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Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing 985

Radek Silhavy Editor

Artificial
Intelligence
Methods in
Intelligent
Algorithms
Proceedings of 8th Computer Science
On-line Conference 2019, Vol. 2
Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing

Volume 985

Series Editor
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Radek Silhavy
Editor

Artificial Intelligence
Methods in Intelligent
Algorithms
Proceedings of 8th Computer Science
On-line Conference 2019, Vol. 2

123
Editor
Radek Silhavy
Faculty of Applied Informatics
Tomas Bata University in Zlín
Zlín, Czech Republic

ISSN 2194-5357 ISSN 2194-5365 (electronic)

Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing
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Preface

Modern trends and approaches of artificial intelligence research and its application
to intelligent systems are presented in this book. Paper discuss hybridisation of
algorithms, new trends in neural networks, optimisation algorithms and real-life
issues related to artificial method application.
This book constitutes the refereed proceedings of the Artificial Intelligence
Methods in Intelligent Algorithms section of the 8th Computer Science On-line
Conference 2019 (CSOC 2019), held on-line in April 2019.
CSOC 2019 has received (all sections) 198 submissions; 120 of them were
accepted for publication. More than 59% of accepted submissions were received
from Europe, 34% from Asia, 5% from America and 2% from Africa. Researches
from more than 20 countries participated in CSOC 2019 conference.
CSOC 2019 conference intends to provide an international forum for the
discussion of the latest high-quality research results in all areas related to computer
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computer science, artificial intelligence, cybernetics, automation control theory and
software engineering.
Computer Science On-line Conference is held on-line, and modern
communication technology, which is broadly used, improves the traditional concept
of scientific conferences. It brings equal opportunity to all the researchers around
the world to participate.
I believe that you will find the following proceedings interesting and useful for
your own research work.

March 2019 Radek Silhavy

v
Organization

Program Committee
Program Committee Chairs

Petr Silhavy Faculty of Applied Informatics, Tomas Bata

University in Zlin
Radek Silhavy Faculty of Applied Informatics, Tomas Bata
University in Zlin
Zdenka Prokopova Faculty of Applied Informatics, Tomas Bata
University in Zlin
Roman Senkerik Faculty of Applied Informatics, Tomas Bata
University in Zlin
Roman Prokop Faculty of Applied Informatics, Tomas Bata
University in Zlin
Viacheslav Zelentsov Doctor of Engineering Sciences,
Chief Researcher of St. Petersburg Institute
for Informatics and Automation of Russian
Academy of Sciences (SPIIRAS)

Program Committee Members

Boguslaw Cyganek Department of Computer Science,

AGH University of Science and Technology,
Krakow, Poland
Krzysztof Okarma Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
West Pomeranian University of Technology,
Szczecin, Poland
Monika Bakosova Institute of Information Engineering, Automation
and Mathematics, Slovak University
of Technology, Bratislava, Slovak Republic

vii
viii Organization

Pavel Vaclavek Faculty of Electrical Engineering

and Communication, Brno University
of Technology, Brno, Czech Republic
Miroslaw Ochodek Faculty of Computing, Poznan University
of Technology, Poznan, Poland
Olga Brovkina Global Change Research Centre Academy
of Science of the Czech Republic, Brno,
Czech Republic; Mendel University, Brno,
Czech Republic
Elarbi Badidi College of Information Technology,
United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain,
United Arab Emirates
Luis Alberto Morales Rosales Head of the Master Program in Computer
Science, Superior Technological Institute
of Misantla, Mexico
Mariana Lobato Baes Superior Technological of Libres, Mexico
Abdessattar Chaâri Laboratory of Sciences and Techniques
of Automatic Control & Computer
Engineering, University of Sfax,
Tunisian Republic
Gopal Sakarkar Shri. Ramdeobaba College of Engineering
and Management, Republic of India
V. V. Krishna Maddinala GD Rungta College of Engineering
& Technology, Republic of India
Anand N. Khobragade Maharashtra Remote Sensing Applications
Centre, Republic of India
Abdallah Handoura Computer and Communication Laboratory,
Telecom Bretagne, France

Technical Program Committee Members

Ivo Bukovsky Roman Senkerik

Maciej Majewski Petr Silhavy
Miroslaw Ochodek Radek Silhavy
Bronislav Chramcov Jiri Vojtesek
Eric Afful Dazie Eva Volna
Michal Bliznak Janez Brest
Donald Davendra Ales Zamuda
Radim Farana Roman Prokop
Martin Kotyrba Boguslaw Cyganek
Erik Kral Krzysztof Okarma
David Malanik Monika Bakosova
Michal Pluhacek Pavel Vaclavek
Zdenka Prokopova Olga Brovkina
Martin Sysel Elarbi Badidi
Organization ix

Organizing Committee Chair

Radek Silhavy Faculty of Applied Informatics, Tomas Bata

University in Zlin

Conference Organizer (Production)

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Contents

The Method of Deductive Inference of Consequences

with the Scheme Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Anastasia Bardovskaya, Gennadiy Chistyakov, Maria Dolzhenkova,
and Dmitry Strabykin
Novel Optimized Filter Design for Filtered-OFDM to Enhance
5G Communication Spectral Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
K. P. Nagapushpa and N. Chitra Kiran
Multi-agent Modeling of the Socio-Technical System Taking
into Account the Risk Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Natalya Bereza, Andrey Bereza, Maxim Lyashov,
and Juliia Alekseenko
Hybrid Optimization Method Based on the Integration of Evolution
Models and Swarm Intelligence in Affine Search Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Boris K. Lebedev, Oleg B. Lebedev, Elena M. Lebedeva,
and Artemy A. Zhiglaty
Applying Context to Handwritten Character Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Richard Fox and Steven Brownfield
A Cognitive Assistant Functional Model and Architecture
for the Social Media Victim Behavior Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Eduard Melnik, Iakov Korovin, and Anna Klimenko
An Ontology-Based Approach to the Workload Distribution Problem
Solving in Fog-Computing Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Anna Klimenko and Irina Safronenkova
Decoupling Channel Contention and Data Transmission in Dense
Wireless Infrastructure Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Jianjun Lei and Hong Yun

xi
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xii Contents

Principal Component Analysis and ReliefF Cascaded with Decision

Tree for Credit Scoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Thitimanan Damrongsakmethee and Victor-Emil Neagoe
Online Monitoring Automation Using Anomaly Detection
in IoT/IT Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Chul Kim, Inwhee Joe, Deokwon Jang, Eunji Kim, and Sanghun Nam
Cross-collection Multi-aspect Sentiment Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Hemed Kaporo
Information Flow Control in Interactive Analysis of Map Images
with Fuzzy Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Stanislav Belyakov, Marina Savelyeva, Alexander Bozhenyuk,
and Andrey Glushkov
A Binary Sine-Cosine Algorithm Applied to the Knapsack Problem . . . 128
Hernan Pinto, Alvaro Peña, Matías Valenzuela, and Andrés Fernández
Parameter Calculation in Time Analysis for the Approach of Filtering
to Select IMFs of EMD in AE Sensors for Leakage Signature . . . . . . . . 139
Nur Syakirah Mohd Jaafar, Izzatdin Abdul Aziz, M. Hilmi B. Hasan,
and Ahmad Kamil Mahmood
Model of an Intellectual Information System for Recognizing Users
of a Social Network Using Bioinspired Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Alexey Samoylov, Margarita Kucherova, and Vladimir Tchumichev
A Binary Ant Lion Optimisation Algorithm Applied to the Set
Covering Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Lorena Jorquera, Pamela Valenzuela, Matías Valenzuela, and Hernan Pinto
The Minimization of Empirical Risk Through Stochastic Gradient
Descent with Momentum Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Arindam Chaudhuri
Variable Step Size Least Mean Square Optimization for Motion
Artifact Reduction: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Khalida Adeeba Mohd Zailan, Mohd Hilmi Hasan,
and Gunawan Witjaksono
Identification of KDD Problems from Medical Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Andrea Nemethova, Martin Nemeth, German Michalconok,
and Allan Bohm
Determination Issues of Data Mining Process of Failures
in the Production Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Martin Nemeth, Andrea Nemethova, and German Michalconok
Contents xiii

Indonesian Food Image Recognition Using Convolutional

Neural Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Stanley Giovany, Andre Putra, Agus S. Hariawan, Lili A. Wulandhari,
and Edy Irwansyah
Prevention of Local Emergencies in the Mechanical
Transport Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Stanislav Belyakov, Marina Savelyeva, Alexander Bozhenyuk,
and Andrey Glushkov
Image Augmentation Techniques for Road Sign Detection
in Automotive Vision System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Paulina Bugiel, Jacek Izydorczyk, and Tomasz Sułkowski
Machine Failure Prediction Technique Using Recurrent Neural
Network Long Short-Term Memory-Particle Swarm
Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Noor Adilah Rashid, Izzatdin Abdul Aziz, and Mohd Hilmi B. Hasan
Assessing the Small Satellites Resilience in Conditions of Anomalous
Flight Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Alexander N. Pavlov, Dmitry A. Pavlov, Evgeny V. Kopkin,
and Alexander Yu. Kulakov
Audio Gadget Recommendation by Fuzzy Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Md. Mokarram Chowdhury, Farhan Tanvir, Md. Shakilur Rahman,
Md. Motiur Rahman, Md. Al-Sahariar, and Rashedur M. Rahman
Performance Analysis of Different Recurrent Neural Network
Architectures and Classical Statistical Model for Financial
Forecasting: A Case Study on Dhaka Stock Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Akash Bhowmick, Asifur Rahman, and Rashedur M. Rahman
Hybrid Algorithm of Mobile Position-Trajectory Control . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Gennady E. Veselov, Boris K. Lebedev, Oleg B. Lebedev,
and Andrey I. Kostyuk
Awareness of Information and Communication Technology Induced
Climate Change and the Developing Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Ramadile Moletsane
Bot Detection on Online Social Networks Using Deep Forest . . . . . . . . . 307
Kheir Eddine Daouadi, Rim Zghal Rebaï, and Ikram Amous
Theoretical and Experimental Evaluation of PSO-K-Means Algorithm
for MRI Images Segmentation Using Drift Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Samer El-Khatib, Yuri Skobtsov, Sergey Rodzin, and Semyon Potryasaev
xiv Contents

Proposal of Data Pre-processing for Purpose of Analysis

in Accordance with the Concept Industry 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Veronika Grigelova, Jela Abasova, and Pavol Tanuska
Predicting Regional Credit Ratings Using Ensemble Classification
with MetaCost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Evelyn Toseafa and Petr Hajek
Human Activity Identification Using Novel Feature Extraction
and Ensemble-Based Learning for Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Abdul Lateef Haroon P.S and U. Eranna
Neural Network Comparison for Paint Errors Classification
for Automotive Industry in Compliance with Industry 4.0 Concept . . . . 353
Michal Kebisek, Lukas Spendla, Pavol Tanuska, Gabriel Gaspar,
and Lukas Hrcka
Support to Early Diagnosis of Gestational Diabetes Aided
by Bayesian Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Egidio Gomes Filho, Plácido R. Pinheiro, Mirian C. D. Pinheiro,
Luciano C. Nunes, Luiza B. G. Gomes, and Pedro P. M. Farias
Time Series of Workload on Railway Routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Zdena Dobesova and Michal Kucera
Hybrid Models of Solving Optimization Tasks on the Basis
of Integrating Evolutionary Design and Multiagent Technologies . . . . . 381
L. A. Gladkov, N. V. Gladkova, and S. A. Gromov
Artificial Intelligence Tools for Smart Tourism Development . . . . . . . . . 392
Tomáš Gajdošík and Matúš Marciš
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
 The Method of Deductive Inference
of Consequences with the Scheme
Construction

Anastasia Bardovskaya, Gennadiy Chistyakov(B) , Maria Dolzhenkova,

and Dmitry Strabykin

Department of Computers, Vyatka State University,

Moskovskaya, 36, 610000 Kirov, Russia
[email protected]

Abstract. The paper describes the method of inference in first-order

predicate calculus, which allows, besides obtaining the result, to build a
special structure—the scheme of inference. This structure represents a
special kind of graph and it can be used to interpret the solution both
visually and in the analytical way. Besides, the scheme can be applied to
evaluate the development of situation in dynamic systems research. The
method is based on the operation of division of disjuncts, characterized
by a high level of AND-, OR- DCDP-parallelisms, thereby it can be
effectively realized on modern multiprocessor and multicore platforms in
software mode.

Keywords: Deductive inference · Disjuncts division operation ·

Conclusion of consequences · Inference scheme

1 Introduction
Logic-based modeling of reasoning is one of the promising areas of research,
studying artificial intelligence methods and algorithms. Most often it employs
sentential calculus or first-order predicate calculus as a formal system. Proposi-
tional logic allows to create simple to realize methods of inference and, conse-
quently, to develop high-performance software and software-hardware systems.
But the description of knowledge in the real subject area requires a more expres-
sive formal system. On the one hand, reasoning, presented in the form of formulas
of first-order predicate calculus, allows to set different relations and causal con-
nections between objects. On the other, this type of presentation seems quite
natural for a human. All this makes predicate calculus a convenient means of
formalization of applied tasks. Modeling of reasoning in intellectual systems is
performed with the help of the inference apparatus—deductive and inductive
methods, method of abductive inference, Case-Based Reasoning (CBR) [1]. This
apparatus allows to solve logical problems. Nevertheless quite often in the course
of modeling complex, multi-step reasoning one has to define the consequences
c Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
R. Silhavy (Ed.): CSOC 2019, AISC 985, pp. 1–10, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19810-7_1
2 A. Bardovskaya et al.

that can be inferred and the new facts, reflecting the conditions of the changing
environment having a set of initial premises [2,3]. This problem can be solved
with the help of a special type of deductive inference—parallel logical inference
of consequences.

2 Logical Inference of Consequences

The task of the logical inference of consequences can be formulated in the
following way. There are consistent premises, presented as a set of disjuncts
M = {D1 , D2 , ..., DJ }. Each disjunct contains a literal without inversion. Set
M includes a subset of input data M F . Besides there is a set of new facts
mF = {L1 , L2 , ..., Lp , ..., LP }, with set M ∪ mF being also consistent. The task
of logical inference of consequences (literals without inversion) is as follows.
1. Set of consequences M S and set of sets sH of consequences sH = {e0 , e1 , ...,
eh , ..., eH } must be found. Set of consequences e0 consists of initial premises
coinciding with new facts: e0 = M F ∩ mF . Set e1 includes consequences,
inferred in one step from set of new facts mF on the basis of the set of
disjuncts-premises M : mF , M ⇒ e1 , but not inferred from M only. Set
of consequences eh+1 (h = 1, ..., H − 1) includes consequences, inferred in one
step from set of consequences eh , of new facts mF and the set of consequences
obtained in the previous steps, on the basis of the set of disjuncts-premises
M : eh , mF , ch , M ⇒ eh+1 ; ch = ch−1 ∪ eh−1 , c0 = ∅. Set of sets of conse-
quences is s0 = {e0 }, and set of sets sh (h = 1, ..., H) is defined in the following
way: sh = sh−1 ∪ {eh }. We obtain the total set of consequences M S joining
sets of set of sets sH : M S = e0 ∪ e1 ∪ ... ∪ eH .
2. It is required to give a description O of the scheme of inference as set of sets
O = {f 1 , f 2 , ..., f h , ..., f H−1 } ∪ {s+ }, where f h is a set of literals, obtained
while forming a description of the scheme on step h of the inference, s+ is a
set of finite consequences, from which no new consequences can be inferred
(s+ ⊆ M S ).
A special operation of generalized division of clauses is used to realize logical
inference together with forming the description of the scheme.

3 Supporting Operations and Procedures

3.1 Generalized Division of a Disjunct by a Literal
The operation of generalized division of disjunct b, containing literal L, by literal
L , resulting in quotient b and remainder d , can be presented as b[L]%L =
<b , d >.
Quotient b is a set of literals, obtained after “gluing” literal L of the div-
idend and literal L . By “gluing” we mean transformation of a pair of liter-
als of the same name L[+, k] ∈ b and L [j, +] (or L[k, +] ∈ b and L [+, j]),
which have become identical as a result of application of unifying substitution λ
 The Method of Deductive Inference of Consequences 3

and containing an auxiliary variable “+” as a parameter, appearing in various

positions, into literal L[j, λk] (or L[λk, j]). If “gluing” the literal doesn’t require
the unifying substitution λ, it may be omitted in the parameter of the resulting
literal.
Resulting remainder d is calculated with the help of the operation of special
joining the sets of literals λb̃  b , where λb̃ is a set of literals of disjunct b, to
which the unifying substitution λ was applied. The peculiarity of the operation
consists in absorption of literals L[+, k] ∈ b̃ and L[j, +] ∈ b̃ by literal L[j, k] ∈
b : {L[+, k]}  {L[j, k]} = {L[j, +]}  {L[j, k]} = {L[j, k]}.
Remainder d is determined according to the following rules:

– if b = ∅, then d = 1;
– if b = ∅ and (λb̃  b ) − b = ∅, then d = 0;
– if b =
 ∅ and (λb̃  b ) − b = d,
˜ d˜ = ∅, then d = L1 ∨ L2 ∨ ... ∨ Ls ∨ ... ∨ LS ,
where Ls ∈ d̃ (s = 1, ..., S) and d̃ = {L1 , L2 , ..., LS }.


Example 1. Let b = P (x, y)[+, 1] ∨ O(y, x)[1, +] and L = P (b, a)[2, +],
then b[P (x, y)[+, 1]]%L = <b , d >, where b = {P (b, a)[2, {b/x, a/y}1]}, λ =
{b/x, a/y}, d = O(a, b)[1, +], as λb̃  b = {P (b, a)[+, 1], O(a, b)[1, +]}  {P (b, a)
[2, λ1]} = {P (b, a)[2, λ1], O(a, b)[1, +]}, (λb̃  b ) − b = {O(a, b)[1, +]}.

3.2 Partial Division of Disjuncts

Partial division of disjuncts is performed with the help of a special procedure

of formation of remainders—one of the main procedures used in the method of
inference of consequences in predicate calculus. The procedure assumes that the
premise and inference should be presented in the form of disjuncts. The initial
expressions of premises and inference in calculus are brought to the necessary
form with the help of algorithms [4]. For convenience of description of this pro-
cedure let us introduce a number of notations. ω = <b, d, g, q, n, s, g  > is the
procedure of partial division, in which: b is the remainder-dividend (disjunct of
the premise), used to obtain remainders; d is the remainder-divisor (disjunct of
the inference), participating in forming the remainders; g is an intermediate set
of literals in the description of the scheme of inference; q is a partial attribute of
the continuation of division of disjuncts: “0”—further division is possible; “1”—
further division is impossible; n = {< bt , dt , gt >, t = 1, ..., T }—a set of threes,
consisting of the new remainder-dividend bt and the corresponding remainder-
divisor dt , formed in the result of applying the procedure ω, and also set gt of the
obtained literals of the description of the inference scheme; s is a set of obtained
consequences; g  is a set of sets of literals of the description of the inference
scheme, with the help of which consequences of set s were obtained.
Let us define “the derivative” ∂b[L]
∂L of disjunct b[L], containing literal L, with
respect to literal L as remainder d , obtained while performing the operation of
generalized division b[L]%L . Besides if remainder d is not equal to zero or one
and contains only one literal, the right parameter of which is the symbol of the
auxiliary variable “+”, this literal is the consequence.
4 A. Bardovskaya et al.

Let us determine the matrix of “the derivatives” of disjunct b with respect

to disjunct d in the following way:

∂b[Lj ]
μ[b, d] = | | = |Δkj |,
∂Lk
where j = 1, ..., J and k = 1, ..., K, besides J is the number of literals in disjunct
b, and K is the number of literals in disjunct d.
Before performing the procedure of partial division of disjuncts it is assumed,
that s = ∅ and g  = ∅.
The following operations are performed in the procedure.

1. The matrix of “derivatives” μ[b, d] is calculated. The condition of forming the

remainders is checked. If all the “derivatives” in matrix μ[b, d] are equal to
one, it is assumed, that q = 1, n = {<1, 1, 1>} and point 4 is performed,
otherwise it is assumed, that q = 0 and the next point is performed.
2. The presence of consequences is checked. In case of their absence the next
point is passed on to. If there are consequences, for each consequence st
a set of literals of the description of the inference scheme gt = {L[λj, λi k],
i = 1, ..., I} is formed, where T is the total number of consequences, λ is some
substitution (possibly empty), λi is a substitution, obtained in the course of
performing operations of generalized division. Set gt is formed by means of
joining set g with quotient b , formed in the course of performing the operation
of generalized division, as a result of which the corresponding consequence
st : gt = g ∪ {b } was obtained. Besides, for each consequence st the unified
substitution λt = ∪Ii=1 λi , where λi are substitutions from the right parts of
literals in set gt , is calculated. Set s is formed as s = {st [λt j, +], t = 1, ..., T },
and set of sets g  is formed as g  = {gt , t = 1, ..., T }. It is assumed that q = 1,
n = {<1, 1, 1>}, and point 4 is performed.
3. Set n = {<bt , dt , gt >, t = 1, ..., T } of threes, consisting of the new remain-
ders-dividends bt , remainders-divisors dt and corresponding sets of literals
of the description of the inference scheme gt is determined. For each of the
remainders-dividends bt the corresponding remainder-divisor is calculated:
dt = λt (d ÷ w) with the help of substituting λt , used in its formation, where
w is an auxiliary disjunct, containing excluded from remainder d literals.
For calculating remainder dt the literals, for which in matrix μ[b, d] one of
the listed below conditions are met, are excluded from remainder d. The
conditions are as follows:
∂b[L ]
– ∂Lj for all j = 1, ..., J; i.e. the line of ones in the matrix corresponds to
h
the literal;
∂b[L ]
– ∂Lj for all j, except j = u, such, that ∂b[L u]
∂Lh = bt ; i.e. in the line of the
h
matrix, corresponding to the literal, all the “derivatives” are equal to one,
except one of them, representing the remainder under consideration—
remainder bt .
 The Method of Deductive Inference of Consequences 5

The set of literals of the description of the inference scheme gt is formed by

means of joining set g with quotient b , obtained in the course of performing
the operation of generalized division, in which the corresponding remainder-
dividend bt : gt = g ∪ {b } was obtained. It is assumed that q = 0 and
n = {<bt , dt , gt >, t = 1, ..., T } and the next point is performed.
4. The results of calculating procedure ω are recorded.

Example 2. Let us consider the example of calculating matrix μ[b, d], where b =
P (x, y)[+, 1] ∨ O(y, x)[1, +], and d = P (b, a)[2, +] to illustrate the construction
of the matrix of “derivatives” and forming the remainders.

1. (Point 1) Matrix of “derivatives” μ[b, d] is calculated.

P (x, y)[+, 1] O(y, x)[1, +]

 
P (b, a)[2, +] Δ11 1

In the matrix “derivative” Δ11 is determined with the help of unifying substi-
tution λ11 = {b/x, a/y} : Δ11 = O(a, b)[1, +], and “derivative” Δ12 = 1. The
condition of forming the remainders is checked. As not all the “derivatives”
in the matrix are equal to one, it is assumed that q = 0 and the next point is
performed.
2. (Point 2) The presence of consequences is checked. All the remainders, dif-
ferent from zero and one and containing only one literal, the right parameter
of which is the symbol of the auxiliary variable “+”, are consequences. In
the example under consideration Δ11 = O(a, b)[1, +] is the only consequence,
for which the condition of forming the set of literals of the description of the
inference scheme g1 = {P (b, a)[2, λ11 1]} (assuming g = ∅), λt = λ11 is met.
Set of consequences s = {O(a, b)[λ11 1, +]} and set of sets g  as g  = {g1 } are
formed. It is assumed that q = 1, n = {<1, 1, 1>} and point 4 is performed.
3. (Point 4) The results of calculating procedure ω are fixed. Set of consequences
s = {O(a, b)[λ11 1, +]} and set of sets of literals of the description of the
inference scheme g  = {g1 } are obtained, continuation of partial division of
disjuncts is not possible (q = 1, n = {<1, 1, 1>}).

3.3 Complete Division of Disjuncts

Complete division of disjuncts aims at obtaining all the consequences from clause
d, set of new facts mF , set of premises M S and set of previously obtained
consequences c on the basis of disjunct-premise D with the help of the procedure
considered below.
Let us introduce the following notations: Ω = <D, d, mF , c, Q, S, G> is the
procedure of forming set S of consequences and set of sets G of sets of literals
of the description of the inference scheme by means of dividing the disjunct of
premise D by disjunct d taking account of sets of new facts mF and premises
M F and set of previously obtained consequences c, in which Q is an attribute of
solution, having two values: “0”—consequences are found, “1”—disjunct d has
no consequences on the basis of disjunct D.
6 A. Bardovskaya et al.

The set of consequences is formed by means of multiple application of

ω-procedures in a number of steps. On each step ω-procedures are applied to the
present remainders-dividends and remainders-dividers, forming new remainders-
dividends and new remainders-dividers, used as input data on the next step. The
process ends, when it is detected on the next step, that in all the ω-procedures of
this step the attributes, demonstrating impossibility of continuation of division
of disjuncts (q = 1), are formed.
The parallel execution of ω-procedures is described with the help of a spe-
cial index function, providing a unique identification of each procedure and its
parameters. Let us introduce index function i(h) for index of size h, which
we will determine with the help of induction for index variable t in the fol-
lowing way: i(1) = t, t = 1, ..., T ; i(2) = i(1).ti(1) , ti(1) = 1, ..., Ti(1) (t.tt =
1.t1 , t1 = 1, ..., T1 , 2.t2 , t2 = 1, ..., T2 , ..., T.tT , tT = 1, ..., TT ); i(3) = t.tt .tE
(E = t.tt ), i(3) = i(2).ti(2) , ti(2) = 1, ..., Ti(2) ; and so on. In the general case:
i(h) = i(h − 1).ti(h−1) , ti(h−1) = 1, ..., Ti(h−1) . Let us assume, that i(0) means
the absence of index of the indexed variable, e.g., Ti(0) = T , and also that
i(1) = i(0).ti(0) = t.
Index function i(h) sets an index, which (when h>1) consists of a constant,
formed on the basis of the value of function i(h − 1), and corresponding to this
constant by variable ti(h−1) . The set of indexes, described with the help of the
function i(h), is formed on the basis of the values of function i(h − 1) and values
of variables ti(h−1) = 1, ..., Ti(h−1) , corresponding to them. E.g., if T = T1 = 3,
T2 = 2 we obtain i(1) = t, t = 1, 2, 3; i(2) = 1.t1 , t1 = 1, 2, 3, 2.t2 , t2 = 1, 2. That
is i(2) = 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 2.1, 2.2.
1. Preparatory step. On the preparatory step of the procedure of complete divi-
sion of disjuncts the procedure of forming remainders ω = <D, d, g, q, n, s, g  >
(g = ∅) is applied to the disjunct of premise D and disjunct d, and the partial
attribute of the continuation of division of disjuncts q is analyzed. If q = 1 (con-
tinuation of division is not possible), then it is accepted that S = s, G = g  ,
besides, if s = ∅, then Q = 0, otherwise Q = 1, is determined, and the final
step (point 3) is performed. If q = 0, then new pairs of remainders, formed in set
n = {<bt , d∗t , gt >, t = 1, ..., T }, appear as input data for ω-procedures on the
main step. Note also, that during the first implementation of the main step dis-
juncts dt are used as remainders-dividers instead of disjuncts d∗t . Disjunct dt is
formed by means of complementing disjunct d∗t with literals of the set of initial
facts M F , the set of new facts mF and the set of previously obtained consequences
c. Besides, during the first implementation of the main step it is accepted that
S0 = s, G0 = g  .
Using the index function, set n can be presented as follows: ni(h) =
{<bi(h+1) , di(h+1) , gi(h+1) >, i(h+1) = i(h).ti(h) ; ti(h) = 1, ..., Ti(h) }, where h = 0.
2. The main step. During k-th implementation of the main step (k =
1, 2, ..., K) for each three <bi(h+1) , di(h+1) , gi(h+1) > of all sets ni(h) of such
threes (h = k − 1), obtained on the previous step: ni(h) = {<bi(h+1) , di(h+1) ,
gi(h+1) >, i(h + 1) = i(h).ti(h) ; ti (h) = 1, ..., Ti(h) }, ω-procedure is performed:
 The Method of Deductive Inference of Consequences 7


ωi(h+1) = <bi(h+1) , di(h+1) , gi(h+1) , qi(h+1) , ni(h+1) , si(h+1) , gi(h+1) >, i(h + 1) =
i(h).ti(h) ; ti(h) = 1, ..., Ti(h) . The set of consequences and set of sets of lit-
erals of the description of the inference scheme are complemented: Sk+1 =
Sk ∪ ∪Vv=1 Si(h).l , Gk+1 = Gk ∪ ∪Vv=1 Gi(h).l , where v = ti(h) , V = Ti(h) .
If Sh+1 = ∅, then Qh+1 = 0, otherwise Qh+1 = 1, is determined. Partial
attributes of solution qi(h+1) are analyzed. If there is no qi(h+1) = 0, then it is
accepted that Q = Qh+1 , S = Sh+1 , G = Gh+1 and point 3 is performed. Oth-
erwise new sets of pairs are determined, which were obtained during the current
implementation of the step: ni(h+1) = {<bi(h+2) , di(h+2) , gi(h+2) >, i(h + 2) =
i(h + 1).ti(h+1) ; ti(h+1) = 1, ..., Ti(h+1) }, and we pass on to (k + 1) implementa-
tion of the main step (point 2), for which these sets appear as initial ones.
3. Final step. The results of the calculation of procedure Ω are recorded: the
attribute of solution Q, the set of consequences S, set of sets of literals of the
description of inference scheme G.
Let us illustrate the complete division of disjuncts.

Example 3. A detailed example of the procedure using is presented in the

paper [5].

3.4 The Procedure of Inference of Consequences

The procedure of inference of consequences is analogous to the procedure of

division of disjuncts, used in propositional logic [6]. The procedure allows to
perform the step of inference by transformation of the inferred disjunct into the
new inferred disjunct, necessary for continuation of the inference on the next
step. Let us introduce the following notifications.
To infer the consequences on the current step a procedure ν = <M, R, mF , o,
p, R1 , e, f > is used, in which: M is a set of disjuncts of the input sequents; R
is the inferred disjunct, consisting of literals Lk (k = 1, ..., K) of the previously
obtained consequences and of the new facts on the first step; mF is a set of
new facts; o = <c, C> is a pair of sets of the current consequences, consisting
of sets of consequences, formed before performing (c) and after performing (C)
the procedure; p is an attribute of continuation of the inference: “0”—further
inference is not possible; “1”—inference is finished; R1 is a new inferred disjunct;
e is a set of consequences for the inferred disjunct; f is a set of literals of the
description of the inference scheme, obtained while forming consequences e.
As a sub-procedure the procedure of inference uses the previously considered
Ω-procedure of complete division of disjuncts.
The procedure of inference can be applied, if M = ∅ and K ≥ 1, otherwise
attribute p = 1, e = ∅, f = ∅, C = c is immediately determined and point 5 is
passed on to. The following actions are performed in the procedure.
1. Complete division of disjuncts is performed.

1. The disjuncts of initial sequences, which are not facts, are divided by the
inferred disjunct Ωi = <Di , R, mF , M F , c, Qi , Si , Gi >(i = 1, ..., I) with the
help of Ω-procedures.
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8 A. Bardovskaya et al.

2. Attributes of solutions Qi , performed Ω-procedures are analyzed. If all the

attributes of solutions are equal to one, then it is accepted that p = 1, e = ∅,
f = ∅, C = c and point 5 is passed on to, otherwise the next action is
performed.
2. Set of consequences e and set of literals of the description of the inference
scheme f for the inferred disjunct are formed. Set e is formed with the help
of joining sets of consequences Si , obtained while performing Ω-procedures. If
e = ∅, then the absorbed consequences are excluded from the obtained set
of consequences. Literal b is absorbed by literal a then and only then, when
there is such a substitution λ, that b ⊆ λa. Not only consequences from set
e, but also consequences from set c, obtained on the previous step of inference
of consequences, are used as absorbing literals. Set f is formed by means of
including in it literals from elements of sets Gi , corresponding to the unabsorbed
elements of set e. If in the process of absorption of literals from the set all the
literals are excluded, then it is accepted that e = ∅, f = ∅, C = c, p = 1 and
point 5 is passed on to, otherwise it is determined that p = 0, and the next
action is performed.
3. A new inferred disjunct is formed. Inferred disjunct R1 represents the
disjunction of literals of set of consequences e.
4. A new set of consequences is formed. In the pair of the current conse-
quences o = <c, C> set C is formed in the result of joining set of consequences
c, obtained before performing the procedure, and set of consequences e, obtained
after excluding the absorbed literals: C = c ∪ e.
5. The results of the procedure are recorded. If attribute p = 1, then further
inference of consequences is not possible, and if p = 0, then inference can be
continued. If set of consequences e is not empty, a new inferred disjunct R1 , a
new set of consequences C and a set of literals of the description of the inference
scheme f will be formed in the process of performing the procedure.
It should be mentioned that in procedures of inference division of the dis-
juncts of the initial data by disjunct R can be performed in parallel with the
matrix-like way [7].

4 Method of Inference of Consequences

Method of inference of consequences is based on the procedure of inference of
consequences and it consists of a number of steps, on each of which the procedure
of inference ν is performed, and the results of the procedure become initial data
for the procedure on the next step. The process ends, if further inference of
consequences is not possible (the value of attribute p = 1 is obtained).
Let us denote the number of the step of inference by h, and the general
attribute of the continuation of inference by P (P = 0—continuation of infer-
ence is possible, P = 1—continuation of inference is not possible). Then the
description of the method can be presented as follows.
1. Determination of the initial values: h = 1, M = ∅, mF = ∅. Forming
inferred disjunct R1 , consisting of literals Lk , forming set mF . Determination
 The Method of Deductive Inference of Consequences 9

of the set of consequences e0 , coinciding with facts M F , having in the premise:

e0 = M F ∩ mF , s0 = {e0 }, c1 = e0 . Determination of the initial value of the
general attribute of the continuation of inference: P0 = 0.
2. Performing h-th procedure of inference

1. On the first step of inference procedure νh = <M, Rh , ∅, oh , ph , Rh+1 , eh ,

fh > is performed.
2. Otherwise procedure νh = <M, Rh , mF , oh , ph , Rh+1 , eh , fh > is performed.

3. Forming the set of consequences, the set of sets of literals of the descrip-
tion of the inference scheme and checking the attributes. The set of sets of con-
sequences sh = sh−1 ∪ {eh } and the set of sets of literals of the description of the
inference scheme O = O ∪ {fh } are formed. The general attribute of the continu-
ation of inference Ph = Ph−1 ∨ ph is formed. If Ph = 0, then inference continues:
h is increased by one, it is accepted that ch+1 = Ch and point 2 is passed on to,
otherwise inference ends (h = H). The obtained consequences are contained in
sets of set of sets sH , and the general set of consequences is calculated by means
of joining these sets: M S = e0 ∪ e1 ∪ e2 ∪ ... ∪ eH .
The description of the scheme of inference of consequences represents a set of
sets of descriptions of inference O = {f 1 , ..., f h , ..., f H }, formed on the final step,
complemented by the set of finite consequences {s+ }. This set of sets consists of
sets of literals with parameters. The edge of the scheme is marked by a literal,
the first parameter of the literal being the vertex of the scheme, out of which the
edge goes out, and the second being the vertex the edge comes into. The scheme
is built in accordance with the steps of inference: in the beginning vertices and
edges, described in set of literals f1 , are marked, then connections and vertices,
described in set of literals f2 , are added and so on. Te final step of building
the inference scheme consists in marking the edges, corresponding to the finite
consequences and having no terminal vertices. The set of finite consequences
is determined as follows: O = f1 ∪ f2 ∪ ... ∪ fH , s+ = (M S  O ) − O , and
the peculiarity of the operation of special joining the sets of literals “” is the
absorption of literal L(j, +) ∈ M S by literal L(j, k) ∈ O .
Let us illustrate the usage of the method of inference of consequences by the
example about filiation from the work [8].

Example 4. A detailed example of the method using is presented in the

paper [5].

5 Conclusion
Initially the task of deductive inference of consequences with building a scheme
arose in the course of development of an intellectual system of logical prognosis
of situations [9]. The description of schemes, obtained in the process of infer-
ence, allows us to trace the process of solution and can be used to evaluate
the development of the situation, assuming that the system under analysis is in
10 A. Bardovskaya et al.

the dynamic state, reflected on the scheme. Thus the offered method of infer-
ence of consequences with building a scheme widens a scope of tasks, which are
reasonable to be solved with the help of intellectual systems [10–12].
An important merit of the offered method consists in parallel performing
operations of division of disjuncts in the procedure of inference. Application of
the high-performance method of inference of consequences, optimized for modern
multiprocessor and multicore computing systems and technologies of parallel
programming, will allow to reduce the time for solving the tasks of inference.

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 Novel Optimized Filter Design for Filtered-
OFDM to Enhance 5G Communication
Spectral Efficiency

K. P. Nagapushpa1(&) and N. Chitra Kiran2

1
Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, Karnataka, India
[email protected]
2
Department of ECE, Alliance College of Engineering and Design Alliance
University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
[email protected]

Abstract. The era of 5G communication has to offer a futuristic way of

technological advancement in mobile communication and also it has been said
that 5G can able to provide higher transmission rate, user-friendly experience,
resource utilization, etc. To achieve this 5G technology needs to have support
towards small data packets and narrow bands with low power consumption.
However, the existing Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
have issues with high side lobes causing undesired leakage, channel interference
and high peak to average ratio (PAPR). This paper deals with contextual
applicability of modulation schemes especially OFDM as well as filtered OFDM
(F-OFDM) to be synchronized with 5G communication scenario. In the time
domain OFDM symbol, to improvise the out of band (OfB) radiation of the sub
band signal during the process of management of complex domain orthogonally
of symbols, a specially designed filter is proposed. The performance evaluation
is done among optimized filtered OFDM (F-OFDM) with Cyclic Prefix OFDM
(CP-OFDM). From the outcomes, it is found that the streamlined F-OFDM
system has got better PAPR value than conventional OFDM system with least
Bit Error Rate (BER) at 20 dB of SNR. Through the optimized F-OFDM system
spectrum efficiency is enhanced.

Keywords: Bit Error Rate (BER)
Cyclic prefix
Filtered-OFDM

Out of band radiation
5G communication
PAPR
Signal to noise ratio (SNR)

1 Introduction

The era of 5G communication has been predicted as the futuristic technology for
mobile communication by next two years [1]. The studies have pretended that 5G can
bring evolution into mobile communication as it can able to offer higher transmission
rate, user-friendly experience, resource utilization, etc. [2, 3]. Recent researches were
presented four technological scenarios for 5G communication that involves wider
coverage, higher hotspot capacity, high connectivity with low power utilization and
low delay in service [4]. The higher hotspot connectivity needs user friendliness
experience of about 1Gbps rate and to have this a wide range of bandwidth is requires

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

R. Silhavy (Ed.): CSOC 2019, AISC 985, pp. 11–20, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19810-7_2
12 K. P. Nagapushpa and N. Chitra Kiran

which can support high data rate [5]. The 5G communication exhibits the frequency
band of over 6 GHz [6]. But a nonstop spectrum bandwidth can be attained only during
low-frequency band. Instead, different unconnected free spectrum fragments exist.
Thus, to meet higher data rate, spectrum efficiency in 5G communication, it needs to
have significant capabilities supporting small data packets and narrow bands with low
power consumption [7]. The existing multicarrier systems uses Orthogonal frequency
division multiplexing (OFDM) as it has got good features but exhibits disadvantages of
cyclic prefix (CP) leading to band resources consumption, needs strict synchronization
and the high side lobs of the carrier spectrum which causes undesirable leakage, a high
peak-to-average ratio (PAPR), and even severe adjacent channel interference (ACI) [8].
Thus, 5G communication requires an advanced multi-carrier transmission technology.
This paper deals with contextual applicability of modulation schemes specially
OFDM as well as filtered OFDM (F-OFDM) to be synchronized with 5G communi-
cation scenario. The performance evaluation is done among filtered OFDM (F-OFDM)
with Cyclic Prefix OFDM (CP-OFDM). In the time domain OFDM symbol, to
improvise the out of band radiation of the sub band signal during the process of
management of complex domain orthogonally of symbols, a specially designed filter is
proposed. This paper is categorized with different sections like Related work dealing
with 5G communication (Sect. 2), System Model (Sect. 3), algorithm implementation
(Sect. 4), results and analysis (Sect. 5) and conclusion (Sect. 6).

2 Related Work

This section discusses some of the serious contributory researches in the domain of 5G
communication. The consideration of F-OFDM in 5G communication has gained a lot
of interest as it offers a multi-service model and also provides the greater spectrum
efficiency. However, there is a lack in addressing the systematic analysis of F-OFDM
systems, and this concern is been addressed in Zhang et al. [9]. In this regard, [9] have
established a mathematical model that has derived the conditions from achieving zero
interference channel equalization. Also, low complex analytical expressions were
derived from removing the intersub-band (IsB) interference at low cost. Through
performance analysis, it has been found that [9] work can be used as technical
guidelines for the 5G communication system design and it can mitigate the IsB
interferences to a greater extent with least increment in complexity. In order to avoid
Adjacent-channel interference (ACI), the existing OFDM systems consider wide guard
band which leads to lowering of spectral efficiency. Hence, the upcoming (5G) mobile
communication system needs low out of band technique. In that regard, An et al. [10]
have presented a widowing F-OFDM (WF-OFDM) system that enhances the spectral
efficiency by adapting windowing and filtering technique in OFDM. The performance
analysis of [10] suggests that it has got better spectral efficiency by lowering out of
band spectrum characteristics.
The recent year of research in efficient utilization of spectrum and offering flexible
waveforms for 5G communication and come up with F-OFDM. The design and
implementation perspective of F-OFDM have discussed in Guan et al. [11] and per-
formed a field test on it. The test analysis was suggested that the F-OFDM can reduce
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 CHAPTER XVII.

THE BLACK VIRGIN OF EINSIEDELN—LIFE IN

SWITZERLAND, &c.

MORE than a thousand years ago, a holy hermit, by the name of

Meinrad, of royal blood, sought the wilds of Finsterswald, and here
(for I am now on the spot) lived in a hut, and spent his days in
prayer, with a little black image of the Virgin and Child which had
been given him by the Abbess of Zurich. But his piety and the Holy
Virgin did not shield him from the violence of wicked men. He was
murdered in his hut by two robbers, who would never have been
caught but for the interposition of the Virgin, who sent two ravens
after them. These birds followed them to Zurich, and there hunted
them till their guilt was detected, and they were put to death.
The odor of Meinrad’s sanctity spread far and wide, and the
Benedictine monks came and established a community, built a
monastery and a church, and have flourished on this spot ever since.
So long ago as 948 the Bishop of Constance came here to
consecrate the newly erected church, and in the night before the
ceremony was to be performed he was awakened by the music of
angels filling the place, and a voice from heaven came to him,
saying that he need not proceed with his holy services, for in the
night the house had been sanctified by the coming of the Saviour in
his own proper person. This was reported to the Pope, who
pronounced it a genuine miracle; and in obedience to his decree a
plenary indulgence is granted to all pilgrims who come here, and on
the church is inscribed, “Here is full remission from the guilt and
punishment of sins.” During all these thousand years that have since
revolved, this spot has been the shrine to which not less than
200,000 human beings each year, with heads and hands and feet
like other people, have journeyed, to bring their offerings, and
worship a black image of the Virgin Mary holding a black baby in her
arms. Why the image is painted jet black I cannot learn. So great is
the concourse of pilgrims here, and so large are their offerings, that
this monastery, in a bleak Alpine vale, 3000 feet above the sea, and
off from all highways, has become one of the richest in the world.
One in Styria, one in Spain, and a third in Italy, are, perhaps, more
numerously visited. But the annual revenue of this is immense. The
abbot has his banking house in Zurich, where he deposits the funds,
and the investments are constantly increasing. They are buying
lands largely in the United States of America, especially in Indiana,
and the order of Benedictines at Vincennes is in constant
correspondence with Einsiedeln.
Hither have I just made a pilgrimage, not on foot, as many do. An
old woman of seventy-five, carrying her shoes in her hand and
toiling up with bare, sore feet, said the priest had bade her travel so
to Einsiedeln, and her sins would be pardoned. But I came by the
steamboat from Zurich to Ricksterwyl, and was then brought up the
hill in a nice covered carriage, a much pleasanter way of doing a
pilgrimage than walking barefoot, or even with peas in your shoes. It
is a two hours’ ride from the lake, the ascending road being alive
with travellers going and coming, and public-houses to entertain the
pilgrims invite you to rest. The village itself consists of a multitude of
taverns and shops for the sale of images, crosses, medals, &c.
Passing through it, we come to a large paved square. On one side of
it, and at the foot of a hill which rises behind it, stand the sacred
edifices: a vast temple, with the monastic buildings on each side of
it, imposing in their appearance among these wilds of nature, where
it seems almost a miracle that they can ever have been reared and
enjoyed by man. The church itself is adorned with extravagant
pictures and marble chapels and shrines, and just at the entrance
stands the image of “Our Lady of the Hermits,” the only black image
of the Virgin I ever saw. She and the Holy Child wear crowns of
gold, and glitter with diamonds and embroidered garments, their
faces of ebony shining in the blaze of jewelry and tinsel finery.
Before them, worshippers are always kneeling, counting their beads.
At the other shrines others are bowing and murmuring their prayers.
Painted skeletons of celebrated saints lie exposed in marble shrines.
The offerings of those who have had their prayers answered hang
around on the walls. All sorts of prayers are here made, and they
who make them believe they are answered.
In the square in front of the church is a fountain with a dozen jets
of water, and each pilgrim drinks from each one of them, to be
certain that he drinks of the one out of which the Saviour refreshed
himself nine hundred years ago!
The monastery is freely opened to strangers. Through long halls
on each side of which are guest-chambers where their many visitors
are lodged, we were led to a gallery, adorned with several splendid
paintings, presented by Catholic monarchs: Louis Napoleon and his
Empress, the Austrian Emperor, and several historical pictures. Out
of this we walked into the reception-room, where the abbot himself
was so condescending as to meet us. He speaks only German and
Latin. A very large man, of commanding form and presence; with a
face shining like the sun with good humor, good living, and content,
he answered perfectly to your idea of the abbot of a Romish
monastery. He gave me a cordial greeting, and understanding that I
was from America asked if we enjoyed universal peace. When I
assured him we did, he spoke of the late contest in Europe, which
he pronounced “bellum atrocissimum,”—a most atrocious war. Then
he inquired about the President, and produced from his private
rooms a photograph of the late Lincoln in the arms of Washington in
heaven!
After a little further general conversation he withdrew. He is by
virtue of his office a prince of the Austrian empire, and is so
addressed by all the Roman Catholic cantons of Switzerland. I was
highly pleased with the interview, and not less with one of the
monks to whose kind care I was now committed. He led me to the
interior of the monastery, where the cells of the monks are arranged
on the several stories or floors: each one is a comfortable room, with
one window looking into the walled garden and the hill that rises
behind. When we reached his own he unlocked it and showed me in;
placing its only chair, he bade me be seated, while he went to look
for the key of the library. “While I am absent,” said he, “enjoy
yourself as you please, examine every thing, and be quite at home.”
A few books were in a case over his writing-desk, by which he could
sit or stand and the closets, shelves, every thing was bare of paint,
and plain as could be. A little bed was in one corner near the door,
simple enough for an anchorite. No images, pictures, or crucifixes
were in sight. In a few minutes he returned, and led me through the
cabinet of natural history, into the library of 30,000 volumes, neatly
arranged in niches. When we came to the folios of the fathers, I
pointed to the works of Irenæus, and said: I have the name of that
father, my own father having given it to me because he admired the
writings of the old author, the disciple of Polycarp, who sat at the
feet of the apostle John; I was thus in the line of the succession. We
took down the folio and looked at its imprint. Then he asked me if I
would like to see the manuscripts, and upon my expressing a strong
desire to do so, he raised an iron trap-door, and conducted me by a
flight of stairs into a room below, where an immense number are
deposited, and admirably preserved and disposed. None of them,
however, are very ancient.
A college of two hundred students is maintained in the same
range of buildings, and taught by some of the monks. Of these
monks there are about forty, besides the priests who minister at the
altars, and receive confessions in German, French, Italian, and
Romanesch languages, according to the nationality of the pilgrims.
The monks spend their time in reading, writing, and in the refectory,
where they eat together, and enjoy the good things of this life as
well as other people. Some of them are quite old. Death comes here
as elsewhere, and closes up a life of apparent indolence, yet
possessing some strange fascination that is hard to be
comprehended by the outside world. It certainly is not favorable to
the highest usefulness, for these men might be doing far more for
God and their fellow-men in the pursuit of some honest calling,
preaching the gospel, or working with their hands. They consume
and do not produce. Nor is this mode of life friendly to holiness.
Passions are part of man’s nature, and they are not quenched or
dwarfed by seclusion from intercourse with the outer world. Human
sympathies, which are cultivated and refined by the practice of social
virtues, and so tend to make us better, are not apt to flourish in the
cell of a monk. And although the walls of this magnificent
monastery, in a sterile Alpine valley, shut out the pomps and vanities
of the world, they cannot be made so high or so strong as to confine
the wandering desire, which will sap the foundations of the sternest
virtue, and make the bosom the seat of vice to which the soul
consents, and therefore suffers. The pure in heart see God. Not in
the cloister of the anchorite, the monk’s lonely cell, nor the hermit’s
cave; but in the steadfast pursuit of the Good, the True, and the
Great, in the daily walks of life. It is virtue to live above the world,
while living in it. None but the children of the Holy One can walk
through the furnace without the smell of fire on their garments.
Such were my thoughts as I left the monastery, shaking hands
with Father Reifle, the Benedictine, who had so kindly waited upon
me, and by his intelligent conversation and lively interest in my
enjoyment had won my warm regards. He put the key into the lock
of the iron gate at the head of the stone stairs, and unlocking it let
me out, and we bade each other Adieu, as he stood within and I
without the door.
Returning to Zurich, and going thence to St. Gall, I mounted a
diligence, and rode an hour and a half into the hill country, up hill all
the way, to a place unheard-of in the guide-books, and unvisited by
travellers, unless business or the search for solitude should call them
there. It is at least a thousand feet above the lake, of which a
distant view is had, and in the midst of beautiful high valleys, green
pastures, and thrifty villages, three or four of which are in sight,
each with its single church spire or tower. Not a boarding-house was
to be found in the place. There is a hotel, but hotels had been my
dwelling-place long enough, and now I would have a home, and
such a home as the people around me enjoy. In a private family, the
village apothecary’s, I learned that, perhaps, a room could be had,
and thither I bent my steps. Happily for me, they were willing to
take me in, and in a short time the apartments were ready and I
was duly installed.
My quarters are a parlor and bedroom, on the front of the house,
first floor, up stairs over the shop. The floor is uncarpeted, made of
various Swiss woods laid in mosaic, in diamond shapes, of three
different colors. A large, earthen, polished, white, monument-like
thing, gilt at the corniced summit, stands on one side, and I soon
learn that it is a stove, the door of which is out in the hall, where the
fire is kindled, and now in the middle of August a fire is needed all
the time. On the corners of this ornamental as well as useful pile
stand two Parian busts, one of Goethe and the other of Schiller. An
engraving of Schiller reading one of his poems to his friends hangs
on the wall, and a portrait of Columbus, and another of Luther and
other celebrities are around me. The windows extend without
interruption over the entire length of the room, and a row of flowers
in pots are on the sill outside, and embroidered curtains within. The
shutters are closed by raising them with a strap, as the windows of a
rail-car. A sofa, an easy chair covered with leather, three tables, a
divan, and a chair or two, with rugs lying around, and little gems of
art with books scattered about, complete the furniture of this
perfectly comfortable and delightful room. The walls and ceiling are
all panel-work in wood, painted white, and as purely white as the
Alpine snows. In the bedroom, the floor, the wall, and ceiling are as
in the parlor, only the color is a light salmon, very chaste and clean.
The bed has a down comforter on the top of it, and two pillows, with
double cases, the inner of figured green silk, showing at the open
embroidered end of the outer linen. It is almost too pretty to sleep
in, in the dark. Over the head of the bed is a beautiful engraving of
Uhland’s “Landlord’s Daughter.” On the stand at the bedside is a little
basket of confectionery, a porcelain transparency of the Saviour
standing among the clouds and pointing heavenward; a china night-
lamp burning with a bowl of water over it, kept hot by the lamp; and
every little nick-nack that delicate taste and an appreciating sense of
what comfort is would be likely to suggest.
I am asked, before retiring, at what hour I will breakfast, and I
reply, “When the family do; and let every thing be as you are in the
habit of having it.”
The times of eating and the food were not to my taste the first
day. It took me a little while to get adjusted to the change. But in
every country I would live as the well-to-do people of the country
live. And here I soon learned that the number of meals and the
hours of eating were regulated by the climate, which is so bracing as
to indicate frequent eating and substantial diet. I am writing this at
ten o’clock at night, and I will give you the journal of the day.
Breakfast at 7½ A.M., consisting of coffee, bread and butter, with
honey and cold meat.
Dinner at 12, noon, soup, fish, boiled beef, beef à la mode,
vegetables, salads, cucumbers, apricots, pears, plums, apples,
preserves, pastry, &c.
Lunch at 4 P.M., coffee, bread and butter and honey. Everybody
takes this meal as well as the others. They come in from the fields
and the shops to their coffee at 4.
Supper at 8 P.M. I am almost ashamed to say that at 8 this meal
was served in my parlor, for me only: soup and a roast chicken,
which disappeared, leaving scarce a wreck behind. And I forgot to
say that at six o’clock I took tea out with a private family in the
village, where the table was spread with the richest cream, butter,
strawberries, currants, bread, and honey,—all but the tea being the
fruit of the gentleman’s own grounds. And at my table there were
presented several dishes not enumerated above, the names of which
were worse than Greek, and the compound of a color and odor that
did not enlist my sympathies. However, I try a little of every thing,
and eat all the time. I understand there is a doctor in the village,
whose fame extends to distant cities, and ere the week is out I may
have to test his skill.
 IN THE HOTELS AND ON THE ROAD.
It is one thing to travel in a country, stopping only at the great
hotels, and quite another to get off the highways, among the
people, and live as they live. At the hotels, the aim is to give you the
kind and quality of food you are accustomed to in your own land, to
put you into a good bed, and charge you just as much as you will
pay. It is my way, when I can, to get out of the beaten paths of
travel, and mingle, if possible, with the natives of the country, and
those, too, who are not in the habit of entertaining strangers, and
soon learning that they are fair game to be plucked as long as they
have any feathers.
More than half the guests in the Swiss hotels are Americans. The
English complain—John is generally grumbling—that the Americans
get the best rooms at the hotels, and that travelling on the continent
is not half so agreeable. It was my misfortune to travel last week in
the same compartment of the rail-car with an English clergyman and
his wife [and, by the way, she called him hubby, for husband,
whenever she spoke to him,—an appellation for the head of the
house that was new to me, and not very agreeable]. He said he
would write a letter to the Times,—that is an Englishman’s universal
refuge when he thinks himself imposed upon in travel. “I sholl write
to the Times about this country, and I sholl say that the cookin’ is
exceedin’ly mean, the scenery very dull, and the travellin’ decidedly
uncomfortable.” But he was as near being a fool as a man could well
be, and be at large. His tongue ran incessantly, and he talked so
loud that no other conversation could be had, and everybody must
listen to his twaddle and complaints. “The ’ills were too ’igh” for him
to think of climbin’ any of them, and not “’igh” enough to interest
him in lookin’ at them; and on the whole he thought Switzerland a
failure.
It is curious to observe how soon Americans are known to be
such, anywhere in Europe. In England, a hotel waiter or a porter at a
lodge or castle would know you to be an American, certainly the
moment you spoke, and perhaps before. A woman said to me when
I had said that I was an American, “You don’t speak like one.” When
I pressed for an answer to the question, “What is the difference
between my speech and others,” she replied, after much hesitation,
“Why, I thought all your countrymen talked through the nose.”
That educated Americans, and all of them accustomed to good
society at home, speak the English language with as much propriety
and purity as the most cultivated Englishmen, is certainly true, and it
may safely be added that the masses of the people in America, born
to the manner, speak it far better. Small as England is, the dialects of
the provinces are so diverse, that one is often sorely puzzled to
understand a commonplace remark or inquiry. It was very amusing,
too, to perceive that many slang phrases, or technical terms, that we
had supposed to be of local origin and use in the United States,
were as common in England as with us at home. “You’ll ’ave lots of
time,” says the coachman. “I’ll pop out your luggage,” when he
would tell us that it would be done instantly, said the conductor.
But the language is not more marked by its peculiarities than the
manners. There are all sorts of people in every land. Some of each
variety go abroad, so that we must expect to meet them, and it is
very absurd to judge of a country by the few specimens you meet on
the road. But while I am heartily ashamed of some of my own
countrymen who are abroad, and make themselves ridiculous by an
extravagance of independence that amounts to a contempt of every
thing and everybody except themselves and their country, still I
think that, as a whole, they are the best behaved people abroad. At
the Baur du Lac Hotel, Zurich, day before yesterday, at breakfast, a
German lady took her seat at the head of a long table, rested both
elbows upon it, and taking a roll of bread eight inches long, held it in
both hands, and without taking it from her lips, or taking her elbows
down, she ate the whole of it from end to end. I sat next to her, on
the corner, and saw it done. She then took another roll, a round one,
and devoured that: all this while waiting for her coffee. What more
she ate, or how, I did not see, having turned away in disgust. It is
not probable that any woman from America would go through such
an exercise at home or abroad.
Yesterday, in the rail-car in which I was riding, an English
gentleman and family entered the compartment in which I was
seated, the only passenger. There were four seats, two on each side
of a little table, on which we could lay books or papers. Overhead
were racks and pegs for bags and bundles. He piled his, and his
wife’s, and his wife’s sister’s, on the top of the table, usurping the
whole of it, and utterly ignoring the right of anybody else to any of
it. Jonathan would put a thing in its place, and be ashamed to
interfere with the convenience of his neighbor. John Bull looks out
for number one. This selfishness extends to neglecting those little
attentions to women, on which an American prides himself, and
which makes it so easy for women in America to travel alone.
On the French and Swiss railroads has been introduced an
improvement that may be commended to our directors. In every
train there is a car with one compartment, marked on the outside,
“For women unattended.” Into this carriage ladies who have no male
escort enter, and are properly cared for by the conductor. They can
travel in this way in seclusion and with entire safety; but after all it is
quite probable that the women in America would be quite as willing
to take their chances with the men; and, perhaps, the experiment, if
tried, would be a failure. One thing the railway people might learn of
us, and that is, to check the baggage. In place of it, here they give
you a slip of paper with a number on it, and paste a corresponding
slip on your trunk, which is some protection, but not so safe nor so
convenient as our plan. In many respects the European railroad
system is far, very far, superior to ours. Its safety is incomparably
greater than ours. An accident is very rare. I have not heard of one
since coming abroad. The connections are invariably made. The
track is more solid and secure. The road is made for ages. There are
grades of fare according to the accommodation. The first class is
better than any of ours. The second is not equal to ours, and the
third is inferior to the second.
 CHAPTER XVIII.

CANTON APPENZELL—SWISS CUSTOMS.

Peasants of Eastern Switzerland.

You have never been in Trogen. You have never heard of Trogen.
You do not know where on the map to look for Trogen, and you
probably would not find it, if you looked for Trogen.
 Trogen is one of the little villages in Canton Appenzell, in
Switzerland. It is reached by carriage from St. Gall, a large town on
the railroad from Zurich to Constance. As soon as you leave the line
of the rail, you begin to ascend, and it is all the way up, up, up, till
you get here. We passed a convent about half the way up, inhabited
by nuns, who were once expelled from St. Gall. They have now a
rich establishment, very secluded, and perfectly impenetrable in its
interior mysteries. You can see the reception rooms and the chapel,
and the grating that separates the nuns from you and all the world:
that’s all,—no, not quite all; in the chapel they will show you a
human skeleton, decked with magnificent jewelry, enough to adorn a
princess; and this may teach you that the pomps and vanities of the
world are wasted on one who is soon to be a bundle of bones.
When you reach the summit of the hill, a scene of extraordinary
grandeur and loveliness lies around and below you. As far as the eye
reaches, it is a succession of green, cultured, and peopled hills, often
crowned with villages, but mostly marked by scattered dwellings in
the midst of beautiful farms, white roads winding around and over
the hills, and in the distance, through an opening, lies the lake of
Constance, a picture of silver in a fair setting of emerald. Trogen is
the largest of the villages; but there are three more in sight,
Speicher, Wald, and Rechdobell, each with its single church tower;
for the people are all Protestants, and all Lutherans. In this village
and Speicher, close by, there is not one Roman Catholic family, and I
believe that is a very unusual fact in this country, where there are
nearly as many of the one as the other, and they are mingled closely
in many of the cantons.
Here there is only one church, and that German. Service is held on
Sunday at nine o’clock in the morning. The church is a well-built
edifice of stone, about one hundred years old, with frescoed ceilings,
representing the Ascension, Christ blessing the children, and other
scenes not intelligible to me. The women sat by themselves and
made three-fourths of the congregation. As each one came in, he or
she stood in silent prayer, reverently bending; the women then sat
down, the men remained standing. They stood patiently till the
minister came in and opened the services, and they did not take
their seats until the sermon was begun. On this occasion there was
an unusual number of children present, as in one of the large
schools there had been during the week past the death of a scholar,
and now all the pupils came in procession, and took their seats
together. All the men, who were relatives of the deceased, wore
black bombazine gowns, swinging loosely on their backs, a badge of
mourning. The service opened with a voluntary hymn by the children
in the gallery, well sung. Then the pastor read a psalm, which was
sung by the entire congregation,—there was no organ. I should
think every one in the house had a voice, and used it with the spirit
and the understanding also. Prayers were then read by the pastor,
all the people standing. At the close, the minister announced his
subject, and then the people—the men for the first time—sat down.
He was a young man, clothed in a black gown, with a blue silk or
woollen ruffle about his neck. He read his text, “On earth peace,
good-will toward men,” and, shutting the book, delivered his
discourse without notes, with great ease, fluency, animation, and
much eloquence. His manner was good, and the attention of the
congregation was kept closely fixed. His leading idea was that peace
is to be found only by union with God through Jesus Christ. And he
pursued this thought beyond the experience of the individual to the
wants of the community and the nation, insisting with great
earnestness that wars come from the want of Christian love, that
good-will which Christ came to bring, and he warned his people and
the people of Switzerland, that now, as in ages past, their only hope
for national unity and peace was in union with God, on whom alone
they could depend.
At the close of the sermon he read prayers again, the people all
standing. Then he proclaimed the names of certain parties intending
marriage, and also he mentioned the names of any who had died
during the past week. After a hymn had been sung, he descended
from the pulpit. The people, still standing, bowed their heads
reverently in silent prayer for a moment, and just then a man in the
body of the church cried out an advertisement of an auction sale to
take place in the neighborhood. The women now left the house, not
a man sitting down, or moving from his place, till all the females, old
and young, had reached the door. The minister next walked out, and
the men followed. The service was over in one hour and a half. An
hour-glass stood on the pulpit, but was not in use, as the large clock
was in full sight, and the bell clanged every quarter of an hour, as it
does day and night.
It was a kind and beautiful providence that turned my weary
footsteps to this remote and unfrequented canton of Switzerland.
Harper’s Hand-book, an invaluable guide for American travellers in
Europe, has not even the name of the place in its index. Murray’s
Hand-book, which all the English go by, says “it is but little visited by
English travellers.” To get into it by any other than the easy road
through the north-eastern passage, you must cross the high Alps
and glaciers which bound it, and add as much to its picturesque
beauty as they take from the comfort of travelling. But if you visit
Constance,—where John Huss was tried and condemned and burnt
at the stake,—it is easy to come to Appenzell.
And speaking of Constance leads me to that memorable spot, on
the border of the lake that for a week past has been always under
my eye, a spot that deserves a monument, a beacon to warn the
church of the guilt and shame of religious bigotry and intolerance. It
is almost like a judgment that the city itself, which for four years
harbored the ecclesiastical council that murdered John Huss and
Jerome of Prague, has now but one-fifth of the population that once
inhabited it. As I stood on the place where it is said the martyr’s
stake was planted, and remembered the glorious truths which he
witnessed in the flames, I thought how little is the world improved
even to this day, where the civil and ecclesiastical powers are still in
the same hands. For as we travel in these European countries, the
line that divides the Protestant from the Roman Catholic canton, or
part of a canton, is just as clear as if a wall of adamant, high as the
sky, were set up between. Even Murray’s Guide-book, which does
not pretend to any religious opinions, speaking of the two parts of
Canton Appenzell, says:
 “A remarkable change greets the traveller on entering Roman
Catholic Inner Rhoden, from Protestant Outer Rhoden. He
exchanges cleanliness and industry for filth and beggary. What may
be the cause of this is not a subject suitable for discussion here.”

Yet the moral philosopher, the philanthropist, the patriot, above all
the Christian, even a Christian traveller, wishes to consider “the
cause,” whether it is proper or not for a guide-book to discuss it. As
travelling tends to promote liberality of sentiment, to enlarge one’s
charity, and to convince even a strict adherent to his hereditary faith,
that many, far from his way of thinking, are just as sure of heaven
as he is, so travelling opens one’s eyes to the effect of the different
systems of religion upon the social, temporal, political, as well as
moral condition of men. And I have been amazed to find how
powerful is this effect upon mere men of the world, men who have
never given a thought before to the influence of one religion rather
than another on the face of society. Even the guide-books call
attention to the shameful fact that “filth and beggary” are the
distinguishing features of a part of one country that differs from the
rest only in being Roman Catholic. The same laws, the same climate,
the same facilities for acquiring the means of living, and just as
much soap and water in one as the other, but the thrift and the
neatness of one are in brilliant contrast with the poverty and
nastiness of its neighbor.
 Female Costumes in Appenzell.

The customs of the canton are somewhat peculiar. I was informed

that they still adhere to the use of the pillory for the punishment of
petty offences, and the machine stands by the wayside, with a hole
for the neck, a padlock, and a chain. But I did not see any thing of
the kind. Nor did I see the bone-house, in any churchyard, where it
is said the bones are deposited of those who have been buried a
certain number of years, and who must then give place to others.
Their bones are taken up, properly labelled and laid away on shelves
in the bone-house, so that their friends can get them, or any part of
them, when wanted. As the graveyards are usually small, and no
attention is paid to the relationship of the parties buried side by side,
it is quite likely that, after the lapse of thirty or forty years, there
would be no objection to this arrangement, which strikes us as
exceedingly unpleasant, if not positively revolting.
Every evening at half-past eight o’clock the church bell is rung,
and all the children must immediately go home. If they are abroad
after that, they are taken into custody by the patrol of the streets,
and either delivered to their parents, or, if frequent offenders, they
are kept in durance overnight. This is an admirable regulation, which
I commend to imitation in free America. It is adopted here in a pure
democracy, and works admirably well. In the cities it would be a
great moral life preserver, worth millions of dollars and as many
souls, that would be saved by the plan.
At eleven o’clock the watchman sings a set of phrases in a clear,
loud voice, which often disturbs me as he shouts, just under my
window, “Put out lights, cover up your fires, lock your doors, say
your prayers, and go to bed.”
I learned here a bridal custom of this region, so sensible and
proper, that I shall mention it for the benefit of the young folks. The
custom of making gifts to the bride prevails here, as everywhere, but
it is better regulated. The bride makes out a written list of things
that she will require in beginning to keep house, especially those
things that are over and above what would naturally be furnished by
her parents. This list is taken by her friends, and one of them says,
“I will give her this,” and marks that as provided for; another will
give her that, and sometimes two or three or more will combine and
furnish a more expensive present than any one would give alone.
After the wedding, the couple usually start off on an excursion, and
on their return they find their dwelling filled with these presents,
each marked with the giver’s name.
These people are very fond of athletic sports and exercises, games
that call forth prodigious strength, and make the inhabitants of this
canton famous for their skill and power. Every holiday, and many a
Sunday, is given up to wrestling and boxing. They are like the Scotch
in hurling a heavy weight. They will throw a stone of 50 or 100
pounds. A man some fifty years ago threw a stone ten feet that
weighed 184 pounds. But their great sport is shooting for a prize.
They are splendid shots. Shooting matches are held every year in
the villages, and sometimes they are matches between the people of
the whole canton, and again of the whole country. As we travel we
see the targets standing at the foot of a hill, and buildings that are
put up for the purpose of accommodating the companies that are
formed for the encouragement of this national accomplishment.
So ignorant was I of the forms of government existing in this part
of the world, I did not know that six out of the twenty-two cantons,
or states, of Switzerland are purely democratic in their government.
It is true that this is modified, in a measure, by their confederation
with the others, and that they have delegated to their general
government the power of declaring war, coining money, and
regulating a system of mails. And, by the way, postage is cheap in
Switzerland: five centimes, or one cent of our money, conveying a
letter anywhere within the country, and, in all the villages and cities,
delivering it at the residence of the receiver. These several cantons
are, in other matters, independent of each other; and, in times long
past, have had fearfully bloody wars among themselves. They are at
peace now, but from father to son is handed down the story of the
wars.
This canton, containing a population of about 50,000, is a simple
democracy, and as primitive and pure as ever could have existed in
the earliest days of Greece or Rome, before an oligarchy or a
monarchy was known. Here the people, all the males over eighteen
years old, actually assemble, personally, and in one place, to choose
the necessary officers, and to make their own laws. This popular
meeting is held annually, in April, and on Sunday always.
On that day there is no preaching in any church in the canton,
except the one where the election is held. All the ministers come
with the people. At the close of the morning service, the election is
opened by prayer, and then the people proceed to the discharge of
this serious duty, the act of their individual sovereignty. Every man
wears a sword by his side, a token of his being a freeman; for,
centuries ago, when serfdom prevailed, only freemen could vote,
and they wore swords. Now, all wear swords on election day, for all
are free.
The canton is not so large but that they can all come and return
on the same day, and, for the most part, they come on foot. It is
expected that they will all come. And where the power of voting is
equally distributed in this way, and every man feels that he is an
equal part of the government, there is little danger of any one’s
staying away who is physically able to come. They meet sometimes
in one place, and sometimes in another, but mostly in this village of
Trogen, on the public square. Here a platform is erected, and the
officers chosen last year conduct the proceedings. The landeman, or
chief, presides, and the clerk announces the name of any one
nominated for public office. All in favor hold up their right hands. All
opposed then do the same. If there is any doubt, a count would be
resorted to, but that is never necessary. Office is not sought with
any great rapacity, and the people are not divided into parties
fighting for the spoils. The several officers thus elected are charged
with the execution of the laws. A council is appointed, which meets
from time to time, in the state-house here, and consults in regard to
the internal affairs of the canton. If any new legislation is necessary,
they frame the law, put it into print, and a copy of it is then placed
in every house in the entire canton. It is not yet a law; it is thus
distributed that the people, who are the law-makers, may examine
it, talk it over among themselves, and make up their minds as to its
expediency. If it is of importance sufficiently pressing to require
immediate action, a meeting of the people may be held four weeks
after the law has been proposed; but generally this is avoided by
having the measures submitted to the annual assembly in April.
Then the law is submitted to the mass meeting, and they vote for or
against it, by the uplifted hand. As ample time has been given to the
people to discuss the matter, there is no call for long speeches, nor
would they be tolerated by an assembly that was bound to break up
and get home the same night. And the laws thus adopted are put in
force by the magistrates appointed by the popular vote, and often at
the same time that the laws themselves are adopted.
Among the principal cares of such officers must be the
construction and repairs of the highways. Oh that our American
people would send a commissioner of their country pathmasters
over here! Within the last four years two of these cantons have built
a road along the eastern side of Lake Lucerne that would do honor
to Napoleon in the days of his mightiest power. For miles it is cut
into the edge of solid rock, which makes the bed of the road, and a
parapet; sometimes it is a tunnel, and once a tunnel with windows
looking out on the lake. All are made by the voluntary, self-imposed
taxation of a hard-working people. And so far as I can judge or
learn, this community, so governed, is as orderly and happy as any
other. Whatever good government can do for a people is done for
this, and the people do it for themselves. Switzerland is an
enlightened country, and probably as moral a people as any other.
By law every child is required to attend school from three to four
hours every day till he is twelve years old, and a certain number of
hours every week afterwards till he is sixteen. This makes education
a necessity, unless the children are incompetent to learn. And there
is an enthusiasm on the subject of education surprising even to an
American. The various grades of schools meet the wants of all, and
fit the young for any department of life’s great work. In this village
the cantonal college, or high school, is located. Any parent may send
his son here from any part of the canton, and he is educated at a
trifling expense. Young men go from this school, at once, into
mercantile employment in Asia, in France, England and America. And
there are pupils in it from India, from Smyrna, from South America,
Mexico, and New York. I heard a tramping in the street last evening,
and, looking out of my window, saw a host of boys marching by. I
learned, by inquiry, that they were a school of one hundred and
twenty, making a pedestrian tour through a part of their native
country, Switzerland. Accompanied by their teachers, they thus walk
day after day, getting health and knowledge and fun, for they make
play of it as they go. Early this morning I was awakened by hearing
them again. They had been lodged, how I know not, at the inns in
the village, and now at three o’clock, A.M. (for I looked at my watch),
they were up and off. Just then they struck up one of their merry
songs, and serenaded the sleeping villagers as they took their leave.
And even now, while I am writing these lines, I am called to the
window to look out again, and here is a large school of girls, some of
them small, and others young ladies grown, making a pedestrian
tour. Both of these companies are three or four days’ journey from
their homes. They will be absent, perhaps, a week or a fortnight.
And they will be wiser, healthier, and happier for the little tour.
I mention these pleasant incidents to show the interest which
teachers, parents, and pupils must take in the business of education,
when the school is thus made a part of the pleasure, as well as the
labor, of the young. Nor is the moral culture of the young neglected.
Far, very far from it. These schools are not godless schools. Religious
instruction is not legislated out of education in this country. In this
canton they are nearly all Protestants. But in St. Gall, where they are
nearly equally divided, the Romanists have their own schools, and
the Protestants have theirs, both supported by the same system,
and working harmoniously, so far as any co-operation is required,
but kept distinct in the matter of instruction.
If the treatment of women, of the higher or lower order of
creation, is a fair test of the civilization of a country, this Switzerland
will rank very low. Good roads are considered an evidence of a high
standard of civilization, and very justly; yet there must be some
exceptions, for here in Switzerland, where they harness the cows
and make them draw heavy loads, the roads are first-rate, smooth
as a floor, and solid in all weathers.
Probably this glorious land that I am now rejoicing in, can find
some excuse for the sin and shame of making the cows and women
do so much of the hard and heavy work; and they may pretend that
the women like it, and the cows are all the better for it. But it strikes
me that nature has required certain duties of the gentler sex, that
are so incompatible with the severer labors of the country, that they
may be fairly excused from a service that requires the greater
strength which God has given to men and oxen. In the beautiful city
of Zurich, the most enlightened, cultivated, and refined city in the
interior of Switzerland, where the most learned of her sons are
educated, the city of Zuingle and Lavater and Pestalozzi,—and that
boasts a monument to Nagel, a university, and polytechnic institute,
—in that fair city I met a team, composed of a horse and cow,
harnessed side by side, drawing a heavy load, the driver walking by
the side of the cow, whose side was in welts, raised by the stout
whip which he carried, and used mainly on her to make her keep up
with the horse. It is more common still to see a single cow in
harness drawing a load, and a yoke of oxen is a sight that I have
very rarely seen in travelling here. Whether the males are more
generally sold for beef or not I cannot learn; but it does not appear
to any one here that it is out of the way to make this use of the
cows. And I was rather pleased than otherwise, in conversation with
a great and good philanthropist and reformer, to find that he
professed to be ignorant of the fact that cows were put to such
service, and when I assured him that I saw one in harness going by
his door that day, he said it must have been an ox!
And to understand why it is that women work so much in the
fields, we must see what is the principal employment of the people.
I have seen forty women at work in the same field here, and not a
man among them. No sort of work on the farm is considered too
heavy for the women. How could it be, when at Boulogne we had
crossed the British Channel, and landed in France, women rushed on
board the steamer to carry our baggage ashore! And here the
women dig the fields, when a plough would do the work far better
and more quickly. They carry out manure, or drive a cow that drags
a load of it, and spread it on the soil. They mow. They rake and
pitch hay. They plant and sow, and reap and pull, and manage the
farm as they would do if the men were all off at war. And where are
the men?
They are not idle, nor dissipated, nor away from home. They are
at work, and in the house, not tending the baby, nor baking the
bread, nor washing the clothes; but they are industrious, and what
are they at? The Swiss are a frugal, saving, thriving people. The
amount of arable land is not enough to meet their wants. They are a
manufacturing, not an agricultural people, though they export cattle,
butter, and cheese. Watches, jewelry, muslins, embroidery, and
carved wood-work, are the principal articles of manufacture for
export, and these, with a few other branches, employ the most of
the men; for the work is done in the country very largely. The city of
Geneva sells 75,000 watches yearly; but as you are riding in a
diligence among the mountains, a man will step out from a little
cottage and hand a neat, small package to the postilion, who puts it
carefully into a place prepared for such deposits. It is the works of
watches, or some jewelry, which the man has made in his own
house, and is now sending to his employer in Geneva. In the retired
village where I am now writing, so secluded that if a man should
commit a murder and come here to live, the New York detectives
would never find him, even here the cellars of small houses are filled
with machinery to weave Swiss muslins, and to embroider it
exquisitely. The buyers from the Broadway stores have learned
where to come, and boxes are lying in front of my window directed
to Stewart, and to Arnold and others in New York. The places where
this delicate work is done are damp and unhealthy; but unless it is
done in a damp room the gossamer thread becomes so brittle that it
breaks in weaving.
And all through the mountainous parts the carving of wood is the
great business of the people. Saw-mills are run to cut up the trees to
be made into ornamental articles for sale, and these extend from
mantel clock cases worth $1,000 to some gimcrack not worth a cent.
The centre tables and chairs, the game pieces and desks, knives and
forks, and whatnots, are far too numerous to mention; but they
display a degree of skill and taste in execution that would do no
discredit to Greece or Italy in the days when sculpture was their
glory. And all this mechanical work is done by men, and men only.
The tendency of things is always to extremes, and here in the
working-classes, and nearly all are in those classes in Switzerland,
the men have pushed the women too largely out of doors, usurping
employments that women might follow with success, while the men
should take upon themselves the labors that are too heavy for their
wives. But Switzerland itself is an exceptional country. It has no fair
chance in the world as a nation; and so large a part of its surface is
impracticable for the use of man, and it has become so great a
resort for foreign tourists, they are expected to spend all the money
they can afford in the works of art which the natives produce.
 Walking out with a young German friend, who did not understand
a word of the English language, I saw at a little distance an
enclosure, neat gravel walks and shrubbery, with flowers showing
through the iron railing that surrounded it. I asked what the
enclosure was, and the answer, in German, struck me pleasingly:
“Gottesacker.”
I had never heard the word for graveyard before in German,
though the English of it, “God’s Acre,” is familiar, and has often been
the theme of poetry and prose. Gottes Acker is the acre or piece of
ground that belongs not to man of all the land in the earth that he
claims as his own, but is the Lord’s. And why is it his? The earth is
the Lord’s, and the fulness. The mountains and the valleys, the
plains also, and all that are therein. Why is this small enclosure, a
petty piece of ground in the midst of a wide, magnificent domain,
alone called God’s?
Yes, it is his, because all who inhabit this place have gone to him.
We walked into the sacred enclosure, for the gate was open, inviting
the passer-by to come in. The paths were neatly gravelled, and the
plots surrounded with flowering shrubs, and the graves not raised
above the ground as ours often are, but levelled, and each grave
bordered with boxwood and planted with flowers. Few were marked
with a headstone, but most of them had a staff set up in form of a
cross, and on it a plate with a brief inscription. The centre of the
graveyard was laid off in a circle, planted with trees and furnished
with seats, where friends could sit in the shade, and meditate
among the graves of departed friends.
“And is Gottesacker the only word for this place in your German
tongue?” I asked.
“It is also called Friedhof.”
Fried means peace, and Hof is the yard or a court of a house, and
Friedhof is “the Court of Peace.” This was another beautiful and
fitting name. It speaks for itself, and sweetly expresses the feeling of
this place. It is peace, all peace here. The battles of life are fought,
and there is no strife in this court of peace. The struggles, cares,
anxieties, rivalries, jealousies, fears, all that disquiet, harass, fret,
and annoy, all, all are buried here. The tramp of a million men in
arms awakens no sleeper here. The church itself may be rent and
torn and shaken to its base, but its members in this court of peace
are not distressed. These hearts that once panted, burned, and bled
in the race, the stripes and sorrows of the world, are all at peace
now. Blessed is the rest that cannot be broken till the trumpet calls.
“That is a beautiful word,” I said; “and does your language furnish
any other than these two, Gottesacker and Friedhof.”
“Yes, we sometimes speak of it as Todtengarten.”
The Garden of the Dead! And so they plant flowers among the
graves, and along the walks, and make the rural village graveyard an
attractive, not a repulsive spot, a garden where friends, members of
the same family, are at rest. Jesus was laid in a garden when he was
dead. His members slept with him, and will blossom in the Paradise
above, where the flowers never fade.
Long before Abraham asked a burying-place to put his dead out of
sight, the living had their funeral rites and ceremonies. And it is
wonderful how widely they differ, in different parts of the world.
There is, doubtless, a great difference in the customs of the various
cantons of Switzerland, for though the whole twenty-two of them
would not make a state larger than New Jersey, they have a
costume, or dress, peculiar to each, and many of their habits are
equally singular. If the weather will permit, it is customary here to
defer the funeral until Sunday, even if the person dies on Monday;
and thus it often occurs that there are two or three on the same day,
and sometimes more. In a population of three thousand, all
belonging to one church, and the funerals being held in it, the
number is frequently more than one or two at the same hour. The
average number of deaths is about ninety in a year. Last Sunday
there were three funerals here. The friends of the several deceased
met in front of the respective houses where the dead were lying.
None but the relatives enter the house. The three funerals were to
be attended at the village church, and all at the same hour, as early
as nine in the morning. The body is placed in a plain deal coffin,
sometimes, but rarely, painted. And the custom of the country
forbids the rich to have a coffin more elegant than the poor; the idea
being that death abolishes all distinctions, and a plain coffin is good
enough to be hid away in the ground. At the hour, the coffin with the
dead is brought out of the house, and on a bier is borne on the
shoulders of the nearest male relatives or friends. One of these
funerals was that of an aged mother. She left eight sons and two
daughters; six of the sons were grown men, and they bore their
mother on their shoulders to the grave. The three processions met
near the church, and the three coffins were then borne in the order
of the ages of the deceased, to the church, but not into it. The body
is never taken into the church. But when the relatives and friends
have entered, the body is carried by the bearers immediately into
the Gottesacker, God’s Acre, the graveyard, which usually adjoins the
church. It is there buried, while none are present except those who
do the work. I stood at a little distance while this melancholy service
was performed. It was not pleasing to me that the dead should be
thus put away unwept. And another custom was equally unpleasant
to me. The graves are arranged in regular order, without any
distinction of families, and as each person in the place dies, he is
buried in the grave next to the one who was buried before him. It
may have been a neighbor with whom he was at enmity, but now in
death they sleep side by side, and know it not. Families are
separated by the grave, as well as by death, and no two of them,
unless they die together, may be laid together in the grave. This is
surprising when we notice the remarkable attention they bestow on
the Garden of the Dead. For when the dead are buried, the friends
come, day after day, and adorn the grave with flowers, and surround
it with a border of green, and water it with their tears of love.
While the body is thus cared for by the bearers, the funeral
service is proceeding in the church. This is similar to the service in
our own country, the prayers and selections of Scripture being read,
and a sermon preached, the same discourse answering, of course,
for all who are buried on the same day. At the funeral, all the men in
attendance wear a black mantle, of bombazine or serge, which they
may get, for a trifle, of the undertaker, who keeps them for hire.
Persons of property have them of their own, to wear only on funeral
occasions, but the most of the people hire them when wanted, and
thus every man at the funeral appears as a mourner. All the women
dress in black when attending a funeral, and they never go to church
in any other than a black dress. This is a very peculiar custom, but is
invariably followed by all the people of this country. Not a light-
colored dress appears in the great congregation on the Sabbath-day,
or at a funeral.
If I have not already spoken to you of the cultivation, refinement,
and manners of the intelligent, wealthy, and “upper” classes of the
people, I say that a very erroneous and unjust opinion has been
formed on this point, by travellers whose observations have been
confined to hotels and highways, their only intercourse with men
who make it their business to get as much as possible out of all who
fall into their hands. It has been my pleasure this summer to meet in
social life among the Swiss some of the pleasantest, most intelligent,
and agreeable women and men that will be found in any country.
Their manners and minds, as well as their persons, would grace any
assembly, and they appeared to be only the fitting representatives of
the best circles of society in this remarkable land. They admire their
own country. Patriotism burns as brightly among these mountains as
on our own shores. And when it was mentioned that I might write a
book on Switzerland, a beautiful and accomplished lady bade me be
careful, or she would make another and set me right if I failed to do
justice to her beloved Switzerland. I could only say to her, in reply,
that the threat was a temptation to error. But any one who becomes
familiar with the inner life of this people, will find as much to admire
and esteem as in any European country.