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Detailed Contents
About the Author
Preface
Acknowledgments
Section I. Foundations for Social Research
1. Science, Society, and Social Research
Research That Matters, Questions That Count
Learning About the Social World
Avoiding Errors in Reasoning About the Social World
Observing
Generalizing
Reasoning
Reevaluating
Science and Social Science
The Scientific Approach
Research in the News: Social Media and Political
Polarization
Pseudoscience or Science
Motives for Social Research
Types of Social Research
Descriptive Research
Exploratory Research
Explanatory Research
Evaluation Research
Careers and Research
Strengths and Limitations of Social Research
Alternative Research Orientations
Quantitative and/or Qualitative Methods
Philosophical Perspectives
Basic Science or Applied Research
The Role of Values
Conclusions
■ Key Terms
■ Highlights
■ Discussion Questions
■ Practice Exercises
■ Ethics Questions
■ Web Exercises

8
 ■ Video Interview Questions
■ SPSS Exercises
■ Developing a Research Proposal
2. The Process and Problems of Social Research
Research That Matters, Questions That Count
Social Research Questions
Identifying Social Research Questions
Refining Social Research Questions
Evaluating Social Research Questions
Feasibility
Social Importance
Scientific Relevance
Social Theories
Scientific Paradigms
Social Research Foundations
Searching the Literature
Reviewing Research
Single-Article Reviews: Formal and Informal
Deterrents to Domestic Violence
Integrated Literature Reviews: When Does Arrest
Matter?
Systematic Literature Reviews: Second
Responder Programs and Repeat Family Abuse
Incidents
Searching the Web
Social Research Strategies
Research in the News: Control and Fear: What Mass
Killings and Domestic Violence Have in Common
Explanatory Research
Deductive Research
Domestic Violence and the Research Circle
Inductive Research
Exploratory Research
Battered Women’s Help Seeking
Descriptive Research
Careers and Research
Social Research Organizations
Social Research Standards
Measurement Validity
Generalizability
Causal Validity

9
 Authenticity
Conclusions
■ Key Terms
■ Highlights
■ Discussion Questions
■ Practice Exercises
■ Ethics Questions
■ Web Exercises
■ Video Interview Questions
■ SPSS Exercises
■ Developing a Research Proposal
3. Research Ethics and Research Proposals
Research That Matters, Questions That Count
Historical Background
Ethical Principles
Achievement of Valid Results
Honesty and Openness
Protection of Research Participants
Avoid Harming Research Participants
Obtain Informed Consent
Avoid Deception in Research, Except in Limited
Circumstances
Maintain Privacy and Confidentiality
Consider Uses of Research So That Benefits Outweigh
Risks
The Institutional Review Board
Research in the News: Some Social Scientists Are Tired of
Asking for Permission
Careers and Research
Social Research Proposals
Case Study: Evaluating a Public Health Program
Conclusions
■ Key Terms
■ Highlights
■ Discussion Questions
■ Practice Exercises
■ Ethics Questions
■ Web Exercises
■ Video Interview Questions
■ SPSS Exercises
■ Developing a Research Proposal

10
Section II. Fundamentals of Social Research
4. Conceptualization and Measurement
Research That Matters, Questions That Count
Concepts
Conceptualization in Practice
Substance Abuse
Youth Gangs
Poverty
From Concepts to Indicators
Research in the News: Are Teenagers Replacing Drugs
With Smartphones?
Abstract and Concrete Concepts
Operationalizing the Concept of Race
Operationalizing Social Network Position
From Observations to Concepts
Measurement
Constructing Questions
Making Observations
Collecting Unobtrusive Measures
Using Available Data
Coding Content
Taking Pictures
Combining Measurement Operations
Careers and Research
Levels of Measurement
Nominal Level of Measurement
Ordinal Level of Measurement
Interval Level of Measurement
Ratio Level of Measurement
The Special Case of Dichotomies
Comparison of Levels of Measurement
Evaluating Measures
Measurement Validity
Face Validity
Content Validity
Criterion Validity
Construct Validity
Measurement Reliability
Multiple Times: Test–Retest and Alternate Forms
Multiple Indicators: Interitem and Split-Half
Multiple Observers: Interobserver and Intercoder

11
 Ways to Improve Reliability and Validity
Conclusions
■ Key Terms
■ Highlights
■ Discussion Questions
■ Practice Exercises
■ Ethics Questions
■ Web Exercises
■ Video Interview Questions
■ SPSS Exercises
■ Developing a Research Proposal
5. Sampling and Generalizability
Research That Matters, Questions That Count
Sample Planning
The Purpose of Sampling
Define Sample Components and the Population
Evaluate Generalizability
Assess the Diversity of the Population
Research in the News: What Are Best Practices for
Sampling Vulnerable Populations?
Consider a Census
Sampling Methods
Probability Sampling Methods
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Multistage Cluster Sampling
Probability Sampling Methods Compared
Nonprobability Sampling Methods
Availability (Convenience) Sampling
Careers and Research
Quota Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Lessons About Sample Quality
Generalizability in Qualitative Research
Sampling Distributions
Estimating Sampling Error
Sample Size Considerations
Conclusions
■ Key Terms

12
 ■ Highlights
■ Discussion Questions
■ Practice Exercises
■ Ethics Questions
■ Web Exercises
■ Video Interview Questions
■ SPSS Exercises
■ Developing a Research Proposal
6. Research Design and Causation
Research That Matters, Questions That Count
Research Design Alternatives
Units of Analysis
Individual and Group
The Ecological Fallacy and Reductionism
Research in the News: Police and Black Drivers
Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Designs
Cross-Sectional Designs
Longitudinal Designs
Quantitative or Qualitative Causal Explanations
Quantitative (Nomothetic) Causal Explanations
Qualitative (Idiographic) Causal Explanations
Careers and Research
Criteria and Cautions for Nomothetic Causal Explanations
Association
Time Order
Experimental Designs
Nonexperimental Designs
Nonspuriousness
Randomization
Statistical Control
Mechanism
Context
Comparing Research Designs
Conclusions
■ Key Terms
■ Highlights
■ Discussion Questions
■ Practice Exercises
■ Ethics Questions
■ Web Exercises
■ Video Interview Questions

13
 ■ SPSS Exercises
■ Developing a Research Proposal
Section III. Basic Social Research Design
7. Experiments
Research That Matters, Questions That Count
History of Experimentation
Careers and Research
True Experiments
Experimental and Comparison Groups
Pretest and Posttest Measures
Randomization
Limitations of True Experimental Designs
Summary: Causality in True Experiments
Quasi-Experiments
Nonequivalent Control Group Designs
Research in the News: Airbnb Hosts and the Disabled
Aggregate Matching
Individual Matching
Ex Post Facto Control Group Designs
Before-and-After Designs
Summary: Causality in Quasi-Experiments
Validity in Experiments
Causal (Internal) Validity
Sources of Internal Invalidity Reduced by a
Comparison Group
Sources of Internal Invalidity Reduced by
Randomization
Sources of Internal Invalidity That Require
Attention While the Experiment Is in Progress
Generalizability
Sample Generalizability
Factorial Surveys
External Validity
Interaction of Testing and Treatment
Ethical Issues in Experimental Research
Deception
Selective Distribution of Benefits
Conclusions
■ Key Terms
■ Highlights
■ Discussion Questions

14
 ■ Practice Exercises
■ Ethics Questions
■ Web Exercises
■ Video Interview Questions
■ SPSS Exercises
■ Developing a Research Proposal
8. Survey Research
Research That Matters, Questions That Count
Survey Research in the Social Sciences
Attractions of Survey Research
Versatility
Efficiency
Generalizability
The Omnibus Survey
Errors in Survey Research
Writing Survey Questions
Avoid Confusing Phrasing
Minimize the Risk of Bias
Maximize the Utility of Response Categories
Avoid Making Either Disagreement or Agreement
Disagreeable
Minimize Fence-Sitting and Floating
Combining Questions in Indexes
Designing Questionnaires
Build on Existing Instruments
Refine and Test Questions
Add Interpretive Questions
Careers and Research
Maintain Consistent Focus
Research in the News: Social Interaction Critical for Mental
and Physical Health
Order the Questions
Make the Questionnaire Attractive
Consider Translation
Organizing Surveys
Mailed, Self-Administered Surveys
Group-Administered Surveys
Telephone Surveys
Reaching Sample Units
Maximizing Response to Phone Surveys
In-Person Interviews

15
 Balancing Rapport and Control
Maximizing Response to Interviews
Web Surveys
Mixed-Mode Surveys
A Comparison of Survey Designs
Ethical Issues in Survey Research
Conclusions
■ Key Terms
■ Highlights
■ Discussion Questions
■ Practice Exercises
■ Ethics Questions
■ Web Exercises
■ Video Interview Questions
■ SPSS Exercises
■ Developing a Research Proposal
9. Quantitative Data Analysis
Research That Matters, Questions That Count
Introducing Statistics
Case Study: The Likelihood of Voting
Preparing for Data Analysis
Displaying Univariate Distributions
Graphs
Frequency Distributions
Ungrouped Data
Grouped Data
Combined and Compressed Distributions
Summarizing Univariate Distributions
Research in the News: Why Key State Polls Were Wrong
About Trump
Measures of Central Tendency
Mode
Median
Mean
Median or Mean?
Measures of Variation
Range
Interquartile Range
Variance
Standard Deviation
Analyzing Data Ethically: How Not to Lie With Statistics

16
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 Cross-Tabulating Variables
Constructing Contingency Tables
Graphing Association
Describing Association
Evaluating Association
Controlling for a Third Variable
Intervening Variables
Extraneous Variables
Specification
Careers and Research
Regression Analysis
Performing Meta-Analyses
Case Study: Patient–Provider Race Concordance and
Minority Health Outcomes
Analyzing Data Ethically: How Not to Lie About
Relationships
Conclusions
■ Key Terms
■ Highlights
■ Discussion Questions
■ Practice Exercises
■ Ethics Questions
■ Web Exercises
■ Video Interview Questions
■ SPSS Exercises
■ Developing a Research Proposal
10. Qualitative Methods
Research That Matters, Questions That Count
Fundamentals of Qualitative Methods
History of Qualitative Research
Features of Qualitative Research
Basics of Qualitative Research
The Case Study
Ethnography
Careers and Research
Digital Ethnography
Participant Observation
Choosing a Role
Covert Observation
Overt Observation
Overt Participation (Participant Observer)

17
 Covert Participation
Research in the News: Family Life on Hold After Hurricane
Harvey
Entering the Field
Developing and Maintaining Relationships
Sampling People and Events
Taking Notes
Managing the Personal Dimensions
Intensive Interviewing
Establishing and Maintaining a Partnership
Asking Questions and Recording Answers
Interviewing Online
Focus Groups
Generalizability in Qualitative Research
Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research
Conclusions
■ Key Terms
■ Highlights
■ Discussion Questions
■ Practice Exercises
■ Ethics Questions
■ Web Exercises
■ Video Interview Questions
■ SPSS Exercises
■ Developing a Research Proposal
11. Qualitative Data Analysis
Research That Matters, Questions That Count
Features of Qualitative Data Analysis
Qualitative Data Analysis as an Art
Qualitative Compared With Quantitative Data
Analysis
Techniques of Qualitative Data Analysis
Documentation
Organization, Categorization, and Condensation
Examination and Display of Relationships
Corroboration and Legitimization of Conclusions
Reflection on the Researcher’s Role
Alternatives in Qualitative Data Analysis
Grounded Theory
Abductive Analysis
Case-Oriented Understanding

18
 Research in the News: How to Understand Solitary
Confinement
Conversation Analysis
Narrative Analysis
Ethnomethodology
Qualitative Comparative Analysis
Combining Qualitative Methods
Visual Sociology
Careers and Research
Systematic Observation
Participatory Action Research
Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis
Ethics in Qualitative Data Analysis
Conclusions
■ Key Terms
■ Highlights
■ Discussion Questions
■ Practice Exercises
■ Ethics Questions
■ Web Exercises
■ Video Interview Questions
■ HyperRESEARCH Exercises
■ Developing a Research Proposal
Section IV. Complex Social Research Designs
12. Mixed Methods
Research That Matters, Questions That Count
History of Mixed Methods
Types of Mixed Methods
Integrated Mixed-Methods Designs
Embedded Mixed-Methods Designs
Staged Mixed-Methods Designs
Complex Mixed-Methods Designs
Strengths and Limitations of Mixed Methods
Research in the News: Why Women Don’t Report Sexual
Harassment
Careers and Research
Ethics and Mixed Methods
Conclusions
■ Key Terms
■ Highlights
■ Discussion Questions

19
 ■ Practice Exercises
■ Ethics Questions
■ Web Exercises
■ Video Interview Questions
■ SPSS Exercises
■ Developing a Research Proposal
13. Evaluation and Policy Research
Research That Matters, Questions That Count
History of Evaluation Research
Evaluation Basics
Questions for Evaluation Research
Needs Assessment
Research in the News: No-Cost Talk Therapy?
Evaluability Assessment
Process Evaluation
Impact Analysis
Efficiency Analysis
Design Decisions
Black Box Evaluation or Program Theory
Careers and Research
Researcher or Stakeholder Orientation
Quantitative or Qualitative Methods
Simple or Complex Outcomes
Groups or Individuals
Policy Research
Ethics in Evaluation
Conclusions
■ Key Terms
■ Highlights
■ Discussion Questions
■ Practice Exercises
■ Ethics Questions
■ Web Exercises
■ Video Interview Questions
■ SPSS Exercises
■ Developing a Research Proposal
14. Research Using Secondary Data and “Big” Data
Secondary Data Sources
Research That Matters, Questions That Count
Careers and Research
U.S. Census Bureau

20
 Integrated Public Use Microdata Series
Bureau of Labor Statistics
Other Government Sources
Other Data Sources
Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social
Research
Types of Data Available From ICPSR
Obtaining Data From ICPSR
Harvard’s Dataverse
International Data Sources
Qualitative Data Sources
Challenges for Secondary Data Analyses
Big Data
Background
Examples of Research Using Big Data
Ethical Issues in Secondary Data Analysis and Big Data
Research in the News: A Bright Side to Facebook’s
Experiments on Its Users?
Conclusions
■ Key Terms
■ Highlights
■ Discussion Questions
■ Practice Exercises
■ Ethics Questions
■ Web Exercises
■ Video Interview Questions
■ SPSS Exercise
■ Developing a Research Proposal
15. Research Using Historical and Comparative Data and
Content Analysis
Research That Matters, Questions That Count
Overview of Historical and Comparative Research Methods
Historical Social Science Methods
Historical Events Research
Event-Structure Analysis
Oral History
Historical Process Research
Cautions for Historical Methods
Comparative Social Science Methods
Research in the News: Britain Cracking Down on Gender
Stereotypes in Ads

21
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Now and then, as later in the case of Cowper, the pedantry is, we
may suppose, deliberately playful, as when he speaks of the cattle
that

ruminate in the contiguous shade

(“Winter,” 86)

or indicates a partial thaw by the statement

Perhaps the vale

relents awhile to the reflected ray.

(Ibid., 784)

The words illustrated above are rarely, of course, Thomson’s own

coinage. Many of them (e.g. detruded, hyperborean, luculent,
relucent, turgent) date from the sixteenth century or earlier, though
from the earliest references to them given in the “New English
Dictionary” it may be assumed that Thomson was not always
acquainted with the sources where they are first found, and that to
him their “poetic” use is first due. In some cases Milton was
doubtless the immediate source from which Thomson took such
words, to use them with a characteristic looseness of meaning.[107]
It would be too much to say that Thomson’s use of such terms
arises merely out of a desire to emulate the “grand style”; it reflects
rather his general predilection for florid and luxurious diction.
Moreover, it has been noted that an analysis of his latinisms seems
to point to a definite scheme of formation. Thus there is a distinct
preference for certain groups of formations, such as adjectives in “-
ive” (affective, amusive, excursive, etc.), or in “-ous” (irriguous,
sequacious), or Latin participle forms, such as clamant, turgent,
incult, etc. In additions Latin words are frequently used in their
original sense, common instances being sordid, generous, error,
secure, horrid, dome, while his blank verse line was also
characterized by the free use of latinized constructions.[108]
Thomson’s frequent use of the sandwiched noun, “flowing rapture
bright” (“Spring,” 1088), “gelid caverns woodbine-wrought,”
(“Summer,” 461), “joyless rains obscure” (“Winter,” 712), often with
the second adjective used predicatively or adverbially,

High seen the Seasons lead, in sprightly dance

Harmonious knit, the rosy-fingered hours

(“Summer,” 1212)

is also worthy of note.

Yet it can hardly be denied that the language of “The Seasons” is
in many respects highly artificial, and that Thomson was to all intents
and purposes the creator of a special poetic diction, perhaps even
more so than Gray, who had to bear the brunt of Wordsworth’s
fulminations. But on the whole his balance is on the right side; at a
time when the majority of his contemporaries were either content to
draw drafts on the conventional and consecrated words, phrases,
and similes, or were sedulously striving to ape the polished
plainness of Pope, he was able to show that new powers of
expression could well be won from the language. His nature
vocabulary alone is sufficient proof of the value of his contributions to
the poetic wealth of the language, not a few of his new-formed
compounds especially being expressive and beautiful.[109] His
latinisms are less successful because they can hardly be said to
belong to any diction, and for the most part they must be classed
among the “false ornaments” derided by Wordsworth;[110] not only
do they possess none of that mysterious power of suggestion which
comes to words in virtue of their employment through generations of
prose and song, but also not infrequently their meaning is far from
clear. They are never the spontaneous reflection of the poet’s
thought, but, on the contrary, they appear only too often to have
been dragged in merely for effect.
This last remark applies still more forcibly to Somerville’s “Chase,”
which appeared in 1735. Its author was evidently following in the
wake of Thomson’s blank verse, and with this aim freely allows
himself the use of an artificial and inflated diction, as in many
passages like

Cull each salubrious plant, with bitter juice

Concoctive stored, and potent to allay
Each vicious ferment.

About the same time Edward Young was probably writing his
“Night Thoughts,” though the poem was not published until 1742.
Here again the influence of Thomson is to be seen in the diction,
though no doubt in this case there is also not a little that derives
direct from Milton. Young has Latin formations like terraqueous, to
defecate, feculence, manumit, as well as terms such as avocation,
eliminate, and unparadize, used in their original sense. In the second
instalment of the “Night Thoughts” there is a striking increase in the
number of Latin terms, either borrowed directly, or at least formed on
classical roots, some of which must have been unintelligible to many
readers. Thus indagators for “seekers,” fucus for “false brilliance,”
concertion for “intimate agreement,” and cutaneous for “external,”
“skin deep”:

All the distinctions of this little life

Are quite cutaneous.[111]

It is difficult to understand the use of such terms when simple native

words were ready at hand, and the explanation must be that they
were thought to add to the dignity of the poem, and to give it a
flavour of scholarship; for the same blemishes appear in most of the
works published at this time. Thus in Akenside’s “Pleasures of the
Imagination” (1744) there is a similar use of latinized terms: pensile
planets, passion’s fierce illapse, magnific praise, though the
tendency is best illustrated in such passages as

that trickling shower

Piercing through every crystalline convex
Of clustering dewdrops to their flight opposed,
Recoil at length where, concave all behind
The internal surface of each glassy orb
Repels their forward passage into air.

In “The Poet” there is a striking example of what can only be the

pedantic, even if playful, use of a cumbrous epithet:

On shelves pulverulent, majestic stands

His library.

Similar examples are to be found in “The Art of Preserving Health”

by John Armstrong, published in the same year as Akenside’s
“Pleasures.” The unpoetical nature of this subject may perhaps be
Armstrong’s excuse for such passages as

Mournful eclipse or planets ill-combined

Portend disastrous to the vital world;

but this latinizing tendency was perhaps never responsible for a

more absurd periphrasis than one to be found in the second part of
the poem, which treats of “Diet”:

Nor does his gorge the luscious bacon rue,

Nor that which Cestria sends, tenacious paste
Of solid milk.[112]

The high Miltonic manner was likewise attempted by John Dyer in

“The Fleece,” which appeared in 1757, and by James Grainger in
“The Sugar Cane” (1764), to mention only the most important. Dyer,
deservedly praised for his new and fresh descriptive diction, has not
escaped this contagion of latinism: the globe terraqueous, the cerule
stream, rich sapinaceous loam, detersive bay salt, etc., while
elsewhere there are obvious efforts to recapture the Miltonic
cadence. In “The Sugar Cane” the tendency is increased by the
necessity thrust upon the poet to introduce numerous technical
terms. Thus

though all thy mills

Crackling, o’erflow with a redundant juice
Poor tastes the liquor; coction long demands
And highest temper, ere it saccharize.

Meanwhile Joseph Warton had written his one blank verse poem
“The Enthusiast” (1740), when he was only eighteen years old. But
though both he and his brother Thomas are among the most
important of the poets who show the influence of Milton most clearly,
that influence reveals itself rather in the matter of thought than of
form, and there is in “The Enthusiast” little of the diction that marred
so many of the blank verse poems. Only here and there may traces
be seen, as in the following passage:

fairer she
In innocence and homespun vestments dress’d
Than if cerulean sapphires at her ears
Shone pendent.

There is still less in the poems of Thomas Warton, who was even a
more direct follower of Milton than his elder brother. There is
scarcely one example of a Latinism in “The Pleasures of
Melancholy,” which is really a companion piece to “The Enthusiast.”
The truth is that it was Milton’s early work—and especially “Il
Penseroso”—that affected most deeply these early Romanticists,
and even their blank verse is charged with the sentiments and
phrases of Milton’s octosyllabics. Thus the two poets, who were
among the first to catch something of the true spirit of Milton, have
little or nothing of the cumbersome and pedantic diction found so
frequently in the so-called “Miltonics” of the eighteenth century, and
this in itself is one indication of their importance in the earlier stages
of the Romantic revival.
This is also true in the case of Collins and Gray, who are the real
eighteenth century disciples of Milton. Collins’s fondness for
personified abstractions may perhaps be attributed to Milton’s
influence, but there are few, if any, traces of latinism in his pure and
simple diction. Gray was probably influenced more than he himself
thought by Milton, and like Milton he made for himself a special
poetical language, which owes not a little to the works of his great
exemplar. But Gray’s keen sense of the poetical value of words, and
his laborious precision and exactness in their use, kept him from any
indulgence in coinages. Only one or two latinisms are to be found in
the whole of his work, and when these do occur they are such as
would come naturally to a scholar, or as were still current in the
language of his time. Thus in “The Progress of Poesy” he has

this pencil take,

where “pencil” stands for “brush” (Latin, pensillum); whilst in a

translation from Statius he gives to prevent its latinized meaning

the champions, trembling at the sight

Prevent disgrace.

There is also a solitary example in the “Elegy” in the line

Can Honour’s voice provoke the silent dust.

The contemporary fondness for blank verse had called forth the
strictures of Goldsmith in his “Inquiry into the Present State of Polite
Learning,” and his own smooth and flowing couplets have certainly
none of the pompous epithets which he there condemns. His diction,
if we except an occasional use of the stock descriptive epithets, is
admirable alike in its simplicity and directness, and the two following
lines from “The Traveller” are, with one exception,[113] the only
examples of latinisms to be found in his poems:

While sea-born gales their gelid wings expand,

and

Fall blunted from each indurated heart.

Dr. Johnson, who represented the extreme classicist position with

regard to blank verse and other tendencies of the Romantic reaction,
had a good deal to say in the aggregate about the poetical language
of his predecessors and contemporaries. But the latinism of the time,
which was widespread enough to have attracted his attention, does
not seem to have provoked from him any critical comment. His own
poetical works, even when we remember the “Vanity of Human
Wishes,” where plenty of instances of Latin idiom are to be found,
are practically free from this kind of diction, though this does not
warrant the inference that he disapproved of it. We know that his
prose was latinized to a remarkable extent, so that his
“sesquipedalian terminology” has been regarded as the fountain-
head of that variety of English which delights in “big,” high-sounding
words. But his ideal, we may assume, was the polished and elegant
diction of Pope, and his own verse is as free from pedantic
formations as is “The Lives of the Poets,” which perhaps represents
his best prose.
It is in the works of a poet who, though he continues certain
aspects of neo-classicism, yet announces unmistakably the coming
of the new age, that we find a marked use of a deliberately latinized
diction. Cowper has always received just praise for the purity of his
language; he is, on the whole, singularly free from the artificialities
and inversions which had marked the accepted poetic diction, but,
on the other hand, his language is latinized to an extent that has
perhaps not always been fully realized.
This is, however, confined to “The Task” and to the translation of
the “Iliad.” In the former case there is first a use of words freely
formed on Latin roots, for most of which Cowper had no doubt
abundant precedents,[114] but which, in some cases, must have
been coined by him, perhaps playfully in some instances; twisted
form vermicular, the agglomerated pile, the voluble and restless
earth, etc. Other characteristics of this latinized style are perhaps
best seen in continuous passages such as

he spares me yet
These chestnuts ranged in corresponding lines;
And, though himself so polished, still reprieves
The obsolete prolixity of shade

(Bk. I, ll. 262 foll.)

or in such a mock-heroic fling as

The stable yields a stercoraceous heap

Impregnated with quick fermenting salts
And potent to resist the freezing blast.

(Bk. III, 463)[115]

On these and many similar occasions Cowper has turned his

predilection to playful account, as also when he diagnoses the
symptoms of gout as

pangs arthritic that infest the toe

Of libertine excess,

or speaks of monarchs and Kings as

The arbiters of this terraqueous swamp.

There is still freer use of latinisms in the “Homer”:[116] her eyes

caerulean, the point innocuous, piercing accents stridulous, the
triturated barley, candent lightnings, the inherent barb, his stream
vortiginous, besides such passages as

nor did the Muses spare to add

Responsive melody of vocal sweets.

The instances given above fully illustrate on the whole the use of a
latinized diction in eighteenth century poetry.[117] It must not,
however, be supposed that the fashion was altogether confined to
the blank verse poems. Thus Matthew Prior in “Alma,” or “The
Progress of the Mind,” has passages like

the word obscene

Or harsh which once elanced must ever fly
Irrevocable,

whilst Richard Savage in his “Wanderer” indulges in such flights as

 his breath
A nitrous damp that strikes petrific death.

One short stanza by William Shenstone, from his poem “Written in

Spring, 1743,” contains an obvious example in three out of its four
lines:

Again the labouring hind inverts the soil,

Again the merchant ploughs the tumid wave,
Another spring renews the soldier’s toil,
And finds me vacant in the rural cave.

But it is in the blank verse poems that the fashion is most

prevalent, and it is there that it only too often becomes ludicrous.
The blind Milton, dying, lonely and neglected, a stranger in a strange
land, is hardly likely to have looked upon himself as the founder of a
“school,” or to have suspected to what base uses his lofty diction and
style were to be put, within a few decades of his death, by a swarm
of poetasters who fondly regarded themselves as his disciples.[118]
The early writers of blank verse, such as John Philips, frankly
avowed themselves imitators of Milton, and there can be little doubt
that in their efforts to catch something of the dignity and majesty of
their model the crowd of versifiers who then appeared on the scene
had recourse to high-sounding words and phrases, as well as to
latinized constructions by which they hoped to elevate their style.
The grand style of “Paradise Lost” was bound to suffer severely at
the hands of imitators, and there can be little doubt but that much of
the preposterous latinizing of the time is to be traced to this cause.
At the same time the influence of the general literary tendencies of
the Augustan ages is not to be ignored in this connexion. When a
diction freely sprinkled with latinized terms is found used by writers
like Thomson in the first quarter, and Cowper at the end of the
century, it may perhaps also be regarded as a mannerism of style
due in some degree to influences which were still powerful enough to
affect literary workmanship. For it must be remembered that in the
eighteenth century the traditional supremacy of Latin had not yet
altogether died out: pulpit and forensic eloquence, as well as the
great prose works of the period, still bore abundant traces of the
persistency of this influence.[119] Hence it need not be at all
surprising to find that it has invaded poetry. The use of latinized
words and phrases gave, or was supposed to give, an air of culture
to verse, and contemporary readers did not always, we may
suppose, regard such language as a mere display of pedantry.
In this, as in other respects of the poetic output of the period, we
may see a further reflex of the general literary atmosphere of the first
half or so of the eighteenth century. There was no poetry of the
highest rank, and not a great deal of poetical poetry; the bulk of the
output is “poetry without an atmosphere.” The very qualities most
admired in prose—lucidity, correctness, absence of “enthusiasm”—
were such as were approved for poetry; even the Romantic
forerunners, with perhaps the single exception of Blake, felt the
pressure of the prosaic atmosphere of their times. No doubt had a
poet of the highest order appeared he would have swept away much
of the accumulated rubbish and fashioned for himself a new poetic
language, as Thomson tried, and Wordsworth later thought to do.
But he did not appear, and the vast majority of the practitioners were
content to ring the changes on the material they found at hand, and
were not likely to dream of anything different.
It is thus not sufficient to say that the “rapid and almost
simultaneous diffusion of this purely cutaneous eruption,” to borrow
an appropriate description from Lowell, was due solely to the potent
influence of Milton. It reflects also the average conception of poetry
held throughout a good part of the eighteenth century, a conception
which led writers to seek in mere words qualities which are to be
found in them only when they are the reflex of profound thought or
powerful emotion. In short, latinism in eighteenth century poetry may
be regarded as a literary fashion, akin in nature to the stock epithets
and phrases of the “descriptive” poetry, which were later to be
unsparingly condemned as the typical eighteenth century poetical
diction.
Of the poetic value of these latinized words little need be said.
Whether or no they reflect a conscious effort to extend, enrich, or
renew the vocabulary of English poetry, they cannot be said to have
added much to the expressive resources of the language. This is
not, of course, merely because they are of direct Latin origin. We
know that around the central Teutonic core of English there have
slowly been built up two mighty strata of Latin and Romance
formations, which, in virtue of their long employment by writers in
prose and verse, as well as on the lips of the people, have slowly
acquired that force and picturesqueness which the poet needs for his
purpose. But the latinized words of the eighteenth century are on a
different footing. To us, nowadays, there is something pretentious
and pedantic about them: they are artificial formations or adoptions,
and not living words. English poets from time to time have been able
to give a poetical colouring to such words,[120] and the eighteenth
century is not without happy instances of this power. James
Thomson here and there wins real poetic effects from his latinized
vocabulary, as in such a passage as

Here lofty trees to ancient song unknown

The noble sons of potent heat and floods
Prone-rushing from the clouds, rear high to heaven
Their thorny stems, and broad around them throw
Meridian gloom.

(“Summer,” 653 foll.)[121]

The “return to Nature,” of which Thomson was perhaps the most

noteworthy pioneer, brought back all the sights and sounds of
outdoor life as subjects fit and meet for the poet’s song, and it is
therefore of some interest, in the present connexion, to note that
Wordsworth himself, who also knew how to make excellent use of
high-sounding Latin formations, has perhaps nowhere illustrated this
faculty better than in the famous passage on the Yew Trees of
Borrowdale:

Those fraternal Four of Borrowdale

Joined in one solemn and capacious grove:
Huge trunks! and each particular trunk a growth
Of intertwisted fibres serpentine
Upcoiling, and inveterately convolved;
Nor uninformed with Phantasy, and looks
That threaten the profane.

But the bulk of eighteenth century latinisms fall within a different

category; rarely do they convey, either in themselves or in virtue of
their context, any of that mysterious power of association which
constitutes the poetic value of words and enables the writer, whether
in prose or verse, to convey to his reader delicate shades of
meaning and suggestion which are immediately recognized and
appreciated.
 CHAPTER V
ARCHAISM IN EIGHTEENTH CENTURY POETRY

One of the earliest and most significant of those literary

manifestations which were to culminate in the triumph of
Romanticism was a new enkindled interest in the older English
writers. The attitude of the great body of the so-called “Classicists”
towards the earlier English poetry was not altogether one of absolute
contempt: it was rather marked by that indifference which is the
outcome of ignorance. Readers and authors, with certain illustrious
exceptions, were totally unacquainted with Chaucer, and though
Spenser fared better, even those who did know him did not at first
consider him worthy of serious study.[122] Yet the Romantic rebels,
by their attempts to imitate Spenser, and to reveal his poetic genius
to a generation of unbelievers, did work of immediate and lasting
value.
It is perhaps too much to claim that some dim perception of the
poetic value of old words contributed in any marked degree to this
Spenserian revival in the eighteenth century. Yet it can hardly be
doubted that Spenser’s language, imperfectly understood and at first
considered “barbarous,” or “Gothic,” or at best merely “quaint,” came
ultimately to be regarded as supplying something of that atmosphere
of “old romance” which was beginning to captivate the hearts and
minds of men. This is not to say that there was any conscious or
deliberate intention of freshening or revivifying poetic language by an
infusion of old or “revived” words. But the Spenserian and similar
imitations naturally involved the use of such words, and they thus
made an important contribution to the Romantic movement on its
purely formal side; they played their part in destroying the pseudo-
classical heresy that the best, indeed the only, medium for poetic
expression was the polished idiom of Pope and his school.
 The poets and critics of Western Europe, who, as we have seen,
in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries had busied
themselves with the question of refining and embellishing their
mother tongue, had advocated among other means the revival of
archaic and obsolete words. Spenser himself, we know, had
definitely adopted this means in the “Shepherds Kalendar,” though
the method of increasing his poetical vocabulary had not been
approved by all of his contemporaries and successors. Milton, when
forming the special poetical language he needed for his immense
task, confined himself largely to “classical” coinages, and his
archaisms, such as swinkt, rathe, nathless, frore, are comparatively
few in number.[123]
Dryden’s attitude towards old words was stated with his customary
good sense, and though his modernization of Chaucer gave him
endless opportunities of experimenting with them, he never abused
the advantage, and indeed in all his work there is but little trace of
the deliberate revival of obsolete or archaic words. In the “Fables”
may be found a few words such as sounded[124] (swounded) which
had been used by Malory and Spenser, laund for (lawn), rushed (cut-
off), etc., and he has also Milton’s rathe. Dryden, however, is found
using a large number of terms which were evidently obsolete in the
literary language, but which, it may be supposed, still lingered in the
spoken language, and especially in the provincial dialects. He is fond
of the word ken (to know), and amongst other examples are stead
(place), to lease (glean), shent (rebuked), hattered (worn out), dorp
(a village), buries (burrows), etc. Dryden is also apparently
responsible for the poetic use of the term “doddered,” a word of
somewhat uncertain meaning, which, after his time and following his
practice, came into common use as an epithet for old oaks, and,
rarely, for other trees.[125]
As might be expected, there are few traces of the use of obsolete
or archaic words in the works of Pope. The “correct” style did not
favour innovations in language, whether they consisted in the
formation of new words or in the revival of old forms. Pope stated in
a letter to Hughes, who edited Spenser’s works (1715), that
“Spenser has been ever a favourite poet to me,”[126] but among the
imitations “done by the Author in his Youth,” there is “The Alley,” a
very coarse parody of Spenser, which does not point to any real
appreciation or understanding on the part of Pope. In the first book of
the “Dunciad” as we have seen, he indulged in a fling at the
antiquaries, especially Hearne and those who took pleasure in our
older literature, by means of a satiric stanza written in a pseudo-
archaic language.[127] But his language is much freer than that of
Dryden from archaisms or provincialisms. He has forms like gotten,
whelm (overwhelm), rampires (ramparts), swarths, catched (caught),
thrice-ear’d (ploughed), etc. Neither Dryden nor Pope, it may be
said, would ever have dreamed of reviving an archaic word simply
because it was an old word, and therefore to be regarded as
“poetical.” To imagine this is to attribute to the seventeenth and early
eighteenth centuries a state of feeling which is essentially modern,
and which lends a glamour to old and almost forgotten words.
Dryden would accept any word which he considered suitable for his
purpose, but he always insisted that old words had to prove their
utility, and that they had otherwise no claim to admission to the
current vocabulary. Pope, however, we may suspect, would not
admit any words not immediately intelligible to his readers, or
requiring a footnote to explain them.
Meanwhile, in the year 1715, there had appeared the first attempt
to give a critical text of Spenser, when John Hughes published his
edition of the poet’s works in six volumes, together with a biography,
a glossary, and some critical remarks.[128] The obsolete terms which
Hughes felt himself obliged to explain[129] include many, such as
aghast, baleful, behest, bootless, carol, craven, dreary, forlorn, foray,
guerdon, plight, welkin, yore, which are now for the most part familiar
words, though forty years later Thomas Warton in his “Observations
on The Faerie Queene” (1754) is found annotating many similar
terms. The well-known “Muses’ Library,” published thirteen years
previously, had described itself as “A General Collection of almost all
the old and valuable poetry extant, now so industriously inquir’d
after”; it begins with Langland and reflects the renewed interest that
was arising in the older poets. But there is as yet little evidence of
any general and genuine appreciation of either the spirit or the form
of the best of the earlier English poetry. The Spenserian imitators
undoubtedly felt that their diction must look so obsolete and archaic
as to call for a glossary of explanation, and these glossaries were
often more than necessary, not only to explain the genuine old
words, but also because of the fact that in many cases the
supposedly “Spenserian” terms were spurious coinages devoid of
any real meaning at all.
Before considering these Spenserian imitations it must not be
forgotten that there were, prior to these attempts and alongside of
them, kindred efforts to catch the manner and style of Chaucer. This
practice received its first great impulse from Dryden’s famous essay
in praise of Chaucer, and the various periodicals and miscellanies of
the first half of the eighteenth century bear witness to the fact that
many eminent poets, not to mention a crowd of poetasters, thought it
their duty to publish a poetical tribute couched in the supposed
language and manner of Chaucer.
These attempts were nearly all avowedly humorous,[130] and
seemed based on a belief that the very language of Chaucer was in
some respects suitable comic material for a would-be humorous
writer. Such an attitude was obviously the outcome of a not unnatural
ignorance of the historical development of the language. Chaucer’s
language had long been regarded as almost a dead language, and
this attitude had persisted even to the eighteenth century, so that it
was felt that a mastery of the language of the “Canterbury Tales”
required prolonged study. Even Thomas Warton, speaking of
Chaucer, was of the opinion that “his uncouth and unfamiliar
language disgusts and deters many readers.”[131] Hence it is not
surprising that there was a complete failure to catch, not only
anything of the real spirit of Chaucer, but also anything that could be
described as even a distant approach to his language. The imitators
seemed to think that fourteenth century English could be imitated by
the use of common words written in an uncommon way, or of strange
terms with equally strange meanings. The result was an artificial
language that could never have been spoken by anybody, often
including words to which it is impossible to give any definite sense. It
would seem that only two genuine Chaucerian terms had really been
properly grasped, and this pair, ne and eke, is in consequence
worked to death. Ignorance of the earlier language naturally led to
spurious grammatical forms, of which the most favoured was a
singular verb form ending in -en. Gay, for instance, has, in a poem of
seventeen lines, such phrases as “It maken doleful song,” “There
spreaden a rumour,”[132] whilst Fenton writes,

If in mine quest thou falsen me.[133]

The general style and manner of these imitations, with their

“humorous” tinge, their halting verse, bad grammar, and impossible
inflections are well illustrated in William Thompson’s “Garden
Inscription—Written in Chaucer’s Bowre,” though more serious
efforts were not any more successful.
The death of Pope, strangely enough, called forth more than one
attempt, among them being Thomas Warton’s imitation of the
characterization of the birds from the “Parliament of Fowles.”[134]
Better known at the time was the monody “Musæus,” written by
William Mason, “To the memory of Mr. Pope.” Chaucer, Spenser, and
Milton are represented as coming to mourn the inevitable loss of him
who was about to die, and Mason endeavoured to reproduce their
respective styles, “Tityrus” (Chaucer) holding forth in this strain:

Mickle of wele betide thy houres last

For mich gode wirke to me don and past.
For syn the days whereas my lyre ben strongen,
And deftly many a mery laie I songen,
Old Time which alle things don maliciously,
Gnawen with rusty tooth continually,
Grattrid my lines, that they all cancrid ben
Till at the last thou smoothen hem hast again.

It is astonishing to think that this mechanical imitation, with its harsh

and forced rhythm, and its almost doggerel language, was regarded
at the time as a successful reproduction of Chaucer’s manner and
style. But probably before 1775, when Tyrwhitt announced his
rediscovery of the secret of Chaucer’s rhythm, few eighteenth
century readers suspected its presence at all.
But the Chaucerian imitations were merely a literary fashion
predoomed to failure. It was not in any way the result of a genuine
influence of the early English poetry on contemporary taste, and thus
it was not even vitalized, as was the Spenserian revival, by a certain
vague and undefined desire to catch something at least of the spirit
of the “Faerie Queene.” The Spenserian imitations had a firmer
foundation, and because the best of them did not confine their
ambition altogether to the mechanical imitation of Spenser’s style in
the narrower sense they achieved a greater measure of success.
It is significant to note that among the first attempts at a
Spenserian imitation was that made by one of the foremost of the
Augustans. This was Matthew Prior, who in 1706 published his “Ode,
Humbly Inscribed to the Queen on the Glorious success of Her
Majesty’s Arms, Written in Imitation of Spenser’s Style.”[135] We are
surprised, however, to find when we have read his Preface, that
Prior’s aim was in reality to write a poem on the model of Horace and
of Spenser. The attitude in which he approached Spenser’s
language is made quite clear by his explanation. He has “avoided
such of his words as I found too obsolete. I have however retained
some few of them to make the colouring look more like Spenser’s.”
Follows then a list of such words, including “behest, command; band,
army; prowess, strength; I weet, I know; I ween, I think; whilom,
heretofore; and two or three more of that kind.” Though later in his
Preface Prior speaks of the curiosa felicitas of Spenser’s diction, it is
evident that there is little or no real understanding or appreciation.
Now began a continuous series of Spenserian imitations,[136] of
which, with a few exceptions, the only distinguishing characteristic
was a small vocabulary of obsolete words, upon which the
poetasters could draw for the “local colour” considered necessary. In
the majority of cases the result was a purely artificial language,
probably picked haphazard from the “Faerie Queene,” and often
used without any definite idea of its meaning or appropriateness.[137]
Fortunately, one or two real poets were attracted by the idea, and in
due course produced their “imitations.”
William Shenstone (1714-1763) is perhaps worthy of being ranked
amongst these, in virtue at least of “The Schoolmistress,” which
appeared in its final shape in 1742. Shenstone himself confesses
that the poem was not at first intended to be a serious imitation, but
his study of Spenser led him gradually to something like a real
appreciation of the earlier poet.[138]
“The Schoolmistress” draws upon the usual common stock of old
words: whilom, mickle, perdie, eke, thik, etc., but often, as in the
case of Spenser himself, the obsolete terms have a playful and
humorous effect:

For they in gaping wonderment abound

And think, no doubt, she been the greatest wight on ground.

Nor is there lacking a quaint, wistful tenderness, as in the description

of the refractory schoolboy, who, after being flogged,

Behind some door, in melancholy thought,

Mindless of food, he, dreary caitiff, pines,
Ne for his fellows joyaunce careth aught,
But to the wind all merriment resigns.

Hence “The Schoolmistress” is no mere parody or imitation: there is

a real and tender humanity in the description of the village school
(adumbrating, it would seem, Goldsmith’s efforts with a similar
theme), whilst the judicious use of Spenser’s stanza and the
sprinkling of his old words help to invest the whole poem with an
atmosphere of genuine and unaffected humour.
The next Spenserian whose work merits attention is William
Thompson, who, it would seem, had delved not a little into the Earlier
English poetry, and who was one of the first to capture something of
the real atmosphere of the “Faerie Queene.” His “Epithalamium”[139]
and “The Nativity,”[140] which appeared in 1736, are certainly among
the best of the imitations. It is important to note that, while there is a
free use of supposedly archaic words, with the usual list of certes,
perdie, sikerly, hight, as well as others less common, such as
belgards (“beautiful looks”), bonnibel (“beautiful virgin”), there is no
abuse of the practice. Not a little of the genuine spirit of Spenser’s
poetry, with its love of nature and outdoor life, has been caught and
rendered without any lavish recourse to an artificial and mechanical
diction, as a stanza from “The Nativity,” despite its false rhymes, will
perhaps show:

Eftsoons he spied a grove, the Season’s pride,

All in the centre of a pleasant glade,
Where Nature flourished like a virgin bride,
Mantled with green, with hyacinths inlaid,
And crystal-rills o’er beds of lilies stray’d:
The blue-ey’d violet and King-cup gay,
And new blown roses, smiling sweetly red,
Out-glow’d the blushing infancy of Day
While amorous west-winds kist their fragrant souls away.

This cannot altogether be said of the “Hymn to May” published

over twenty years later,[141] despite the fact that Thompson himself
draws attention to the fact that he does not consider that a genuine
Spenserian imitation may be produced by scattering a certain
number of obsolete words through the poem. Nevertheless, we find
that he has sprinkled his “Hymn” plentifully with “obsolete” terms,
though they include a few, such as purfled, dispredden, goodlihead,
that were not the common property of the poetasters. His
explanations of the words so used show that not a few of them were
used with little knowledge of their original meaning, as when he
defines glen[142] as “a country hamlet,” or explains perdie as “an old
word for saying anything.” It is obvious also that many obsolete
terms are often simply stuck in the lines when their more modern
equivalents would have served equally well, as for instance,

Full suddenly the seeds of joy recure (“recover”),

or