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MICROGRIDS AND ACTIVE POWER DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS
SERIES EDITORS
Ali Davoudi
University of Texas at Arlington, USA
Josep M. Guerrero
Aalborg University, Denmark
Frank Lewis
University of Texas at Arlington, USA
PUBLISHED TITLES
Distributed Control and Optimization Technologies in Smart Grid Systems
Fanghong Guo, Changyun Wen, and Yong-Duan Song
Fanghong Guo • Changyun Wen
Yong-Duan Song
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Contents
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
SECTION I: INTRODUCTION 1
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2 Modeling of MG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.1 DG model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.2 Network model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 Distributed Secondary Controller Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3.1 Control objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3.2 Distributed secondary controller design . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3.2.1 Finite-time voltage restoration . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3.2.2 Frequency restoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4 Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2 Distributed Cooperative Secondary Control Scheme for Voltage Un-
balance Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2.1 A centralized VUC approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2.2 Distributed VUC approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.2.2.1 Preliminary setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.2.2.2 Distributed VUC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.2.2.3 Distributed cooperative secondary control scheme
(DCSCS) design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.2.2.4 Stability analysis of distributed VUC . . . . . . . 57
4.3 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.3.1 Testing of the overall distributed control system under vari-
ous cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.3.1.1 Case A: Communication failure . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3.1.2 Case B: Contribution level variation . . . . . . . 63
4.3.1.3 Case C: Backup DG plug-and-play . . . . . . . . 63
4.3.2 System stability and performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.3.3 Comparisons with centralized secondary control in [65] . . 64
Contents vii
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.2 Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.3 Total Load Demand Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.4 Distributed Economic Dispatch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.4.1 Distributed projected gradient method (DPGM) . . . . . . . 81
5.4.2 Implementation of distributed ED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.4.3 Complexity analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.5 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.5.1 Case study 1: Implementation on 6-bus power system . . . . 85
5.5.2 Case study 2: Plug-and-play capability . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.5.2.1 Generator plug-and-play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.5.2.2 Load plug-and-play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.5.3 Case study 3: Implementation on IEEE 30-bus test system . 88
5.5.4 Case study 4: Comparison with heuristic search method . . 89
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.2 Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.3 Distributed Optimization Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.3.1 Distributed synchronous optimization algorithm . . . . . . . 100
6.3.2 Distributed sequential optimization algorithm . . . . . . . . 102
6.3.3 Virtual agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.4 Convergence analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.4.1 Distributed synchronous algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.4.2 Distributed sequential algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.5 Economic Dispatch in Multi-Area Power System . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.5.1 Problem statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.5.2 Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.5.2.1 Case study 1: Distributed synchronous algorithm . 116
6.5.2.2 Case study 2: Distributed sequential algorithm . . 116
6.5.2.3 Case study 3: Distributed sequential algorithm
with random communication strategy . . . . . . . 117
6.5.2.4 Case study 4: Fast gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
viii Contents
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
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List of Figures
9.1 The dynamic equivalent circuit model of the MG system [50] . . . . 166
List of Tables
xv
Preface
As the main building block of the smart grid systems, microgrid (MG) integrates
a number of local distributed generation units, energy storage systems, and local
loads to form a small-scale, low- and medium-voltage level power system. In gen-
eral, an MG can operate in two modes, i.e., the grid-connected and islanded mode.
Recently, in order to standardize its operation and functionality, hierarchical con-
trol for islanded MG systems has been proposed. It divides the control structure into
three layers, namely, primary, secondary, and tertiary control. The primary control
is based on each local distributed generation (DG) controller and is realized in a de-
centralized way. In the secondary layer, the frequency and voltage restoration control
as well as the power quality enhancement is usually carried out. In the tertiary con-
trol, economic dispatch and power flow optimization issues are considered. However,
conventionally both the secondary and tertiary control are realized in a centralized
way. There are certain drawbacks to such centralized control, such as high compu-
tation and communication cost, poor fault tolerance ability, lack of plug-and-play
properties, and so on. In order to overcome the above drawbacks, distributed control
is proposed in the secondary control and tertiary optimization in this book.
In the secondary control, restorations for both voltage and frequency in the droop-
controlled inverter-based islanded MG are addressed. A distributed finite-time con-
trol approach is used in the voltage restoration which enables the voltages at all
the DGs to converge to the reference value in finite time, and thus, the voltage and
frequency control design can be separated. Then, a consensus-based distributed fre-
quency control is proposed for frequency restoration, subject to certain control input
constraints. The proposed control strategy can restore both voltage and frequency to
their respective reference values while having accurate real power sharing, under a
sufficient local stability condition established.
Then the distributed control strategy is also employed in the secondary voltage
unbalance compensation to replace the conventional centralized controller. The con-
cept of contribution level (CL) for compensation is first proposed for each local DG to
indicate its compensation ability. A two-layer secondary compensation architecture
consisting of a communication layer and a compensation layer is designed for each
xvii
xviii Distributed Control and Optimization Technologies in Smart Grid Systems
local DG. A totally distributed strategy involving information sharing and exchange
is proposed, which is based on finite-time average consensus and newly developed
graph discovery algorithm.
In the tertiary layer, a distributed economic dispatch (ED) strategy based on pro-
jected gradient and finite-time average consensus algorithms is proposed. By de-
composing the centralized optimization into optimizations at local agents, a scheme
is proposed for each agent to iteratively estimate a solution for the optimization
problem in a distributed manner with limited communication among neighbors. It
is shown that the estimated solutions of all the agents reach consensus of the optimal
solution asymptomatically. Besides, two distributed multi-cluster optimization meth-
ods are proposed for a large-scale multi-area power system. We first propose to divide
all the generator agents into clusters (groups) and each cluster has a leader to com-
municate with the leaders of its neighboring clusters. Then two different schemes are
proposed for each agent to iteratively estimate a solution of the optimization prob-
lem in a distributed manner. It is theoretically proved that the estimated solutions of
all the agents reach consensus of the optimal solution asymptomatically. In addition,
a novel hierarchical decentralized optimization architecture is proposed to solve the
ED problem. Similar to distributed algorithms, each local generator only solves its
own problem based on its own cost function and generation constraint. An extra co-
ordinator agent is employed to coordinate all the local generator agents. Besides, it
also takes the responsibility for handling the global demand supply constraint. In this
way, different from existing distributed algorithms, the global demand supply con-
straint and local generation constraints are handled separately, which would greatly
reduce the computational complexity. It is theoretically shown that under proposed
hierarchical decentralized optimization architecture, each local generator agent can
obtain the optimal solution in a decentralized fashion.
A distributed optimal energy scheduling strategy is also proposed in the tertiary
layer, which is based on a newly proposed pricing strategy named PD pricing. Con-
ventional real-time pricing strategies only depend on the current total energy con-
sumption. In contrast to this, our proposed pricing strategy also takes the incremen-
tal energy consumption into consideration, which aims to further fill the valley load
and shave the peak load. An optimal energy scheduling problem is then formulated
by minimizing the total social cost of the overall power system. Two different dis-
tributed optimization algorithms with different communication strategies are pro-
posed to solve the problem.
Authors
Fanghong Guo received his B. Eng. degree in automation science from Southeast
University, Nanjing, China, in July 2010, M. Eng. degree in automation science &
electrical engineering from Beihang University, Beijing, China, in January 2013, and
Ph.D. degree in sustainable earth from Energy Research Institute @NTU, Interdisci-
plinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, in Novem-
ber 2016. He is currently a scientist in Experimental Power Grid Center (EPGC),
Agency for Science, Technology and Research, Singapore. His research interests in-
clude distributed cooperative control, distributed optimization on microgrid systems,
and smart grid. He received the 2015 National Award for Outstanding Self-financed
Chinese Students Study Abroad in 2015.
Changyun Wen received his B. Eng. degree from Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an,
China, in 1983 and his Ph.D. degree from the University of Newcastle, Newcastle,
Australia, in 1990. From August 1989 to August 1991, he was a research associate
and then postdoctoral fellow at University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. Since
August 1991, he has been with School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, where he is currently a full profes-
sor. His main research activities are in the areas of control systems and applications,
autonomous robotic systems, intelligent power management systems, smart grids,
cyber-physical systems, complex systems and networks, model-based online learn-
ing and system identification, signal and image processing.
Dr. Wen is an associate editor of a number of journals including Automatica,
IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics and IEEE Control Systems Magazine.
He is the executive editor-in-chief of Journal of Control and Decision. He served
IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control as an associate editor from January 2000
to December 2002. He has been actively involved in organizing international con-
ferences playing the roles of general chair, general co-chair, technical program com-
mittee chair, program committee member, general advisor, publicity chair and so
on. He received the IES Prestigious Engineering Achievement Award 2005 from the
xix
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xx Distributed Control and Optimization Technologies in Smart Grid Systems
Institution of Engineers, Singapore (IES) in 2005. He received the Best Paper Award
of IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics in 2017.
He is a fellow of IEEE, was a member of IEEE Fellow Committee from January
2011 to December 2013 and a Distinguished Lecturer of IEEE Control Systems So-
ciety from February 2010 to February 2013.
Yong-Duan Song received his Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer engineer-
ing from Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, USA, in 1992. He held a
tenured full professor position with North Carolina A&T State University, Greens-
boro, from 1993 to 2008 and a Langley Distinguished Professor position with the
National Institute of Aerospace, Hampton, VA, from 2005 to 2008. He is now Dean
of the School of Automation, Chongqing University, and the founding director of the
Institute of Smart Engineering, Chongqing University. He was one of the six Langley
Distinguished Professors with the National Institute of Aerospace (NIA), founding
director of Cooperative Systems at NIA. He has served as an associate editor/guest
editor for several prestigious scientific journals.
His research interests include intelligent systems, guidance navigation and con-
trol, bio-inspired adaptive and cooperative systems, rail traffic control and safety, and
smart grid.
List of Symbols
Algebraic Operators
AT Transpose of matrix A
A−1 Inverse of matrix A
det(A) Determinant of matrix A
PX [·] Projection onto set X
Sets
R Set of real numbers
C Set of complex numbers
Z Set of integers
N Set of nonnegative integers
Others
0 Zero vector with a compatible dimension
1 Vector with a compatible dimension and all elements of one
λ (P) Eigenvalue of matrix P
xxi
xxii Distributed Control and Optimization Technologies in Smart Grid Systems
Acronyms
AC − Alternating Current
AMI − Advanced Metering Infrastructure
CERTS − Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions
CF − Communication Fault
CL − Contribution Level
DG − Distributed Generator
DC − Direct Current
DCSCS − Distributed Cooperative Secondary Control Scheme
DPGM − Distributed Projected Gradient Method
DSM − Demand Side Management
ECC − Energy Consumption Controller
ED − Economic Dispatch
EMA − Energy Market Authority
ESS − Energy Storage Systems
EU − European Union
FACA − Finite-time Average Consensus Algorithm
FC − Fuel Cell
GA − Genetic Algorithm
HVAC − Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning
IS − Isolation Switch
LB − Local Bus
MG − Microgrid
MGCC − Micro-Grid Central Controller
NE − Nash Equilibrium
OPF − Optimal Power Flow
PAR − Peak to Average Ratio
PCC − Point of Common Coupling
PD − Proportional-Derivative
PFC − Power Factor Correction
PI − Proportional-Integral
PID − Proportional-Integral-Derivative
PR − Proportional-Resonant
PV − Photo-voltaic
RTP − Real-Time Pricing
SDP − Semidefinite programming
SG − Synchronous Generator
SLB − Sensitive Load Bus
TG − Thermal Generator
UCR − Unbalance Compensation Reference
UPS − Uninterruptible Power Supply
US − United States
VUC − Voltage Unbalance Compensation
VUF − Voltage Unbalance Factor
WT − Wind Turbine
INTRODUCTION I
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