See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/369270355

An Investigation of Direct and Indirect Learning Strategies in Learning

Foreign Languages

Article in International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences · March 2023
DOI: 10.6007/IJARBSS/v13-i3/16492

CITATIONS READS

6 1,365

4 authors, including:

Hui Zanne Seng Norliza Che Mustafa

Universiti Teknologi MARA, Penang Branch, Permatang Pauh Campus Universiti Teknologi MARA
11 PUBLICATIONS 28 CITATIONS 7 PUBLICATIONS 19 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Noor Hanim Rahmat

Universiti Teknologi MARA
351 PUBLICATIONS 1,247 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Noor Hanim Rahmat on 16 March 2023.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

An Investigation of Direct and Indirect Learning Strategies in
Learning Foreign Languages
Hui Zanne Seng, Norliza Che Mustafa, Hazlina Abd Halim, Noor Hanim
Rahmat, Nurul Amirah Khairul Amali
To Link this Article: http://dx.doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v13-i3/16492 DOI:10.6007/IJARBSS/v13-i3/16492

Received: 07 January 2023, Revised: 09 February 2023, Accepted: 28 February 2023

Published Online: 16 March 2023

In-Text Citation: (Seng et al., 2023)

To Cite this Article: Seng, H. Z., Mustafa, N. C., Halim, H. A., Rahmat, N. H., & Amali, N. A. K. (2023). An
Investigation of Direct and Indirect Learning Strategies in Learning Foreign Languages. International
Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 13(3), 322 – 338.

Copyright: © 2023 The Author(s)

Published by Human Resource Management Academic Research Society (www.hrmars.com)
This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license. Anyone may reproduce, distribute,
translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non0-commercial purposes), subject to full
attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this license may be seen
at: http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Vol. 13, No. 3, 2023, Pg. 322 – 338

http://hrmars.com/index.php/pages/detail/IJARBSS JOURNAL HOMEPAGE

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://hrmars.com/index.php/pages/detail/publication-ethics

322
International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
Vol. 1 3 , No. 3, 2023, E-ISSN: 2 2 2 2 -6990 © 2023 HRMARS

An Investigation of Direct and Indirect Learning

Strategies in Learning Foreign Languages
Hui Zanne Seng1, Norliza Che Mustafa2, Hazlina Abd Halim3,
Noor Hanim Rahmat4, Nurul Amirah Khairul Amali5
1Akademi Pengajian Bahasa, Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Kampus
Permatang Pauh, 2,5Akademi Pengajian Bahasa, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam,
Malaysia, 3Fakulti Bahasa Moden dan Komunikasi, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang,
Malaysia, 4Akademi Pengajian Bahasa, Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Johor, Kampus
Pasir Gudang
Email: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
[email protected]
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Abstract
Learning strategies are one of the multiple factors in accomplishing learners' objectives in
acquiring a new language. Hence, the aim of this research is to investigate the strategies that
language learners use during their language-learning process. The instrument for this
quantitative research is a survey. It has three sections. The first section consists of 2 items on
demographic profile, while the second section has 19 items on direct learning strategies. The
last section has 22 items on indirect learning strategies. The respondents are 132
undergraduate students taking French as a third language at one of the public universities in
Malaysia. The data collected from the respondents were then analyzed using SPSS. The
findings show that rehearsal has the highest mean (3.8), but critical thinking has the lowest
(3.5). The research also reveals that the help-seeking strategy has the highest mean (4.1),
whereas the metacognitive self-regulation strategy has the lowest mean (3.5). From the
correlation analysis, the research also indicates a significant association between direct and
indirect strategies (r=.779**) and (p=.000). In other words, this research proves that there is
a strong relationship between direct strategies (which consist of rehearsal, organization,
elaboration and critical thinking strategies); and indirect strategies (metacognitive self-
regulation and resource management strategies) in foreign language learning. For future
research, it is beneficial to determine if the gender of the learners influences the choice of
learning strategies, as this would allow instructors to refine and alter their teaching
approaches according to their audience.
Keywords: Direct Learning Strategies, Indirect Learning Strategies, Foreign Language
Learning, Quantitative, SPSS

323
International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
Vol. 1 3 , No. 3, 2023, E-ISSN: 2 2 2 2 -6990 © 2023 HRMARS

Introduction
Background of Study
In today’s society, people learn foreign languages for various reasons. For some people,
foreign languages help them to be more competitive globally (Lewis, 1999). For others, it
allows them to ease their integration into the international scene (Zanne et al., 2022). Being
a multicultural and multiracial country, mastering more than one language is not a novel
phenomenon in Malaysia. Malaysians speak Malay, Mandarin, or Tamil (Shah & Bapoo, 2021).
While Malay is Malaysia’s official language, English is widely spoken as a second language
(Ismail et al., 2018). Therefore, to equip graduates to be more competitive in the global arena,
many universities in Malaysia offer a third language course to their students, such as
Japanese, Korean, French, German, Arabic, Spanish, and Italian (Zanne et al., 2022). Yet, not
everyone can become a successful language learner. According to Lewis (1999), motivation,
hard work, and good learning strategies contribute when learning a second or third language.
Rahmat (2020) added that to be a successful language learner, a student must use more than
one language strategy.

Statement of Problem
Language learning strategies have been found to enhance academic achievement and
language proficiency in foreign language learning. The effective use of appropriate learning
strategies can aid learners in mastering the target language efficiently and effectively,
whether inside or outside the classroom (Wong & Nunan, 2011). Habók and Magyar's (2017)
study supports this view. It found that learners with higher language proficiency tended to
use a wide range of learning strategies, which positively influenced their foreign language
marks. Similarly, Oflaz's (2019) study showed that a higher number of learning strategies used
by learners in foreign language learning was associated with better academic achievement.
As such, it is crucial to develop a more comprehensive understanding of how learners employ
language learning strategies in foreign language learning to attain their desired state.

Extensive research on language learning strategies has led to the identification and
categorization of various strategies within a comprehensive classification system. To
systematically organize individual language learning strategies within this broader
classification system, strategies were first differentiated according to whether they directly
impact learning tasks or have an indirect impact. Following this, the strategies were further
divided into a classification system. Oxford's (1990) six types of learning strategies were
dominant in the study of language learning strategies. Although the classification system of
language learning strategies is primarily developed for research purposes, it is essential not
to overlook the students' learning objectives to gain a comprehensive understanding of this
system. In the context of learning a foreign language, students' learning goals, such as fulfilling
school graduation requirements, traveling to a country where the target language is used, or
studying in a foreign country, may differ. The learning context and students' goals determine
the language tasks that learners face and subsequently influence the appropriate language
learning strategies to be employed. As a result, different sets of learning strategies and further
classification systems of learning strategies can coexist for researchers (Chamot, 2004).

Several studies have indicated that learners' choice of learning strategies may be influenced
by a variety of individual factors such as their level of motivation, gender, attitude toward the
target language, language proficiency, and learning objectives (Chanderan & Hashim, 2022;

324
International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
Vol. 1 3 , No. 3, 2023, E-ISSN: 2 2 2 2 -6990 © 2023 HRMARS

Macatuno-Nocom, 2022; Puteh et al., 2022; Platsidou & Sipitanou, 2014; Liyanage & Bartlett,
2011). In a literature review on language learning strategy issues by Derakhshan et al (2015),
one of the challenges in this area is accounting for the individual characteristics of learners.
Given the complex nature of individual differences, learners may utilize a wide range of
learning strategies when learning a foreign language. Accordingly, it is imperative to gather
additional data to enhance our comprehension of how individual factors shape the selection
of learning strategies.

In the study of language learning strategies, the choices made by learners are influenced by
individual characteristics and learning goals. Factors such as proficiency and motivation level
may lead to the use of a wide range of learning strategies, and various classification systems
coexist from the perspective of researchers. However, prior research has shown that students
often fail to derive benefits from their use of learning strategies, as they tend to repeatedly
employ ineffective strategies (Rovers et al., 2018; Blasiman et al., 2017). Additionally, most
students do not primarily rely on learning strategies considered to be optimal from a scientific
perspective (Endres et al., 2021; Bjork et al., 2013). Thus, it is essential to understand the
preferred learning strategies used by learners in foreign language learning within a specific
context and learner characteristics to enrich the literature on language learning strategies in
foreign language learning.

The present study aims to investigate the learning strategies employed by beginner-level
learners of French as a foreign language, utilizing Oxford's (1990) and Wenden and Rubin's
(1987) learning strategies, as different classification systems may coexist. Specifically, this
study is done to answer the following questions:

● How does the use of direct strategies influence the learning of foreign languages?
● How does the use of indirect strategies influence the learning of foreign languages?
● Is there a relationship between direct and indirect strategies in learning foreign
languages?

Literature Review
Direct and Indirect Learning Strategies
Zafar and Meenakshi (2012) stated that language learners differ from one another. Their
differences can be their age, sex, aptitude, motivation, learning styles, personality, and
learning strategies. According to them, learning strategies are the strategies used by learners
during the language learning process. Oxford (1990) revealed two main categories of learning
strategies: direct and indirect strategies. The direct learning strategies consist of memory,
cognitive, and compensation, whereas the indirect learning strategies include meta-cognitive,
affective, and social strategies. A study by Brown (2000) indicates that the choice of learning
strategies is different from learner to learner. According to the researcher, the choice
depends on the learner's motivation, personality, cognitive style, the specific context of use,
and opportunities for learning.

Strategies for Learning Foreign Languages

Language learning strategies are crucial when it comes to language acquisition. These learning
strategies have been under study as early as the 1970s. From numerous perspectives, many
experts and researchers have their definitions of language learning strategies. According to

325
International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
Vol. 1 3 , No. 3, 2023, E-ISSN: 2 2 2 2 -6990 © 2023 HRMARS

Rigney (1978), language learning strategies are the behaviors, steps, or techniques used by
learners to facilitate learning. This definition was also agreed upon by (Oxford & Crookall,
1989). According to them, language learning strategies are the learners’ ways to improve their
learning through their actions, behaviors, and techniques. The study by Ghani (2003) has
defined the students’ frequent use of specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques to
improve their L2 acquisition as language learning strategies. Language learning strategies can
make learning new languages easier to internalize, store, retrieve, or use.

Past Studies on Demotivation for Learning Language

Demotivation is one of the reasons for failure or poor performance in foreign language
acquisition. Researchers have conducted many studies concerning foreign language learning
motivation, but not many on demotivation. Çankaya (2018) stated that demotivation is a
relatively new issue among researchers. According to her, class characteristics and class
environment are the main factors in demotivation.
Different from Çankaya’s (2018) findings, Quadir’s (2017) study indicates that teachers have
the strongest influence on students' demotivation. Quadir (2017) investigated the sources of
student demotivation to study English in Bangladesh. The respondents were 36 students from
three different universities. The respondents were interviewed to explore the demotivators
they experienced in high school. An interview guide was developed following the L2
demotivation factors listed by Dӧrnyei. Her findings reveal seven dominant factors of
demotivation, which are teachers, learners' previous experiences, private tutors, attitudes of
group members, institutional facilities, textbooks, and students' and family members'
attitudes towards English study.

Past Studies on Motivation for Learning Foreign Languages

Numerous investigations about foreign language learning have been undertaken, particularly
concerning the issue of learner motivation. The significance of learner motivation during
language learning is widely acknowledged and is frequently cited as a strong predictor of
academic achievement (Bakhtiyarovna, 2021). Additionally, motivation is a significant factor
that affects the utilization of learning strategies in foreign language learning. A learner with a
high level of motivation is likelier to use a diverse range of learning strategies than a learner
with low motivation, which results in more effective foreign language learning (Chang & Liu,
2013).
Macatuno-Nocom's (2022) research reveals that motivation is a crucial factor affecting the
utilization of learning strategies in foreign language learning. Macatuno-Nocom (2022)
investigated the significant relationship between learners' motivation and learning strategies
in foreign language learning. It involved 279 respondents learning Mandarin as a foreign
language. A survey questionnaire based on Gardner's and Dornyei's theories of motivation
was employed to collect data. The results indicated that the level of motivation impacts the
selection and the variety of learning strategies used by learners.
Budiarti (2022) researched the relationship between language learning strategies and a set of
student variables. The study involved 99 participants learning English as a foreign language in
Indonesia. The findings revealed that the participants used metacognitive strategies more
frequently than cognitive strategies. Lin et al (2021) investigated the effect of motivational
and learning strategies on literal and inferential comprehension in L2 Chinese reading. The
respondents were 547 international students learning Chinese as a foreign language. The
results show a significant correlation between motivational strategies and learning strategies.

326
International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
Vol. 1 3 , No. 3, 2023, E-ISSN: 2 2 2 2 -6990 © 2023 HRMARS

The studies mentioned above imply that motivation is a crucial predictor of language
achievement and that it has an impact on learning strategies. Moreover, the diverse array of
learning strategies can improve learners' performance.

Conceptual Framework
This study is rooted from direct and indirect learning strategies by (Oxford, 1990). According
to Oxford (1990), direct strategies are strategies that contribute directly to learning. Direct
strategies are strategies such as memory, cognitive and compensation strategies. Next,
Oxford (1990) also said that learners use indirect strategies. Indirect strategies are strategies
like metacognition, affective and social strategies. To increase success in language learning,
learners are encouraged to use more than one language learning strategy (Rahmat, 2020).

Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework of the study. In the context of this study, the use
of direct strategies (Oxford, 1990) includes using cognitive components (Wenden & Rubin,
1987). Indirect strategies include the use of metacognitive self-regulation and resource
management (Wenden & Rubin, 1987).

COGNITIVE
DIRECT STRATEGIES
COMPONENTS

STRATEGIES OF
LEARNING FOREIGN
LANGUAGES METACOGNITIVE
SELF-REGULATION
INDIRECT
STRATEGIES
RESOURCE
MANAGEMENT

Figure 1- Conceptual Framework of the Study-

An Investigation of Direct and Indirect Learning Strategies in Learning Foreign Languages

Methodology
This quantitative study is done to explore the direct and indirect strategies used by learners.
A purposive sample of 132 participants responded to the survey. The instrument is adapted
from direct and indirect learning strategies by (Oxford, 1990). These two learning strategies
are then scaffolded onto the learning strategies by Wenden and Rubin (1987) to reveal the
instrument as shown in table 1. The instrument used is a survey. It has 3 sections. Section A
has 2 items on demographic profile. Section B has 19 items on direct strategies and section C
has 22 items on indirect strategies.

327
International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
Vol. 1 3 , No. 3, 2023, E-ISSN: 2 2 2 2 -6990 © 2023 HRMARS

Table 1
Distribution of Items in the Survey
CATEGORIES LEARNING SUB-CATEGORIES NO TOT
LEARNING STRATEGIES ITEMS ITEMS
STRATEGIES (Wenden & Rubin,
(Oxford,1990) 1987)
B DIRECT COGNITIVE (a) Rehearsal 4 19
STRATEGIES COMPONENTS (b) Organization 4
(c ) Elaboration 6
(d) Critical Thinking 5

C INDIRECT METACOGNITIVE SELF-REGULATION 11

STRATEGIES
RESOURCE (a) Environment 5 11
MANAGEMENT Management
(b) Effort 4
Management
(c ) Help-Seeking 2
22
41

Table 2
Reliability of Survey

Table 2 shows the reliability of the survey. The analysis shows a Cronbach alpha of .943; thus,
revealing good reliability of the instrument used. Further analysis using SPSS is done to
present findings to answer the research questions for this study.

328
International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
Vol. 1 3 , No. 3, 2023, E-ISSN: 2 2 2 2 -6990 © 2023 HRMARS

Findings
Findings for Demographic Profile

Q1.Gender

36%
Male
Female
64%

Figure 2-Percentage for Gender

The data in Figure 2 shows that 36% of the 132 respondents are male students and 64% are
female students.

Q2 Discipline

38%
Science & Technology
Social Sciences
62%

Figure 3-Percentage for Discipline

Figure 3 shows that 62% of the 132 respondents are from the science and technology
discipline and 38% are from the social sciences.

Findings for Direct Strategies

This section presents data to answer research question 1: How does the use of direct
strategies influence the learning of foreign languages? In the context of this study, direct
strategies are measured by sub-components of (a) rehearsal, (b) organization, (c) elaboration,
(d) critical thinking.

329
International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
Vol. 1 3 , No. 3, 2023, E-ISSN: 2 2 2 2 -6990 © 2023 HRMARS

(a) Rehearsal (4 items)

LSCCRQ 4I make lists of important items for the

3.9
courses and memorize the lists.

LSCCRQ 3I memorize key words to remind me of

3.9
important concepts in this class.

LSCCRQ 2When studying for the courses, I read my

class notes and the course readings over and over 3.7
again.

LSCCRQ1When I study for the classes, I practice

3.7
saying the material to myself over and over.

3.6 3.65 3.7 3.75 3.8 3.85 3.9 3.95

Figure 4- Mean for Rehearsal

Figure 4 presents the mean score for rehearsal. Based on all 4 items, the mean scores ranged
from 3.7 to 3.9. This shows that the respondents practiced rehearsal when learning a
language. The items LSCCRQ 3 and LSCCRQ 4 recorded the highest mean score (M=3.9). The
data indicated that the respondents often memorized keywords strategies to remind them of
important concepts in class. They also often made lists of important items for the course and
memorized the lists.

(b) Organization (4 items)

LSCCOQ 4When I study for the courses, I go over my

class notes and make an outline of important 3.9
concepts.

LSCCOQ 3I make simple charts, diagrams, or tables

to help me organize course materials in this 3.2
program.

LSCCOQ 2When I study for the courses, I go through

the readings and my class notes and try to find the 3.9
most important ideas.

LSCCOQ1When I study the readings for the courses

in the program, I outline the material to help me 3.7
organize my thoughts.

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

Figure 5- Mean for Organization

330
International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
Vol. 1 3 , No. 3, 2023, E-ISSN: 2 2 2 2 -6990 © 2023 HRMARS

Figure 5 presents the mean score for organization. Based on all 4 items, the mean score
ranged from 3.2 to 3.9. This shows that the respondents practiced organization when learning
a language. The items LSCCOQ 2 and LSCCOQ 4 recorded the highest mean score (M=3.9). The
data indicated that the respondents often went through the readings and class notes and they
tried to find the most important ideas. They also often went over their class notes and made
an outline of important concepts. On the other hand, the item with the lowest mean score
was found to be item LSCCOQ 3. The respondents sometimes made simple charts, diagrams,
or tables to help them organize their course materials.

(c) Elaboration (6 items)

LSCCEQ 6I try to apply ideas from course readings in

3.7
other class activities such as lecture and discussion.

LSCCEQ 5I try to understand the material in the classes

by making connections between the readings and the 3.5
concepts from the lectures.
LSCCEQ 4When I study for the courses in this program,
I write brief summaries of the main ideas from the 3.3
readings and my class notes.

LSCCEQ 3When reading for the courses, I try to relate

3.8
the material to what I already know.

LSCCEQ 2I try to relate ideas in one subject to those in

3.4
other courses whenever possible

LSCCEQ1When I study for the courses in this program,

I pull together information from different sources, 3.6
such as lectures, readings, and discussions.

3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9

Figure 6- Mean for Elaboration

Figure 6 presents the mean score for elaboration. Based on all 6 items, the mean scores
ranged from 3.3 to 3.8. This shows that the respondents practiced elaboration when learning
a language. Item LSCCEQ 3 has the highest mean score (M=3.8). The data shows that the
respondents often tried to relate the material to what they already knew. On the other hand,
item LSCCEQ 4 has the lowest mean score (M=3.3). This shows that the respondents
sometimes tried to write brief summaries of the main ideas.

331
International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
Vol. 1 3 , No. 3, 2023, E-ISSN: 2 2 2 2 -6990 © 2023 HRMARS

(d ) Critical Thinking (5 items)

LSCCCTQ 5Whenever I read or hear an assertion or

3.5
conclusion in the classes, I think about possible…

LSCCCTQ 4I try to play around with ideas of my own

3.5
related to what I am learning in the courses.

LSCCCTQ 3I treat the course materials as a starting

3.5
point and try to develop my own ideas about it.

LSCCCTQ 2When a theory, interpretation, or

3.5
conclusion is presented in classes or in the readings,…

LSCCCTQ1I often find myself questioning things I hear

3.6
or read in the courses to decide if I find them…

3.44 3.46 3.48 3.5 3.52 3.54 3.56 3.58 3.6 3.62

Figure 7- Mean for Critical Thinking

Figure 7 presents the mean score for critical thinking. Based on all 5 items, the mean scores
ranged from 3.5 to 3.6. This means that the respondents practiced critical thinking when
learning a language. Item LSCCCTQ1 recorded the highest mean score (M=3.6). The data
indicated that the respondents often find themselves questioning things they heard or read
in the course to decide if they find them convincing. All the other items shared the same mean
score (M=3.5).

Findings for Indirect Strategies

This section presents data to answer research question 2: How does the use of indirect
strategies influence the learning of foreign languages? In the context of this study, indirect
strategies refer to (a) metacognitive self-regulation and (b) environment management, (c)
effort management, and (d) help-seeking.

a) Metacognitive Self-Regulation (11 items)

MSSRQ 11If I get confused taking notes in… 3.5

MSSRQ 10When I study for the courses, I set… 3.6
MSSRQ 9When studying for the courses in this… 3.7
MSSRQ8I try to think through a topic and… 3.6
MSSRQ7I try to change the way I study in… 3.4
MSSRQ 6I ask myself questions to make sure I… 3.6
MSSRQ 5Before I study new course material… 3.5
MSSRQ 4If course readings are difficult to… 3.5
MSSRQ 3When I become confused about… 3.9
MSSRQ 2When reading for the courses, I make… 3.4
MSSRQ1During class time, I often miss… 3.2

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

Figure 8- Mean for Metacognitive Self-Regulation

332
International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
Vol. 1 3 , No. 3, 2023, E-ISSN: 2 2 2 2 -6990 © 2023 HRMARS

Figure 8 presents the means for metacognitive self-regulation influencing the learning of
foreign languages. The mean scores ranged from 3.2 to 3.9, with eleven items. When learners
are confused about something they are reading in class, they will try to figure it out, with the
highest mean at 3.9. Furthermore, learners try to determine the concepts they need help
understanding when they study for the courses (M=3.7). The three items: MSSRQ6, MSSRQ8
and MSSRQ10, shared the same mean of 3.6. The lowest mean at 3.2 was recorded by the
item MSSRQ1, which implies that learners miss important points because they do not focus
enough during class time.

(b)Environment Management (5 items)

RMCEMQ 5I attend the classes regularly in this

4.3
program.

RMCEMQ 4Imake sure that I keep up with the weekly

3.5
readings and assignments for the courses.

RMCEMQ3I have a regular place set aside for studying 3.7

RMCEMQ 2I make good use of my study time for the

3.7
courses in this program.

RMCEMQ1I usually study in a place where I can

4.1
concentrate on my course work.

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Figure 9- Mean for Environment Management

Figure 9 shows the means for environment management affecting the learning of foreign
languages. The mean scores ranged from 3.5 to 4.3, with five items. Learners attend classes
regularly, with the highest mean at 4.3. The two items: RMCEMQ2 and RMCEMQ3, shared
the same mean of 3.7. The lowest mean at 3.5 was recorded by the item RMCEMQ4, which
implies that learners ensure that they keep up with the weekly readings and assignments.

333
International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
Vol. 1 3 , No. 3, 2023, E-ISSN: 2 2 2 2 -6990 © 2023 HRMARS

(c)Effort Management (4 items)

RMCEMQ 4Even when course materials are dull and

3.9
uninteresting, I manage to keep working until I finish.

RMCEMQ 3When course work is difficult, I either give up

3.1
or only study the easy parts.

RMCEMQ 2I work hard to do well in the classes in this

3.8
program even if I do not like what we are doing.

RMCEMQ1I have a regular place set aside for studying 3.8

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5

Figure 10- Mean for Effort Management

Figure 10 displays the means for effort management impacting the learning of foreign
languages. The mean scores ranged from 3.1 to 3.9, with four items. Learners manage to keep
working until they finish, even when course materials are uninteresting, with the highest
mean at 3.9. The two items: RMCEMQ1 and RMCEMQ2, shared the same mean of 3.8. The
lowest mean at 3.1 was recorded by the item RMCEMQ3, which implies that learners only
study the easy parts or give up when the course work is difficult.

(d) Help-Seeking (2 items)

RMCHSQ 2I try to identify students in the

4.2
classes whom I can ask for help if necessary.

RMCHSQ1When I cannot understand the

material in a course, I ask another student in 4.1
the class for help.

4.04 4.06 4.08 4.1 4.12 4.14 4.16 4.18 4.2 4.22

Figure 11- Mean for Help-Seeking

As shown in Figure 11, learners try to identify students in the classes whom they can ask for
help, with the mean recorded at 4.2. Furthermore, learners ask another student in the class
for help when they cannot understand the material (M=4.1).

Findings for Relationship between Direct and Indirect Strategies

This section presents data to answer research question 3: Is there a relationship between
direct and indirect strategies in learning foreign languages?

To determine if there is a significant association in the mean scores between direct and
indirect strategies, data is analyzed using SPSS for correlations. Results are presented
separately in table 3 below.

334
International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
Vol. 1 3 , No. 3, 2023, E-ISSN: 2 2 2 2 -6990 © 2023 HRMARS

Table 3
Correlation between Direct and Indirect Strategies

Table 3 shows there is an association between direct and indirect strategies. Correlation
analysis shows that there is a high significant association between direct and indirect
strategies (r=.779**) and (p=.000). According to Jackson (2015), coefficient is significant at
the .05 level and positive correlation is measured on a 0.1 to 1.0 scale. Weak positive
correlation would be in the range of 0.1 to 0.3, moderate positive correlation from 0.3 to 0.5,
and strong positive correlation from 0.5 to 1.0. This means that there is also a strong positive
relationship between direct and indirect strategies.

Conclusion
Summary of Findings and Discussion
This research investigates the strategies used by learners during their language learning
process. The analyzed data indicate that during the acquisition of the French language, the
most used direct strategy is rehearsal (M = 3.8), followed by organization (M = 3.6).
Meanwhile, the least used direct strategies are elaboration (M = 3.5) and critical thinking (M
= 3.5). For indirect strategies, the highest mean is for help-seeking (M = 4.1), and the lowest
is for metacognitive self-regulation (M = 3.5). This finding is different from the research by
Budiarti (2022) which shows that the participants used metacognitive strategies more
frequently than cognitive strategies. Thus, it confirmed several other studies that indicated
that learners' choice of learning strategies could be influenced by a variety of individual
factors such as their level of motivation, gender, attitude toward the target language,
language proficiency, and learning objectives (Chanderan & Hashim, 2022; Macatuno-Nocom,
2022; Puteh et al., 2022; Platsidou & Sipitanou, 2014; Liyanage & Bartlett, 2011).
The result also reveals that there is a strong positive correlation between direct and indirect
learning strategies during the French language learning process. It shows that indirect
learning strategies aid and assist direct learning strategies during language acquisition and
indirectly affect language learning.

Pedagogical Implications and Suggestions for Future Research

This research examines the strategies used by language learners during their language-
learning process. By knowing the language learning strategies used by students, instructors
can improve their teaching approach to facilitate students’ learning. For example, the study
shows that help-seeking is the most used strategy among French learners. Instructors can use
this finding to arrange more group activities, ensure the learning environment is more
conducive to discussion, and also help facilitate social interaction between the students.

335
International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
Vol. 1 3 , No. 3, 2023, E-ISSN: 2 2 2 2 -6990 © 2023 HRMARS

Furthermore, instructors can also prepare diverse activities to improve and increase
students’ motivation since previous research has shown that motivation influences and
affects the utilization of learning strategies (Chang & Liu, 2013); Macatuni-Nocom, 20220; (Lin
et al., 2022). If students have a high level of motivation, they will use a great number of direct
and indirect strategies during their language learning, and these will boost and increase their
performance as language learners.
However, one of the factors not taken into consideration in this research is whether
gender plays a role in the choice of learning strategies. Hence, in the future, it is hoped that
this research gap will be taken into account to allow instructors to adapt their teaching
approaches accordingly, depending on the characteristics of their students and indirectly help
the students learn more effectively and become successful language learners.

References
Bakhtiyarovna, R. S. (2021). The role of motivation in learning foreign language. Elementary
Education Online, 20(4), 976-1980. doi: 10.17051/ilkonline.2021.04.223
Bjork, R. A., Dunlosky, J., & Kornell, N. (2013). Self-regulated learning: Beliefs, techniques, and
illusions. Annual review of psychology, 64, 417-444. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-
psych-113011-143823
Blasiman, R. N., Dunlosky, J., & Rawson, K. A. (2017). The what, how much, and when of study
strategies: Comparing intended versus actual study behaviour. Memory, 25(6), 784-
792. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2016.1221974
Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching. Englewood Cliffs, N, J.:
Prentice-Hall, Inc
Budiarti, Y. (2022). Language Learning Strategies, Gender, and Motivation in Foreign Language
Context. Journal of English as A Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 2(1), 19-33.
https://doi.org/10.31098/jefltr.v2i1.780
Cankaya, P. (2018). Demotivation factors in foreign language learning. Journal of Foreign
Language Education and Technology, 3(1).
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321938577_Demotivation_Factors_in_For
eign_Language_Learning
Chamot, A. U. (2004). Issues in language learning strategy research and teaching. Electronic
journal of foreign language teaching, 1(1), 14-26.
http://educ7006.pbworks.com/w/file/fetch/50701721/Chamot_2004.pdf
Chanderan, V., & Hashim, H. (2022). Language learning strategies used by ESL undergraduate
students. Creative Education, 13(3), 768-779.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2022.133049
Chang, C. H., & Liu, H. J. (2013). Language Learning Strategy Use and Language Learning
Motivation of Taiwanese EFL University Students. Electronic journal of foreign language
teaching, 10(2). doi:10.56040/e-flt / e-FLT.sg
Derakhshan, A., Tamaskani, R., & Faribi, M. (2015). Issues in language learning strategies.
International J. Soc. Sci. & Education, 5(4), 613-621.
http://ijsse.com/sites/default/files/issues/2015/v5i4/Paper-09.pdf
Endres, T., Leber, J., Bottger, C., Rovers, S., & Renkl, A. (2021). Improving lifelong learning by
fostering students’ learning strategies at university. Psychology Learning & Teaching,
20(1), 144-160. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1475725720952025
Ghani, M. (2003). Language Learning Strategies Employed by L2 learners. Journal of Research
(Faculty of Languages & Islamic Studies), 4(1) 31 – 36.

336
International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
Vol. 1 3 , No. 3, 2023, E-ISSN: 2 2 2 2 -6990 © 2023 HRMARS

https://media.teckiz.com/journal-of-research-urdu-bzu/jr-
urdu/2020/04/01/5e84d90b19b20.pdf
Habok, A., & Magyar, A. (2018). The effect of language learning strategies on proficiency,
attitudes and school achievement. Frontiers in psychology, 2358.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02358
Ismail, S. A. M. M., Karim, A., & Mohamed, A. R. (2018). The role of gender, socioeconomic
status, and ethnicity in predicting ESL learners’ reading comprehension. Reading &
Writing Quarterly, 34(6), 457-484. https://doi.org/10. 1080/10573569.2018.1462745
Jackson, S. L. (2015). Research methods and Statistics-A Critical Thinking Approach (5tH
Edition). Boston, USA: Cengage Learning.
Lewis, M. (1999). How to study foreign languages. UK : Macmillan Press LTD
Lin, L., Lam, W. I., & Tse, S. K. (2021). Motivational strategies, language learning strategies,
and literal and inferential comprehension in second language Chinese reading: A
structural equation modeling study. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 707538.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.707538
Liyanage, I., & Bartlett, B. J. (2012). Gender and language learning strategies: Looking beyond
the categories. The Language Learning Journal, 40(2), 237-253.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2011.574818
Macatuno-Nocom, N. (2022). Motivation and learning strategies on foreign language
acquisition. South Florida Journal of Development, 3(2), 2885-2896.
https://doi.org/10.46932/sfjdv3n2-102
Oflaz, A. (2019). The Effects of Anxiety, Shyness and Language Learning Strategies on Speaking
Skills and Academic Achievement. European Journal of Educational Research, 8(4), 999-
1011. doi: 10.12973/eu-jer.8.4.999
Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston:
Heinle and Heinle.
Oxford, R., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on language learning strategies: Methods, Findings
and Instructional issues. Modern Language Journal, 73(4). 404-419.
https://doi.org/10.2307/326876
Platsidou, M., & Sipitanou, A. (2014). Exploring relationships with grade level, gender and
language proficiency in the foreign language learning strategy use of children and early
adolescents. International Journal of Research Studies in Language Learning, 4(1), 83-
96. DOI: 10.5861/ijrsll.2014.778
Puteh, F., Kassim, A., Devi, S., & Katamba, A. (2022). Postgraduate Use of Learning Strategies:
Are the Strategies Related to One Another? International Journal of Academic Research
in Business and Social Sciences, 12(10), 2718 – 2737. DOI:10.6007/IJARBSS/v12-
i10/15008
Quadir, M. (2017). Let us listen to our students: An analysis of demotivation to study English
in Bangladesh. The English Teacher, (3)14.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/355680819_Let_us_listen_to_our_student
s_An_analysis_of_demotivation_to_study_English_in_Bangladesh
Rahmat, N. H. (2020) Information Processing as Learning Strategy: The Case for Graphic
Organisers. European Journal of Education Studies, 7(4), 1-14.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3762575
Rigney, J. (1978). Learning strategies: A theoretical perspective. In O’Neil, H. F. Jr. (Ed.)
Learning Strategies. New York: Academic Press.

337
 International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences
Vol. 1 3 , No. 3, 2023, E-ISSN: 2 2 2 2 -6990 © 2023 HRMARS

Rovers, S. F., Stalmeijer, R. E., van Merrienboer, J. J., Savelberg, H. H., & De Bruin, A. B. (2018).
How and why do students use learning strategies? A mixed methods study on learning
strategies and desirable difficulties with effective strategy users. Frontiers in
psychology, 9, 2501. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.0250 pp1-12.
Shah, A. A., & Bapoo, L. A. L (2021). Attitude and Language Use Pattern of Multilingual
Malaysians. International Young Scholars Journal of Language IYSJL, 4(2), 29-37.
https://www.iium.edu.my/media/77649/Attitude%20and%20Language%20Use%20Pa
ttern%20of%20Multilingual%20Malaysians.pdf
Wenden, A., & Rubin, J. (1987). Learner Strategies in Language Learning. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall.
Wong, L. L., & Nunan, D. (2011). The learning styles and strategies of effective language
learners. System, 39(2), 144-163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2011.05.004
Zafar, S., & Meenakshi, K. (2012). Individual Learner Differences and Second Language
Acquisition: A Review. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 3(4), 639-646.
Doi:10.4304/jltr.3.4.639-646
Zanne, S. H., Amali, N. A. K., Rahmat, N. H., Bakar, M. H. A., & Mustafa, N. C. (2022).
Investigating Online Presence in The French Online Classroom. International Journal of
Academic Research In Business and Social Sciences, 12(3), 56–70.
http://dx.doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v12-i3/12314

338

View publication stats