles of work and energy:

Since we were able to express the velocity as a function of

displacement, the time can be determined using v = ds/dt.

Power and Efficiency

Exercise 1.
The man in the figure below pushes on the 50-kg crate with a force of F = 150 N.
Determine the power supplied by the man when t = 4 s. The coefficient of kinetic friction
between the floor and the crate is 𝜇𝑘 = 0.2. Initially the crate is at rest.
Given: mass = 50 kg
F = 150 N
t = 4 sec
𝜇𝑘 = 0.2
Required: Power, P
Solution:

By using principles of work and energy:

Exercise 2.
The motor M of the hoist shown in the figure below lifts the 75-lb crate C so that the
acceleration of point P is 4 ft/s2. Determine the power that must be supplied to the motor at the
instant P has a velocity of 2 ft/s. Neglect the mass of the pulley and cable and take e = 0.85.
Given: mass = 75 lb
a = 4 ft/s2
v = 2 ft/s
𝑒 = 0.85

Required: Power, P

Solution:

Using the methods of absolute dependent motion, the

coordinates sC and sP can be related to a constant portion of
cable length l which is changing in the vertical and horizontal
directions. We have 2sC + sP = l. Taking the second time
derivative of this equation yields
Conservation of Energy
Exercise 1.
A gantry structure in the figure is used to test the response of an airplane during a crash.
The plane, having a mass of 8 Mg, is hoisted back until 𝜃 = 60o, and then the pull-back cable
AC is released when the plane is at rest. Determine the speed of the plane just before it crashes
into the ground, 𝜃 = 15o. Also, what is the maximum tension developed in the supporting cable
during the motion? Neglect the size of the airplane and the effect of lift caused by the wings
during the motion

Given: mass = 8 Mg
𝜃 = 60o
𝜃 = 15o
Required: Speed, v Tension, T
Solution:
Exercise 2.
The ram R shown in the figure has a mass of 100 kg and is released from rest 0.75 m
from the top of a spring, A, that has a stiffness kA = 12 kN/m. If a second spring B, having a
stiffness kB = 15 kN/m, is “nested” in A, determine the maximum displacement of A needed to
stop the downward motion of the ram. The unstretched length of each spring is indicated in the
figure. Neglect the mass of the springs

Given: mass = 100 kg

kA = 12 kN/m
kB = 15 kN/m
Required: displacement, SA
Solution:
The datum is located through the center of gravity of the ram at its initial position. When
the kinetic energy is reduced to zero (v2 = 0), A is compressed a distance sA and B compresses
SB = SA - 0.1 m.
Main Topic 3: Kinetics of a particle
Subtopic: Impulse and Momentum
Introduction
In this lecture, we will analyze motion of a particle using the principles of impulse and
momentum. The resulting equation will be useful for solving problems that involve force, mass,
velocity, and time.

Learning Outcomes
Intended Learning Outcome 3 (Syllabus)
1. Calculate linear, projectile, circular, and rotational motion problems using the concepts
and principles of work, energy, impulse, and momentum.
Topic Outcomes
1. Develop the principle of linear impulse and momentum for a particle and apply it to solve
problems that involve force, velocity, and time.
2. Analyze the conservation of linear momentum for particles
3. Analyze the mechanics of impact.
4. Acquire awareness of the concept of angular impulse and momentum.

Linear Impulse
It is a vector quantity which measures the effect of a force during the time the force acts.
Since time is a positive scalar, the impulse acts in the same direction as the force, and its magnitude
has units of force times time.If the force is expressed as a function of time, the impulse can be
determined by direct evaluation of the integral. In particular, if the force is constant in both
magnitude and direction, the resulting impulse becomes

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

Linear Momentum
The scientific definition of linear momentum is consistent with most people’s intuitive
understanding of momentum: a large, fast-moving object has greater momentum than a smaller,
slower object. Linear momentum is defined as the product of a system’s mass multiplied by its
velocity. In symbols, linear momentum is expressed as

L = mv
Momentum is directly proportional to the object’s mass and also its velocity. Thus, the
greater an object’s mass or the greater its velocity, the greater its momentum. Momentum L is a
vector having the same direction as the velocity v. The SI unit for momentum is kg · m/s.
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com)

Principle of Impulse and Momentum

𝒅𝒗
When the equation of motion, 𝜮F = ma, and the kinematic equation, a = are combined,
𝒅𝒕
we obtain the principle of impulse and momentum. This is a vector equation that can be resolved
into rectangular components and used to solve problems that involve force, velocity, and time. For
application, the free-body diagram should be drawn in order to account for all the impulses that
act on the particle.

Conservation of Linear Momentum

If the principle of impulse and momentum is applied to a system of particles, then the
collisions between the particles produce internal impulses that are equal, opposite, and collinear,
and therefore cancel from the equation. Furthermore, if an external impulse is small, that is, the
force is small and the time is short, then the impulse can be classified as nonimpulsive and can be
neglected. Consequently, momentum for the system of particles is conserved.
The conservation-of-momentum equation is useful for finding the final velocity of a
particle when internal impulses are exerted between two particles and the initial velocities of the
particles is known. If the internal impulse is to be determined, then one of the particles is isolated
and the principle of impulse and momentum is applied to this particle
Impact
When two particles A and B have a direct impact, the internal impulse between them is
equal, opposite, and collinear. Consequently, the conservation of momentum for this system
applies along the line of impact

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

If the final velocities are unknown, a second equation is needed for solution. We must use
the coefficient of restitution, e. This experimentally determined coefficient depends upon the
physical properties of the colliding particles. It can be expressed as the ratio of their relative
velocity after collision to their relative velocity before collision. If the collision is elastic, no energy
is lost and e = 1. For a plastic collision e = 0.

If the impact is oblique, then the conservation of momentum for the system and the
coefficient-of restitution equation apply along the line of impact. Also, conservation of momentum
for each particle applies perpendicular to this line (plane of contact) because no impulse acts on
the particles in this direction.

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

Principle of Angular Impulse and Momentum
The moment of the linear momentum about an axis (z) is called the angular momentum.
The principle of angular impulse and momentum is often used to eliminate unknown impulses by
summing the moments about an axis through which the lines of action of these impulses produce
no moment. For this reason, a free-body diagram should accompany the solution.

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

Sample Problems
Linear Impulse and Momentum
Exercise
The 100-kg crate shown in the figure is originally at rest on the smooth horizontal
surface. If a towing force of 200 N, acting at an angle of 45°, is applied for 10 s, determine the
final velocity and the normal force which the surface exerts on the crate during this time
interval.
`

Given: mass = 100 kg

F = 200 N
𝜃 = 45°
Required: final velocity, v normal force, N
Solution:

Conservation of Impulse and Momentum

Exercise
The 15-Mg boxcar A is coasting at 1.5 m/s on the horizontal track when it encounters a
12-Mg tank car B coasting at 0.75 m/s toward it as shown in the figure. If the cars collide and
couple together, determine (a) the speed of both cars just after the coupling, and (b) the
average force between them if the coupling takes place in 0.8 s.

Given: mA = 15 Mg
mB = 100 Mg
vA = 1.5 m/s
vB = 0.75 m/s
Required: final velocity, v2 average force, F
Solution:
Impact
Exercise
The bag A, having a weight of 6 lb, is released from rest at the position 𝜃 = 0o, as shown
in the figure After falling to 𝜃= 90o , it strikes an 18-lb box B. If the coefficient of restitution
between the bag and box is e = 0.5, determine the velocities of the bag and box just after
impact. What is the loss of energy during collision?

Given: Wa = 6 lb
Wb = 18 lb
e = 0.5
vB = 0 m/s
Required: fina velocity, vA2 final velocity, vB2 , Energy loss, U1-2
Solution:
Angular Impulse and Momentum
Exercise
The 1.5-Mg car travels along the circular road as shown in t. If the the figure. If the
traction force of the wheels on the road is F = (150t2) N, where t is in seconds, determine the
speed of the car when t = 5 s. The car initially travels with a speed of 5 m/s. Neglect the size
of the car.

Given: m = 1.5 Mg
t = 5 sec
vC1 = 5 m/s
Required: fina velocity, v2
Solution:
End Chapter Test
1.

2.
3.

4.
5.
References
1. Hibbeler, R. C. (2016). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics, Fourteenth Edition. Pearson
Prentice Hall
2. Encyclopaedia Britannica, (n.d.) Newton’s Law of Motion.
https://www.britannica.com/science/Newtons-laws-of-motion
3. Beer, Ferdinand et al. (2019) Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics and Dynamics,
Twelfth Edition, McGraw-Hill Education
4. https://openstax.org/books/college-physics/pages/7-1-work-the-scientific-definition
5. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu
6. https://www.physicsclassroom.com
7. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/
MAIN TOPIC 4: KINEMATICS OF RIGID BODIES
Introduction
This topic will discuss the planar kinematics of a rigid body. This study is important for the
design of gears, cams and mechanisms used for many mechanical operations.

Intended Learning Outcome

1. Calculate linear, projectile, circular and rotational motion problems using the concepts of
work, energy, impulse and momentum.

Topic Outcomes
1. Classify the types of rigid body planar motion.
2. Analyze rigid body planar problems using different methods.

Planar Rigid Body Motion

The planar motion of a body occurs when all the particles of a rigid body move along paths which
are equidistant from a fixed plane. There are three types of rigid-body planar motion:
1. Translation
This type of motion occurs when a line in the body remains parallel to its original orientation
throughout the motion. When the paths of motion for any two points on the body are parallel
lines, the motion is called rectilinear translation. If the paths of motion are along a curved line, the
motion is called curvilinear translation.
2. Rotation about a fixed axis
When a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis, all the particles of the body, except those which lie
on the axis of rotation, move along circular paths,
3. General plane motion
When a body is subjected to general plane motion, it undergoes a combination of translation and
rotation. The translation occurs within a reference plane, and the rotation occurs about an axis
perpendicular to the reference plane.
Translation
Consider a rigid body which is subjected to either rectilinear or curvilinear translation in the x–y
plane shown in the figure.

Position
The locations of points A and B on the body are defined with respect to fixed x, y reference frame
using position vectors 𝑟𝐴 and 𝑟𝐵 . The translating x’ and y’ coordinate system is fixed in the body and has
its own origin at A, hereafter referred toas base point. point. The position of B with respect to A is
denoted by the relative-position vector 𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴 (“r of B with respect to A”). By vector addition,

𝑟𝐴 = 𝑟𝐴 + 𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴

Velocity
A relation between the instantaneous velocities of A and B is obtained by taking the time
derivative of this equation, which yields
𝑑𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴
𝑣𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 +
𝑑𝑡
Here 𝑣𝐴 and 𝑣 𝐵 denote absolute velocities since these vectors are measured with respect to the x,
𝑑𝑟𝐵⁄𝐴
y axes. The term 𝑑𝑡
= 0, since the magnitude of 𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴 is constant by definition of a rigid body, and
because the body is translating the direction of is 𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴 also constant. Therefore,
 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑣𝐵

Acceleration
Taking the time derivative of the velocity equation yields a similar relationship between the
instantaneous accelerations of A and B:
𝑣𝐴 = 𝑣𝐵
The above two equations indicate that all points in a rigid body subjected to either rectilinear or
curvilinear translation move with the same velocity and acceleration.

Rotation About a Fixed Axis

When a body rotates about a fixed axis, any point P located in the body travels along a circular
path.
Angular Motion
Since a point is without dimension, it cannot have angular motion. Only lines or bodies undergo
angular motion as shown in the figure. The angular motion of a radial
Angular Position
At the instant shown, the angular position of r is defined by the angle Ө, measured from a fixed
reference line to r.
Angular Displacement
The change in angular position, which can be measured as a differential dӨ, is called the angular
displacement. This vector has a magnitude of dӨ, measured in degrees, radians, or revolutions, where 1
rev = 2π rad.
Angular Velocity
The time rate of change in the angular position is called the angular velocity ω (omega). Since dӨ
occurs during an instant of time dt, then,
𝒅Ө
𝝎=
𝒅𝒕
This vector has a magnitude which is often measured in rad/s.

Angular Acceleration
The angular acceleration α (alpha) measures the time rate of change of the angular velocity. The
magnitude of this vector is

𝒅𝝎 𝒅𝟐 Ө
𝜶= 𝒐𝒓 𝜶=
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐

The differential relation between the angular acceleration, angular velocity and angular
displacement is,
𝜶𝒅Ө = 𝝎𝒅𝝎
Constant Angular Acceleration
If the angular acceleration of the body is constant, 𝛼 = 𝛼𝑐 , then the previous equations, when
integrated, yield a set of formulas which relate the body’s angular velocity, angular position and time. The
results are:
𝜔 = 𝜔0 + 𝛼𝑐 𝑡
1
Ө = Ө0 + 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝛼 𝑡2
2 𝑐
 𝜔2 = 𝜔0 2 + 2𝛼𝑐 (Ө − Ө𝑐 )
Here the Ө0 and 𝜔0 are the initial values of the body’s angular position and angular velocity
respectively.
Motion of P

As the rigid body shown in the figure (left) rotates, point P travels along a circular path of radius r
with center at point O. This path is contained within the shaded plane shown in top view (right).
Position of Displacement
The position of P is defined by the position vector r, which extends from O to P. If the body
rotates du then P will displace ds = rdӨ.
Velocity
The velocity of P has a magnitude which can be found by dividing 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑟𝑑𝜃 by dt so that
𝒗 = 𝝎𝒓

As shown on the figure above, the direction of the velocity, v is tangent to the circular path.
Acceleration
The acceleration of P can be expressed in terms of its normal and tangential components.
𝒂𝒕 = 𝜶𝒓 (tangential)

𝒂 𝒏 = 𝝎𝟐 𝒓 (normal)

The tangential component of the acceleration represents the time rate of change in the velocity’s
magnitude while the normal component represents the time rate of change in the velocity’s direction.
The acceleration of point P can also be expressed as:
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝑟𝑝
𝑎= = (𝑟𝑝 )(𝜔)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

or

𝑎 = 𝛼(𝑟𝑝 )(𝑤)(𝜔𝑟𝑝 )

Procedure for the Analysis: Rotation About a Fixed Axis

The velocity and acceleration of a point located on a rigid body that is rotating about a fixed axis
can be determined using the procedure as follows:
A. Angular Motion
1. Establish the positive sense of rotation about the axis of rotation and show it alongside each
kinematic equation as it is applied.
2. If a relation is known between any two of the four variables α, ω, Ө and t, then a third
variable can be obtained by using one of the following kinematic equations which relates all
three variables.
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜔
𝜔= 𝛼= 𝛼𝑑𝜃 = 𝜔𝑑
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

3. If the body’s angular acceleration is constant, then the following equations can be used:
𝜔 = 𝜔0 + 𝛼𝑐 𝑡
1
𝜃 = 𝜃0 + 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝛼𝑐 𝑡 2
2

𝜔2 = 𝜔0 2 + 2𝛼𝑐 (𝜃 − 𝜃0 )
4. Once the solution is obtained, the sense of u, v, and α is determined from the algebraic signs
of their numerical quantities.
B. Motion of Point P
1. In most cases the velocity of P and its two components of acceleration can be determined
from the scalar equations
 𝒗 = 𝝎𝒓
𝒂𝒕 = 𝜶𝒓

𝒂 𝒏 = 𝝎𝟐 𝒓

2. If the geometry of the problem is difficult to visualize, the following vector equations should
be used:

𝑣 = 𝜔 ( 𝑟𝑝 ) = 𝜔𝑟

𝑎𝑡 = ∝ (𝑟𝑝 ) = ∝ 𝑟

𝑎𝑛 = 𝜔 (𝜔𝑟𝑝 ) = 𝜔2 𝑟

3. Here 𝑟𝑝 is directed from any point on the axis of rotation to point P, whereas r lies in the
plane of motion of P.
4.

PROBLEM 4.1:
A cord is wrapped around a wheel which is initially at rest when Ө = 0. If a force is applied to the cord
and gives it an acceleration a = (4t) m/s2, where t is in seconds, determine, as a function of time,
(a) the angular velocity of the wheel, and (b) the angular position of
line OP in radians.
Solution:
Part A
The wheel is subjected to rotation about a fixed axis passing through point O. Thus, point P on
the wheel has motion about a circular path, and the acceleration of this point has both tangential and
normal components.
The tangential component is:

(𝑎𝑝 ) = 𝛼𝑟
𝑡
𝑚
(4𝑡) 2 = 𝛼 (0.2𝑚)
𝑠
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝛼 = (20𝑡) 2
𝑠

𝑑𝜔
Using this result, the wheel’s angular velocity ω can now be determined from 𝛼 = 𝑑𝑡 , since this
equation relates α , t and ω. Integrating, with the initial condition that ω = 0 when t = 0, yields

𝑑𝜔 𝑟𝑎𝑑
∝= = (20𝑡) 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑠
𝜔 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝜔 = ∫ 20𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 0
 𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝝎 = 𝟏𝟎𝒓𝟐 ⤸
𝒔

Part B
𝑑𝜃
Using this result, the angular position Ө of OP can be found from 𝜔 = 𝑑𝑡 , since this equation
relates Ө, ω and t. Integrating, with the initial condition u = 0 when t = 0, we have
𝑑𝜃 𝑟𝑎𝑑
= 𝜔 = (10𝑡 2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑠
Ө 𝑡
∫ 𝑑Ө = ∫ 10𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
0 0

𝜽 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑𝒕𝟑 𝒓𝒂𝒅

Absolute Motion Analysis

A body subjected to general plane motion undergoes a simultaneous translation and rotation.
Procedure Analysis: Absolute Motion
The velocity and acceleration of a point P undergoing rectilinear motion can be related to the
angular velocity and angular acceleration of a line contained within a body using the following procedure:
Position Coordinate Equation
1. Locate point P on the body using a position coordinate s, which is measured from a fixed origin
and is directed along the straight-line path of motion of point P.
2. Measure from a fixed reference line the angular position u of a line lying in the body.
3. From the dimensions of the body, relate s to u, s = f(Ө), using geometry and/or trigonometry.
Time Derivatives
1. Take the first derivative of s = f(Ө) with respect to time to get a relation between v and ω.
2. Take the second time derivative to get a relation between a and a.
3. In each case the chain rule of calculus must be used when taking the time derivatives of the
position coordinate equation.

PROBLEM 4.2:
The large window in the figure is opened using a hydraulic cylinder AB. If the cylinder extends at a
constant rate of 0.5 m/s, determine the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the window at the
instant Ө= 30º.
Solution:
Position Coordinate Equation
The angular motion of the window can be obtained using the coordinate u, whereas the extension
or motion along the hydraulic cylinder is defined using a coordinate s, which measures its length from
the fixed-point A to the moving point B.
These coordinates can be related using the law of cosines, namely,

𝑠 2 = (2𝑚 )2 + (1𝑚 )2 − 2 (2𝑚)(1𝑚) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ө

𝑠 2 = 5 − 4 cos 𝜃

When Ө= 30,

s = 1.239 m

Time Derivatives
Taking the time derivative of:
𝑠 2 = 5 − 4 cos 𝜃

𝑑𝑠 𝑑Ө
2𝑠 = 0 − 4(− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 Ө)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑠(𝑣𝑠 ) = 2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 30°)𝜔

Since 𝑣𝑠 = 0.5 m/s, then at Ө= 30º,

𝑚
(1.239𝑚 ) (0.5 ) = 2 sin 𝜃 𝜔
𝑠
𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝝎 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟎
𝒔

Taking the time derivative of:

𝑠(𝑣𝑠 ) = 2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛 30°)𝜔

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣𝑠 𝑑Ө 𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑠 + 𝑠 = 2(𝑐𝑜𝑠 Ө) 𝜔 + 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 Ө
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑣𝑠 2 + 𝑠𝑎𝑠 = 2 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)𝜔2 + 2(𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)𝛼

 𝑑𝑣𝑠
Since 𝑎𝑠 = 𝑑𝑡
= 0, then
𝑚 2 𝑟𝑎𝑑 2
(0.5 ) + 0 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 30° (0.620 ) + 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 30° 𝛼
𝑠 𝑠

𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝛼 = −0.415
𝑠2

Because the result is negative, it indicates the window has an angular deceleration.

Relative Motion Analysis: Velocity

The general plane motion of a rigid body can be described as a combination of translation and
rotation. To view these “component” motions separately we will use a relative-motion analysis involving
two sets of coordinate axes. The x, y coordinate system is fixed and measures the absolute position of two
points A and B on the body, here represented as shown in the figure.

Position
The origin of the x’ , y’ coordinate system will be attached to the selected “base point” A, which
generally has a known motion. The axes of this coordinate system translate with respect to the fixed frame
but do not rotate with the bar.
The position vector rA in the figure above specifies the location of the “base point” A, and the
relative-position vector 𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴 locates point B with respect to point A. By vector addition, the position of B
is then
𝑟𝐵 = 𝑟𝐴 + 𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴

Displacement
 During an instant of time dt, points A and B undergo displacements 𝑑𝑟𝐴 and 𝑑𝑟𝐵 as shown in the
figure below.

If we consider the general plane motion by its component parts then the entire bar first translates
by an amount 𝑑𝑟𝐴 so that A, the base point, moves to its final position and point B moves to B, as shown
in the figure. The bar is then rotated about A by an amount dӨ so that B undergoes a relative
displacement 𝑑𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴 and thus moves to its final position B. Due to the rotation about A, 𝑑𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴 =
𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴 𝑑𝜃 and the displacement of B is

𝑑𝑟𝐵 = 𝑑𝑟𝐴 + 𝑑𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴

Where:
𝑑𝑟𝐴 - due to the translation at A
𝑑𝑟𝐵 – due to the translation and rotation

𝑑𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴 – due to the rotation about A

Velocity
To determine the relation between the velocities of points A and B, it is necessary to take the time
derivative of the position equation, or simply divide the displacement equation by dt. This yields
𝑑𝑟𝐵 𝑑𝑟𝐴 𝑑𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

where:
𝑑𝑟𝐵 𝑑𝑟𝐴
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑣𝐵 and 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑣𝐴 - the absolute velocities of points A and B

Therefore, we have
𝒗𝑩 = 𝒗𝑨 + 𝒗𝑩⁄𝑨
where:
𝑣𝐴 – velocity of the base point A

𝑣𝐵 – velocity of point B
𝑣𝐵 ⁄𝐴 – velocity of B with respect to A

Applying the Cartesian vector analysis, we can also write,

𝒗𝑩 = 𝒗𝑨 + (𝝎)(𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 )

where:
ω – the angular velocity of the body
𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴 – position vector directed from A to B

Procedure Analysis
The relative velocity equation can be applied either by using Cartesian vector analysis, or by
writing the x and y scalar component equations directly. For application, it is suggested that the following
procedure be used.
A. Vector Analysis
• Kinematic Diagram.
1. Establish the directions of the fixed x, y coordinates and draw a kinematic diagram of the body.
Indicate on it the velocities 𝑣𝐴 , 𝑣𝐵 of points A and B, the angular velocity ω, and the relative-
position vector 𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴 .
2. If the magnitudes of 𝑣𝐴 , 𝑣𝐵 or ω are unknown, the sense of direction of these vectors can be
assumed.

• Velocity Equation.
1. To apply 𝒗𝑩 = 𝒗𝑨 + (𝝎)(𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 ) , express the vectors in Cartesian vector form and substitute
them into the equation. Evaluate the cross product and then equate the respective i and j
components to obtain two scalar equations.
 2. If the solution yields a negative answer for an unknown magnitude, it indicates the sense of
direction of the vector is opposite to that shown on the kinematic diagram.

B. Scalar Analysis
• Kinematic Diagram
1. If the velocity equation is to be applied in scalar form, then the magnitude and direction of the
relative velocity 𝒗𝑩⁄𝑨 must be established. Draw a kinematic diagram such as shown in the
figure, which shows the relative motion. Since the body is considered to be “pinned” momentarily
at the base point A, the magnitude of 𝒗𝑩⁄𝑨 is 𝑣𝐵 ⁄𝐴 = 𝜔𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴 . The sense of direction of 𝒗𝑩⁄𝑨 is
always perpendicular to in accordance with the rotational motion V of the body.
• Velocity Equation.
1. Write𝑣𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑣𝐵 ⁄𝐴 , and underneath each of the terms represent the vectors graphically by
showing their magnitudes and directions. The scalar equations
are determined from the x and y components of these vectors.

EXAMPLE 4.3:
The link shown in the figure is guided by two blocks at A and B, which move in the fixed slots. If the
velocity of A is 2 m/s downward, determine the velocity of B at the instant Ө = 45º.

Solution:
Vector Analysis (Solution 1)
Kinematic Diagram
Since points A and B are restricted to move along the fixed slots and 𝑣𝐴 is directed
downward, then velocity 𝑣𝐵 must be directed horizontally to the right as shown in the figure.
This motion causes the link to rotate counterclockwise; that is, by the right-hand rule the
angular velocity ω is directed outward, perpendicular to the plane of motion.
Velocity Equation
Expressing each of the vectors as shown in the figure below, in terms of their i, j, k
components, the base point, and B, we have:
𝑣𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 + (𝜔)(𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴 )

𝑣𝐵 𝑖 = −2𝑗 + [𝜔𝑘 (0.2 sin 45ᵒ 𝑖 ) − 0.2 cos 45ᵒ𝑗]

𝑣𝐵 𝑖 = −2𝑗 + 0.2𝜔 sin 45°𝑗 + 0.2𝜔 cos 45ᵒ𝑖

Equating the i and j components gives:

𝑣𝐵 = 0.2𝜔 cos 45°

0 = −2 + 0.2 sin 45°
𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝝎 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟏 ↺
𝒔
𝒎
𝒗𝑩 = 𝟐 →
𝒔
 Scalar Analysis (Solution 2)

The kinematic diagram of the relative “circular motion” which produces 𝑣𝐵 ⁄𝐴 is shown
in the figure. Here, 𝑣𝐵 ⁄𝐴 = 𝜔(0.2𝑚 ), thus

𝑣𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑣𝐵 ⁄𝐴
𝑣𝐵 𝑚
[→ ] = [2 ↓] + [𝜔 (0.2𝑚 )∡ 45ᵒ]
𝑠

𝑣𝐵 = 0 + 𝜔 (0.2) cos 45°

0 = −2 + 𝜔 (0.2) sin 45°

These results are valid only at the instant Ө = 45º.

Instantaneous Center of Zero Velocity

For a body having general plane motion, point A so chosen is called the instantaneous center of
zero velocity (IC), and it lies on the instantaneous axis of zero velocity. This axis is always perpendicular
to the plane of motion, and the intersection of the axis with this plane defines the location of the IC.
To locate the IC we can use the fact that the velocity of a point on the body is always
perpendicular to the relative-position vector directed from the IC to the point. Several possibilities exist:
1. The velocity 𝑣𝐴 of a point A on the body and the angular velocity ω of the body are known.
2. The lines of action of two nonparallel velocities 𝑣𝐴 and 𝑣𝐵 are known.

3. The magnitude and direction of two parallel velocities 𝑣𝐴 and 𝑣𝐵 are known. Here the location of the
IC is determined by proportional triangles.

Although the IC may be conveniently used to determine the velocity of any point in a body, it
generally does not have zero acceleration and therefore it should not be used for finding the accelerations
of points in a body.
Procedure for Analysis
The velocity of a point on a body which is subjected to general plane motion can be determined
with reference to its instantaneous center of zero velocity provided the location of the IC is first
established using one of the three methods described above.
1. As shown on the kinematic diagram, the body is imagined as “extended and pinned” at the IC so
that, at the instant considered, it rotates about this pin with its angular velocity ω.
2. The magnitude of velocity for each of the arbitrary points A, B, and C on the body can be
determined by using the equation 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟 , where r is the radial distance from the IC to each
point.
3. The line of action of each velocity vector v is perpendicular to its associated radial line r, and the
velocity has a sense of direction which tends to move the point in a manner consistent with the
angular rotation V of the radial line.

PROBLEMS 4.4:
The crankshaft AB turns with a clockwise angular velocity of 10 rad/s. Determine the velocity
of the piston at the instant shown.

The crankshaft rotates about a fixed axis, and so the velocity of

point B is:
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑣𝐵 = 10 (0.25 𝑓𝑡) = 2.50 𝑓𝑡
𝑠

Since the directions of the velocities of B and C are known, then the location of the IC
for the connecting rod BC is at the intersection of the lines extended from these points,
perpendicular to 𝑣𝐵 and 𝑣𝐶 .
 The magnitudes of 𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐼𝐶 and 𝑟𝐶 ⁄𝐼𝐶 can be obtained from the geometry of the triangle
and the law of sines, i.e.,

𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐼𝐶 = 1.031 𝑓𝑡

𝑟𝐶 ⁄𝐼𝐶 = 0.9056 𝑓𝑡

The rotational sense of 𝜔𝐵𝐶 must be the same as the rotation caused by 𝑣𝐵 about the
IC, which is counterclockwise. Therefore,

𝑣𝐵 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔𝐵𝐶 = = 2.425
𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐼𝐶 𝑠

Using this result, the velocity of the piston is:

𝝎𝑩𝑪 𝒇𝒕
𝒗𝑪 = = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟎
𝒓𝑪⁄𝑰𝑪 𝒔

Relative Motion Analysis: Acceleration

The relative acceleration equation can be written as:

𝒂𝑩 = 𝒂𝑨+ (𝒂𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒕 + (𝒂𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒏

where:
𝑎𝐵 – acceleration at point B
𝑎𝐴 - acceleration at point A
 (𝑎𝐵 ⁄𝐴 )𝑡 – tangential acceleration component of B with respect to A

(𝑎𝐵 ⁄𝐴 )𝑛 - normal acceleration component of B with respect to A

Since the relative-acceleration components represents the effect of the circular motion observed
from translating axes having their origin at the base point A, it can also be expressed as:

𝒂𝑩 = 𝒂𝑨 + 𝜶 (𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 ) − 𝝎𝟐 𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨

where:
𝑎𝐵 – acceleration at point B
𝑎𝐴 - acceleration at point A
α – angular acceleration of the body
ω – angular velocity of the body
𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 – position vector directed from A to B

Procedure for Analysis

The relative acceleration equation can be applied between any two points A and B on a body
either by using a Cartesian vector analysis, or by writing the x and y scalar component equations directly.
Velocity Analysis
1. Determine the angular velocity ω of the body. Also, determine the velocities 𝑣𝐴 and 𝑣𝐵 of points
A and B if these points move along curved paths.
Vector Analysis
Kinematic Diagram
1. Establish the directions of the fixed x, y coordinates and draw the kinematic diagram of the body.
Indicate on it 𝑎𝐴 , 𝑎𝐵 , 𝜔, 𝛼 and 𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴 .
2. If points A and B move along curved paths, then their accelerations should be indicated in terms
of their tangential and normal components.
Acceleration Equation

1. To apply 𝒂𝑩 = 𝒂𝑨 + 𝜶 (𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 ) − 𝝎𝟐 𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 express the vectors in Cartesian vector form and
substitute them into the equation. Evaluate the cross product and then equate the respective i and j
components to obtain two scalar equations.
2. If the solution yields a negative answer for an unknown magnitude, it indicates that the sense of
direction of the vector is opposite to that shown on the kinematic diagram.
Scalar Analysis
Kinematic Diagram.
 1. If the acceleration equation is applied in scalar form, then the magnitudes and directions of the
relative-acceleration components 𝒂𝑩 = 𝒂𝑨+ (𝒂𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒕 + (𝒂𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒏 must be established. To do this
draw a kinematic diagram.
Since the body is considered to be momentarily “pinned” at the base point A, the magnitudes of
these components are (𝒂𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒕 = 𝜶 (𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 ) and (𝒂𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒏 = 𝝎𝟐 𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 .
Their sense of direction is established from the diagram such that (𝒂𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒕 acts perpendicular
to 𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 , in accordance with the rotational motion αof the body, and (𝒂𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒏 is directed from B
toward A.
Acceleration Equation.

1. Represent the vectors in 𝒂𝑩 = 𝒂𝑨+ (𝒂𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒕 + (𝒂𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒏 graphically by showing their

magnitudes and directions underneath each term. The scalar equations are determined from the x
and y components of these vectors.

EXAMPLE 4.5:
The disk rolls without slipping and has the angular motion shown the figure. Determine the
acceleration of point A at this instant.

SOLUTION I (VECTOR ANALYSIS)

Kinematic Diagram
Since no slipping occurs, applying the equation:
𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑡
𝑎𝐺 = 𝛼𝑟 = (4 2
) (5 𝑓𝑡) = 2 2
𝑠 𝑠

Acceleration Equation.
We will apply the acceleration equation to points G and A:
 𝑎𝐴 = 𝑎𝐺 + 𝛼 ( 𝑟𝐴⁄𝐺 ) − 𝜔2 𝑟𝐴⁄𝐺

𝑎𝐴 = −2𝑖 + (4𝑘)(−0.5𝑗 ) − (6)2 (−0.5𝑗 )

𝒇𝒕
𝒂𝑨 = {𝟏𝟖𝒋}
𝒔𝟐

SOLUTION II (SCALAR ANALYSIS)

𝑓𝑡
Using the result for 𝑎𝐺 = 2 2 and from the kinematic diagram, showing the relative motion 𝒂𝑨⁄𝑮 ,
𝑠
then

𝑎𝐴 = 𝑎𝐺 + (𝑎𝐴⁄𝐺 )𝑥 − (𝑎𝐴⁄𝐺 )𝑦

𝑓𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑
[(𝑎𝐴 )𝑥 ] + [(𝑎𝐴 )𝑦 ] = [2 2
] + [(4 2 ) (0.5 𝑓𝑡)] + [(6 2 ) (0.5 𝑓𝑡)]
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

(𝑎𝐴 )𝑥 = 0

𝑓𝑡
(𝑎𝐴 )𝑦 = 18
𝑠2

𝑓𝑡 2
𝑎𝐴 = √(0)2 + (18 )
𝑠2

𝒇𝒕
𝒂𝑨 = 𝟏𝟖
𝒔𝟐
Relative Motion Analysis using Rotating Axes
This type of analysis is useful for determining the motion of points on the same rigid body, or the
motion of points located on several pin-connected bodies.
Position
Consider the two points A and B shown the figure.

Their location is specified by the position vectors 𝑟𝐴 and 𝑟𝐵 , which are measured with respect to
the fixed X, Y, Z coordinate system.
Using vector addition, the three position vectors are related by the equation:
𝑟𝐵 = 𝑟𝐴 + 𝑟𝐵 ⁄𝐴

Velocity
The velocity of point B is:

𝒗𝑩 = 𝒗𝑨 + 𝞨 (𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 ) + (𝒗𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒙𝒚𝒛

where

𝒗𝑩 = velocity of B, measured from the X, Y, Z reference

𝒗𝑨= velocity of the origin A of the x, y, z reference, measured from the X, Y, Z reference

(𝒗𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒙𝒚𝒛= velocity of “B with respect to A,” as measured by an observer attached to the rotating

x, y, z reference
𝝮 = angular velocity of the x, y, z reference, measured from the X, Y, Z reference
𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 = position of B with respect to A
Acceleration
The acceleration of B, observed from the X, Y, Z coordinate system:

𝒂𝑩 = 𝒂𝑨 + 𝞨̇(𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 ) + (𝞨 )(𝞨 )𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 + 𝟐𝞨 (𝒗𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒙𝒚𝒛 + (𝒂𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒙𝒚𝒛

where

𝒂𝑩= acceleration of B, measured from the X, Y, Z reference

𝒂𝑨= acceleration of the origin A of the x, y, z reference, measured from the X, Y, Z reference

(𝒂𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒙𝒚𝒛 , (𝒗𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒙𝒚𝒛 = acceleration and velocity of B with respect to A, as measured by an

observer attached to the rotating x, y, z reference

𝛀̇ , 𝝮 = angular acceleration and angular velocity of the x, y, z reference, measured from the X,
Y, Z reference

𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 = position of B with respect to A

Procedure for Analysis

The solution of problems involving the planar motion of particles or rigid bodies using the
following procedure.
Coordinate Axes.
1. Choose an appropriate location for the origin and proper orientation of the axes for both fixed X,
Y, Z and moving x, y, z reference frames.
2. Most often solutions are easily obtained if at the instant considered:
• the origins are coincident
• the corresponding axes are collinear
• the corresponding axes are parallel
3. The moving frame should be selected fixed to the body or device along which the relative motion
occurs.
Kinematic Equations
1. After defining the origin A of the moving reference and specifying the moving point B, the
equations should be written in the symbolic form:

𝒗𝑩 = 𝒗𝑨 + 𝞨 (𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 ) + (𝒗𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒙𝒚𝒛

𝒂𝑩 = 𝒂𝑨 + 𝞨̇(𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 ) + (𝞨 )(𝞨 )𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 + 𝟐𝞨 (𝒗𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒙𝒚𝒛 + (𝒂𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒙𝒚𝒛

 2. The Cartesian components of all these vectors may be expressed along either the X, Y, Z axes or
the x, y, z axes. The choice is arbitrary provided a consistent set of unit vectors is used.
3. Motion of the moving reference is expressed by 𝒗𝑨 , 𝒂𝑨 , 𝞨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝞨; and motion of B with respect
to the moving reference is expressed by 𝒓𝑩⁄𝑨 , (𝒗𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒙𝒚𝒛 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝒂𝑩⁄𝑨 )𝒙𝒚𝒛 .

EXAMPLE 4.6:
At the instant Ө = 60º, the rod in the figure has an angular velocity of 3 rad/s and an angular
𝑟𝑎𝑑
acceleration of 2 𝑠2 . At this same instant, collar C travels outward along the rod such that when x =
𝑚
0.2 m the velocity is 2 m/s and the acceleration is 3 2 , both measured relative to the rod. Determine
𝑠
the Coriolis acceleration and the velocity and acceleration of the collar at this instant.

Solution:
Coordinate Axes
The origin of both coordinate systems is located at point O. Since motion of the collar is reported
relative to the rod, the moving x, y, z frame of reference is attached to the rod.

Kinematic Equations

𝒗𝑪 = 𝒗𝑶 + 𝜴 (𝒓𝑪⁄𝑶 ) + (𝒗𝑪⁄𝑶 )𝒙𝒚𝒛

𝒂𝑪 = 𝒂𝑶 + 𝜴̇(𝒓𝑪⁄𝑶 ) + (𝜴 )(𝜴 )𝒓𝑪⁄𝑶 + 𝟐𝜴 (𝒗𝑪⁄𝑶 )𝒙𝒚𝒛 + (𝒂𝑪⁄𝑶 )𝒙𝒚𝒛

Express the data in terms of i, j, k component vectors rather than I, J, K components. Hence,

Motion of moving reference Motion of C with respect to moving reference

 𝒗𝑶 = 𝟎 𝒓𝑪⁄𝑶 = {𝟎. 𝟐𝒊}𝒎
𝒂𝑶 = 𝟎 𝒎
(𝒗𝑪⁄𝑶 )𝒙𝒚𝒛 = {𝟎. 𝟐𝒊}
𝒔
𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒎
𝞨 = {−𝟑𝒌} (𝒂𝑪⁄𝑶 )𝒙𝒚𝒛 = {−𝟑𝒊} 𝟐
𝒔 𝒔
𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝞨̇ = {−𝟑𝒌}
𝒔

The Coriolis acceleration is defined as

𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑟 = 2𝛺 (𝑣𝐶 ⁄𝑂 )𝑥𝑦𝑧

𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑟 = 2(−3𝑘)(2𝑖 )
𝒎
𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒓 = {−𝟏𝟐𝒋}
𝒔𝟐

The velocity and acceleration of the collar are:

𝑣𝐶 = 𝑣𝑂 + 𝛺 (𝑟𝐶 ⁄𝑂 ) + (𝑣𝐶 ⁄𝑂 )𝑥𝑦𝑧

𝑣𝐶 = 0 + (−3𝑘)(0.2𝑖) + 2𝑖

𝒎
𝒗𝑪 = {𝟐𝒊 − 𝟎. 𝟔𝒋}
𝒔

𝑎𝐶 = 𝑎𝑂 + 𝛺̇ (𝑟𝐶 ⁄𝑂 ) + (𝛺 )(𝛺 )𝑟𝐶 ⁄𝑂 + 2𝛺 (𝑣𝐶 ⁄𝑂 )𝑥𝑦𝑧 + (𝑎𝐶 ⁄𝑂 )𝑥𝑦𝑧

𝑎𝐶 = 0 + (−2𝑘)(0.2𝑖) + (−3𝑘)(−3𝑘)(0.2𝑖) + 2 (−3𝑘)(2𝑖) + 3𝑖

𝒎
𝒂𝑪 = {𝟏. 𝟐𝟎𝒊 − 𝟏𝟐. 𝟒𝒋}
𝒔𝟐

CHAPTER TEST
A. Concepts
1. What are the three types of planar motion? Differentiate.
2. What are the several methods for analyzing general plane motion?
3. When a body undergoes general plane motion, it simultaneously ___________and __________.
4. The acceleration of any particle has two components; these are ___________ and ___________.
5. Discuss the method to analyze the problems that involve connected members that slide relative to
one another.

B. Problems
𝑟𝑎𝑑
1. When a gear rotates 20 revolutions, it achieves an angular velocity of 𝜔 = 30 , starting from
𝑠
rest. Determine its constant angular acceleration and the time required.
 𝑟𝑎𝑑
2. The disk is originally rotating at 𝜔0 = 12 𝑠
. It is subjected to a constant angular acceleration of
𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝛼 = 20 𝑠2
, determine the magnitudes of the velocity and the n and t components of acceleration
of point A at the instant t = 2 s.

𝑚
3. The cord, which is wrapped around the disk, is given an acceleration of 𝑎 = (10𝑡) where t is in
𝑠2
seconds. Starting from rest, determine the angular displacement, angular velocity, and angular
acceleration of the disk when t = 3 s.

4. The wheel rolls without slipping with an angular velocity of v = 10 rad>s. Determine the
magnitude of the velocity of point B at the instant shown.

5. If the angular velocity of link AB is vAB = 3 rad>s, determine the velocity of the block at C and
the angular velocity of the connecting link CB at the instant u = 45- and f = 30.
6. The angular velocity of link AB is vAB = 5 rad>s. Determine the velocity of block C and the
angular velocity of link BC at the instant u = 45° and f = 30°. Also, sketch the position of link CB
when u = 45°, 60°, and 75° to show its general plane motion.

7. At the instant shown, the wheel rotates with an angular velocity of ω = 12 rad/s and an angular
𝑟𝑎𝑑
acceleration of a = 6 𝑠2
. Determine the angular acceleration of link BC at the instant shown.

𝑓𝑡
8. At a given instant the top B of the ladder has an acceleration 𝑎𝐵 = 2 and a velocity of 𝑣𝐵 = 4
𝑠2
ft/s, both acting downward. Determine the acceleration of the bottom A of the ladder, and the
ladder’s angular acceleration at this instant.
9. The reel of rope has the angular motion shown. Determine the velocity and acceleration of point
B at the instant shown.

10. Peg B on the gear slides freely along the slot in link AB. If the gear’s center O moves with the
velocity and acceleration shown, determine the angular velocity and angular acceleration of the
link at this instant.

11. At the instant shown, car A travels with a speed of 25 m/s, which is decreasing at a constant rate
𝑚
of 2𝑠2 , while car C travels with a speed of 15 m/s, which is increasing at a constant rate of 3 m/s.
Determine the velocity and acceleration of car A with respect to car C.
12. Determine the velocity and acceleration of the follower rod CD as a function of Ө when the
contact between the cam and follower is along the straight region AB on the face of the cam. The
cam rotates with a constant counterclockwise angular velocity ω.

𝑚
13. At the instant Ө = 60°, the slotted guide rod is moving to the left with an acceleration of 2 2 and
𝑠
a velocity of 5 m/s. Determine the angular acceleration and angular velocity of link AB at this
instant.
 14. As the car travels forward at 80 ft/s on a wet road, due to slipping, the rear wheels have an
angular velocity ω= 100 rad/s. Determine the speeds of points A, B, and C caused by the motion.

15. The planet gear A is pin connected to the end of the link BC. If the link rotates about the fixed
point B at 4 rad/s, determine the angular velocity of the ring gear R. The sun gear D is fixed from
rotating.

References
Books
1. Hibbeler, R. C. (2015). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics, Fourteenth Edition. Pearson
Prentice Hall
2. Beer, Ferdinand et al. (2019) Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics and Dynamics,
Twelfth Edition, McGraw-Hill Education
3. Singer, Ferdinand L , Engineering Mechanics, Harper and Row Publisher’s Incorporated

Websites
1. https://byjus.com/
2. https://www.real-world-physics-problems.com
3. https://brainly.in
4. onlinetutoring.zohosites.com
5. https://www.fisicalab.com
6. https://www.math.arizona.edu
7. https://msu.edu
8. https://aapt.scitation.org
Main Topic 5: Kinetics of Rigid Bodies
Subtopic: Force and Acceleration
Introduction
In this lecture, we will apply the concepts of kinetics of particles to rigid bodies by using
force and acceleration relationship. The resulting equation will be useful for solving problems that
involve force, mass, and acceleration.

Learning Outcomes
Intended Learning Outcome 2 (Syllabus)
1. Discuss the principles of Newton’s Second Law and its applications.
Topic Outcomes
1. Introduce the methods used to determine the mass moment of inertia of a body.
2. Develop the planar kinetic equations of motion for a symmetric rigid body.
3. Discuss applications of these equations to bodies undergoing translation and rotation
about a fixed axis.

Mass moment of inertia

Since a body has a definite size and shape, an applied nonconcurrent force system can
cause the body to both translate and rotate. The translation aspects of motion was determined by
the equation 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 . Rotational aspects of the motion caused by moment M is governed by the
equation
𝑴 = 𝑰𝜶
Where: M = moment
I = mass moment of inertia
𝜶 = angular acceleration

We define the mass moment of inertia as the integral of the “second moment” about an
axis of all the elements of mass dm which compose the body.
 where the “moment arm” r is the perpendicular distance from the z axis to the arbitrary
element dm. Since the formulation involves r, the value of I is different for each axis about which
it is computed. It can be computed using integral calculus.

Source: (Hibbeler, 2016)

Kinetic Equation of Translational Motion

The translational equation of motion for the mass center of a rigid body. It states that the
sum of all the external forces acting on the body is equal to the body’s mass times the acceleration
of its mass center G.

Rectilinear Translation
When a body is subjected to rectilinear translation, all the particles of the body travel along
parallel straight-line paths. The equations of motion which apply in this case become.
Curvilinear Translation
When a rigid body is subjected to curvilinear translation, all the particles of the body have
the same accelerations as they travel along curved paths. The equations of motion which apply in
this case become.

Equations of Motion: Rotation about a Fixed Axis

When a rigid body is subjected to rotation about a fixed point, the angular velocity and
angular acceleration are caused by the external force and couple moment system acting on the
body. Because the body’s center of mass G moves around a circular path, the acceleration of this
point is best represented by its tangential and normal components. The tangential component of
acceleration has a magnitude of (aG)t = 𝛼rG and must act in a direction which is consistent with the
body’s angular acceleration 𝜶. The magnitude of the normal component of acceleration is (aG)n =
𝜔2rG. This component is always directed from point G to O, regardless of the rotational sense of
𝝎. The equations of motion which apply to the body can be written in the form.

If moment is taken from center of gravity

If moment is taken from point O

Sample Problems
Mass moment of inertia
Exercise
Determine the mass moment of inertia of the cylinder shown in the figure about the z
axis. The density of the material, 𝜌, is constant.

Solution
Kinetic Equation of Translational Motion
Exercise 1.
The car shown in the figure has a mass of 2 Mg and a center of mass at G. Determine the
acceleration if the rear “driving” wheels are always slipping, whereas the front wheels are free
to rotate. Neglect the mass of the wheels. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the
wheels and the road is 𝜇𝑘 = 0.25. Determine also the normal forces on A and B.

Given: mass = 2 Mg
𝜇𝑘 = 0.25
Required: acceleration aG normal forces A and B

Solution:
Exercise 2.
The motorcycle shown in the figure has a mass of 125 kg and a center of mass at G1, while
the rider has a mass of 75 kg and a center of mass at G2. Determine the minimum coefficient of
static friction between the wheels and the pavement in order for the rider to do a “wheely,” i.e.,
lift the front wheel off the ground as shown in the photo. What acceleration is necessary to do
this? Neglect the mass of the wheels and assume that the front wheel is free to roll.

Given: mass of rider = 75 kg

mass of motorcycle = 125 kg

Required: minimum coefficient of static friction, 𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛 acceleration, aG

Solution:
Equations of Motion: Rotation about a Fixed Axis
Exercise 1.
The unbalanced 50-lb flywheel shown in the figure has a radius of gyration of kG = 0.6 ft
about an axis passing through its mass center G. If it is released from rest, determine the
horizontal and vertical components of reaction at the pin O.

Given: mass = 50 lb
Required: normal and tangential reaction at point O, On & Ot

Solution:

`
Exercise 2.
At the instant shown in the figure, the 20-kg slender rod has an angular velocity of 𝜔 = 5
rad/s. Determine the angular acceleration and the horizontal and vertical components of reaction
of the pin on the rod at this instant.

Given: mass = 20 kg
𝜔 = 5 rad/sec
Required: angular acceleration, 𝛼 , horizontal & vertical components of reaction, On & Ot

Solution:
Main Topic 5: Kinetics of Rigid Bodies
Subtopic: Work and Energy
Introduction
In this lecture, we will apply the concepts of kinetics of particles to rigid bodies by using
the concepts of work and energy. The resulting equation will be useful for solving problems that
involve force, velocity, and displacement.

Learning Outcomes
Intended Learning Outcome 3 (Syllabus)
1. Calculate linear, projectile, circular, and rotational motion problems using the concepts
and principles of work, energy, impulse, and momentum
Topic Outcomes
1. Develop formulations for the kinetic energy of a body and define the various ways a
force and couple do work.
2. Apply the principle of work and energy to solve rigid–body planar kinetic problems that
involve force, velocity, and displacement.
3. Acquire awareness on how the conservation of energy can be used to solve rigid–body
planar kinetic problems

Kinetic Energy
The kinetic energy of a rigid body that undergoes planar motion can be referenced to its
mass center. It includes a scalar sum of its translational and rotational kinetic energies.

Translation
When a rigid body of mass m is subjected to either rectilinear or curvilinear translation, the
kinetic energy due to rotation is zero, since 𝜔= 0. The kinetic energy of the body is therefore
Rotation
When a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis passing through point O, the body has both
translational and rotational kinetic energy so that

or

Work of a Force
A force does work when it undergoes a displacement ds in the direction of the force. In
particular, the frictional and normal forces that act on a cylinder or any circular body that rolls
without slipping will do no work, since the normal force does not undergo a displacement and the
frictional force acts on successive points on the surface of the body.

Work of a Variable Force

If an external force F acts on a body, the work done by the force when the body moves
along the path s.

Work of a Constant Force

If an external force Fc acts on a body, and maintains a constant magnitude Fc and constant
direction 𝜃, while the body undergoes a translation s
Work of a Weight
The weight of a body does work only when the body’s center of mass G undergoes a vertical
displacement 𝛥y. If this displacement is upward, the work is negative, since the weight is opposite
to the displacement,

Work of a Spring
If a linear elastic spring is attached to a body, the spring force Fs = ks acting on the body
does work when the spring either stretches or compresses from s1 to a farther position s2. In both
cases the work will be negative since the displacement of the body is in the opposite direction to
the force.
Work of a Couple Moment
When the body rotates in the plane through a finite angle u measured in radians, from 𝜃1 to
𝜃2, the work of a couple moment is therefore,

If the couple moment M has a constant magnitude,

Principle of Work and Energy

By applying the principle of work and energy to each of the particles of a rigid body and
adding the results algebraically, since energy is a scalar, the principle of work and energy for a
rigid body becomes

This equation states that the body’s initial translational and rotational kinetic energy, plus
the work done by all the external forces and couple moments acting on the body as the body
moves from its initial to its final position, is equal to the body’s final translational and rotational
kinetic energy.

Conservation of Energy
In general, if a body is subjected to both gravitational and elastic forces, the total potential
energy can be expressed as a potential function represented as the algebraic sum.

where: V = total potential energy

Vg = gravitational potential energy
Ve = elastic potential energy
 Knowing that the work of conservative forces can be written as a difference in their potential
energies, we can rewrite the principle of work and energy for a rigid body as

This equation is referred to as the conservation of mechanical energy. It states that the sum
of the potential and kinetic energies of the body remains constant when the body moves from one
position to another

Sample Problems
Work of a Force
Exercise
The bar shown in the figure has a mass of 10 kg and is subjected to a couple moment of
M = 50 N-m and a force of P = 80 N, which is always applied perpendicular to the end of the
bar. Also, the spring has an unstretched length of 0.5 m and remains in the vertical position
due to the roller guide at B. Determine the total work done by all the forces acting on the bar
when it has rotated downward from 𝜃 = 0o to 𝜃 = 90o.

Given: mass = 10 kg unstretched length of spring = 0.5 m

M = 50 N-m 𝜃 1 = 0o
P = 80 N 𝜃2 = 90o
Required: Total work done by all forces, U
Solution:

Since the weight 10(9.81) N = 98.1 N is displaced downward 1.5 m, the work is

Uw = 98.1 N(1.5 m) = 147.2 J

 The couple moment rotates through an angle of 𝜃 = 𝜋/2 rad. Since it is 0o to 90o

UM = 50 N-m(𝜋/2) = 78.5 J

When 𝜃 = 0o the spring is stretched (0.75 m - 0.5 m) = 0.25 m, and when 𝜃 = 90o, the
stretch is (2 m + 0.75 m) - 0.5 m = 2.25 m.

As the bar moves downward, the force is displaced through a distance of (𝜋/2)(3 m) =
4.712 m.

The work of all the forces when the bar is displaced is

Principle of Work and Energy

Exercise
The 30-kg disk shown in the figure is pin supported at its center. Determine the angle
through which it must rotate to attain an angular velocity of 2 rad/s starting from rest. It is acted
upon by a constant couple moment M = 5 N-m. The spring is originally unstretched and its cord
wraps around the rim of the disk.
 Given: mass = 30 kg k = 10 N/m
𝜔 = 2 rad /sec
M = 5 N-m
Required: Angle to attain 2 rad/sec
Solution:
Since the disk rotates about a fixed axis, and it is initially at rest, then

Conservation of Energy
Exercise
The wheel shown in the figure has a weight of 30 lb and a radius of gyration of kG = 0.6
ft. It is attached to a spring which has a stiffness k = 2 lb/ft and an unstretched length of 1 ft. If
the disk is released from rest in the position shown and rolls without slipping, determine its
angular velocity at the instant G moves 3 ft to the left.
Given: weight = 30 lb
kG = 0.6 ft
k = 2 lb/ft
Required: Angular velocity at the instant G moves 3 ft to the left

Solution:
Main Topic 5: Kinetics of Rigid Bodies
Subtopic: Impulse and Momentum
Introduction
In this lecture, we will apply the concepts of kinetics of particles to rigid bodies by using
impulse and momentum concepts. The resulting equation will be useful for solving problems that
involve force, mass, velocity, and time.

Learning Outcomes
Intended Learning Outcome 3 (Syllabus)
1. Calculate linear, projectile, circular, and rotational motion problems using the concepts
and principles of work, energy, impulse, and momentum.
Topic Outcomes
1. Develop formulations for the linear and angular momentum of a body.
2. Apply the principles of linear and angular impulse and momentum to solve rigid-body
planar kinetic problems that involve force, velocity, and time.
3. Discuss application of the conservation of momentum.
4. Analyze the mechanics of eccentric impact.

Linear and Angular Momentum

The linear and angular momentum of a rigid body can be referenced to its mass center G. If
the angular momentum is to be determined about an axis other than the one passing through the
mass center, then the angular momentum is determined by summing vector HG and the moment
of vector L about this axis.
Principle of Impulse and Momentum
The principles of linear and angular impulse and momentum are used to solve problems that
involve force, velocity, and time. Before applying these equations, it is important to establish the
x, y, z inertial coordinate system. The free-body diagram for the body should also be drawn in
order to account for all of the forces and couple moments that produce impulses on the body.

+ =

Conservation of Momentum
Provided the sum of the linear impulses acting on a system of connected rigid bodies is zero
in a particular direction, then the linear momentum for the system is conserved in this direction.
Conservation of angular momentum occurs if the impulses pass through an axis or are parallel to
it. Momentum is also conserved if the external forces are small and thereby create nonimpulsive
forces on the system. A free-body diagram should accompany any application in order to classify
the forces as impulsive or nonimpulsive and to determine an axis about which the angular
momentum may be conserved.
Eccentric Impact
If the line of impact does not coincide with the line connecting the mass centers of two
colliding bodies, then eccentric impact will occur. If the motion of the bodies just after the impact
is to be determined, then it is necessary to consider a conservation of momentum equation for the
system and use the coefficient of restitution equation.

Sample Problems
Linear and Angular Momentum
Exercise
At a given instant the 5-kg slender bar has the motion shown in the figure. Determine its
angular momentum about point G and about the IC at this instant.

Given: mass = 5 kgs

vA = 2 m/s downward
Required: Angular momentum at point G.

Solution:

Principle of Impulse and Momentum

Exercise
The 20-lb disk shown in the figure is acted upon by a constant couple moment of 4 lb-ft
and a force of 10 lb which is applied to a cord wrapped around its periphery. Determine the
angular velocity of the disk two seconds after starting from rest. Also, what are the force
components of reaction at the pin?
Given: weight = 20 lb
M = 4 lb-ft
F = 10 lb
Required: Angular velocity of the disk two seconds after starting from rest.
Force components of reaction at the pin
Solution:

Conservation of Momentum
Exercise
The 5-kg slender rod shown in the figure is pinned at O and is initially at rest. If a 4-g
bullet is fired into the rod with a velocity of 400 m/s, as shown in the figure, determine the
angular velocity of the rod just after the bullet becomes embedded in it.
Given: mass of rod = 5 kg
mass of bullet = 4 g
velocity of bullet = 400 m/s
Required: Angular velocity of the rod just after the bullet becomes embedded in the rod.
Solution:
The momentum diagrams are drawn just before and just after impact. During impact, the
bullet and rod exert equal but opposite internal impulses at A. As shown on the impulse diagram,
the impulses that are external to the system are due to the reactions at O and the weights of the
bullet and rod. Since the time of impact, 𝛥t, is very short, the rod moves only a slight amount,
and so the “moments” of the weight impulses about point O are essentially zero. Therefore
angular momentum is conserved about this point.
Eccentric Impact
Exercise
The 10-lb slender rod is suspended from the pin at A in the figure If a 2-lb ball B is thrown
at the rod and strikes its center with a velocity of 30 ft/s, determine the angular velocity of the
rod just after impact. The coefficient of restitution is e = 0.4.

Given: weight of rod = 10 lb

weight of ball = 2 lb
velocity of bullet = 400 m/s
Required: Angular velocity of the rod after impact.
Solution:
End Chapter Test
1.

2.
3.

4.
5.
References
1. Hibbeler, R. C. (2016). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics, Fourteenth Edition. Pearson
Prentice Hall
2. Encyclopaedia Britannica, (n.d.) Newton’s Law of Motion.
https://www.britannica.com/science/Newtons-laws-of-motion
3. Beer, Ferdinand et al. (2019) Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics and Dynamics,
Twelfth Edition, McGraw-Hill Education
4. https://openstax.org/books/college-physics/pages/7-1-work-the-scientific-definition
5. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu
6. https://www.physicsclassroom.com
7. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/