Name Date EXPERIMENT 1 0 FM Modulators and Demodulators OBJECTIVES 1, Demonstrate direct FM using a 555 timer wired as a voltage-controlled oscillator. 2, Demonstrate indirect FM using a tuned-circuit phase modulator. 3. Demonstrate FM demodulation using a slope detector circuit MATERIALS Two function generators One FM generator One dual-trace oscilloscope One spectrum analyzer Two de voltage supplies One LMS95 timer One Zetex ZC826 varactor One 1N914 diode Capacitors: 200 pF, 300 pF, 320 pF, 1 nF, 2 nF, 4 nF, 14F Inductors: | mH, 8 mH, 100 mH Resistors: 1 kQ, 2K, 10k, 20 kQ, 50 kQ, 200 k THEORY Note: You must complete Experiment 9 before attempting Experiment 10. A frequency modulator is a circuit that causes the frequency deviation of a carrier to be proportional to the amplitude of a modulating signal. There are two types of frequency modulator circuits: direct FM and indirect FM. A direct FM modulator causes the frequency of the carrier oscillator to be proportional to the modulating signal amplitude. An indirect FM modulator causes the phase of the carrier to be proportional to the amplitude of a modulating signal, resulting in frequency modulation indirectly. In order to produce direct FM, a way must be found to vary the frequency of the carrier oscillator according to the modulating signal amplitude. This can be accomplished by 131varying the tank circuit inductance or capacitance of an L-C oscillator. The tank circuit capseitance can be replaced with a varactor. A varactor isa junction diode with a high reverse-bias capacitance that is sensitive to the reverse-bias voltage level. This makes it a voltage-controlled eapacitor. By using the modulating signal amplitude to vary the reverse-bias voltage, the varactor capacitance will vary in accordance with the modulating signal amplitude. This will cause the L-C oscillator frequency to vary in accordance with the modulating signal amplitude, creating a frequency-modulated carrier. Any oscillator whose frequency is controlled by a voltage is often referred to as a voltage- Eontrolled oscillator (VCO). A widely used integrated circuit VCO for generating a frequency-modulated carrier using direct FM is the popular 566. In this experiment, a 555 integrated circuit timer wired as a voltage-controed oscillator (VCO), shown in Figure 10-1, will be used to demonstrate frequency modulation using direct FM. This oscillator will generate a square wave output, which is acceptable as a carrier. The values of Ry, Ra, and C dctermine the oscillator free-running frequency. The modulating signal voltage is applied to {Be control input (CON) of the 355 timer to vary the output frequency. The modulating signal voltage is riding on a 2.8 V de voltage because the control input requires a positive Voltage level at all times. A higher control voltage on the 555 timer causes the output frequency to decrease and a lower voltage causes the output frequency to increase, ‘Therefore, the carrier frequency will be the inverse ofthe modulating signal vottage level Figure 10-1 Voltage-Controlled Oscillator Fos our Output yeaa a 2oxcrm sokchm te 8 a a Mod (WV tonne con =e signal (Y | TM ewo oF Veo tssen | a 4 The primary disadvantage of direct FM modulators is that a relatively unstable L-C { oscillator must be used to produce the variable-frequency carrier. This will cause the earrler { frequency to be unstable. Such instabilities cannot be tolerated in most inode 132communications systems. It is possible to vary the frequency of a crystal oscillator by using a varactor to change the value of the capacitance in series or parallel with the crystal, Due to its high frequency stability, only a very small frequency deviation can be accomplished with a crystal oscillator. For this reason, frequency-modulated crystal oscillators are most often used in narrowband FM (NBFM) applications. However, when the FM signal is applied to a frequency multiplier, both the carrier frequency and the frequency deviation are increased. With indirect FM (phase modulation), the reference phase is the carrier phase when the carrier is unmodulated. The carrier phase varies from the reference phase in direct proportion to the amplitude of the modulating signal, while the carrier amplitude stays constant. The greater the amplitude of the modulating signal, the greater the phase deviation (Aq) of the carrier from the reference phase. The result is the same as if the carrier had been stretched out or squeezed together, leaving the appearance that the carrier frequency was lowered or raised. FM is produced only as long as the modulating signal voltage, and therefore the carrier phase, is varying. The maximum carrier frequency deviation is produced when the modulating signal is changing at its most rapid rate. This means that the carrier frequency deviation (8) is proportional to the frequency of the ‘modulating signal (fy) as well as its amplitude, with indirect FM. A simple formula for determining the frequency deviation (8) for a particular phase deviation (Ag) is 5=(A0) fn where the phase deviation (Ag) is in radians and is proportional to the modulating signal amplitude. Remember that the phase deviation is the deviation from the reference phase and not the peak-to-peak deviation. This makes the phase deviation equal to one-half the peak- to-peak deviation, Because we want only the modulating signal amplitude to vary the carrier frequency, the carrier frequency deviation (6) produced by the modulating signal frequency (f,) must be eliminated when using phase modulation. This can be accomplished by passing the ‘modulating signal through a low-pass R-C filter called a frequency-correcting network (I/f network) that causes the modulating signal amplitude to be inversely proportional to the modulating signal frequency. Because the phase deviation (Ag) is proportional to the modulating signal amplitude, the phase deviation will be inversely proportional to the modulating signal frequency. Based on the above equation, this will cause the carrier frequency deviation (6) to be unaffected by the modulating signal frequency, The result is an output that is similar to a frequency-modulated carrier, In order to produce indirect FM, a way must be found to vary the phase of the carrier according to the modulating signal amplitude. This can be accomplished by varying the inductance or capacitance of an R-C or L-C phase-shift network. In an R-C or L-C network, the network capacitance can be varied using a varactor. In an R-C network, the network resistance can be varied using a transistor or FET. When a varactor is used in an R-C network, itis called a varaetor phase modulator. When a transistor or FET is used in an R-C network, it is called a transistor or FET phase modulator. When a varactor is used in an L-C parallel-resonant circuit, it is called a tuned-circuit phase modulator. In the tuned- 133circuit phase modulator, a relatively small change in C can produce a significant phase shift All of the phase-shift circuits described above produce amplitude variations as well as phase variations. An amplitude limiter can be used to eliminate these amplitude variations. Indirect FM (phase modulation) will be demonstrated using the tuned-circuit phase ‘modulator in Figure 10-2. The de voltage source V2 and resistors R, and Ry make up @ biasing network that places a 5 V de reverse-bias voltage across varactor diode D;. The modulating signal generator (V5) causes the reverse-bias voltage across the varactor to vary, causing the varactor capacitance to vary. Capacitor C3 is a de blocking capacitor that prevents the de bias voltage from reaching the modulating signal generator. Inductor La is an RF choke that prevents the carrier frequency from feeding back to the modulating signal ‘generator. Capacitor C> is a de blocking capacitor that prevents the de bias voltage across Di from being shorted to ground by inductor L;. The varactor diode (D;) and capacitor C2 are in parallel with the L-C tank circuit (L; and C;). As the varactor capacitance varies, it causes the phase of the carrier, output across the L-C tank circuit to vary. Because the varactor-m--- capacitance is dependent on the modulating signal voltage, the carrier output phase will also be dependent on the modulating signal voltage. By monitoring both the modulator output and the carrier signal at the modulator input, the output phase deviation can be observed on the oscilloscope. The phase difference (0) between two sine waves can be determined by first measuring the time between the sine waves (t) and the time period for one sine wave cycle (T) on the oscilloscope, and then using the following equation to calculate the phase difference: 0 =+ x 360° T Figure 10-2 Tuned-Circuit Phase Modulator Phase Modulated Output Carrier Input Carrier Ose 7 *0k0hm Mod ve Signal sv sot ot 134The primary advantage of indirect FM modulators (phase modulators) is that the carrier oscillator is isolated from the phase modulation circuit. This makes it possible to use a very stable crystal oscillator or crystal-controlled frequency synthesizer to generate the carrier frequency. For this reason, most modem transmitters use some form of phase modulation to produce indirect FM. The disadvantage of indirect FM modulators (phase modulators) is that it is more difficult to achieve high frequency deviations. However, when the indirect FM signal is applied to a frequency multiplier, both the carrier frequency and the frequency deviation are increased. ‘Any circuit that will convert the frequency variations of the carrier back to the modulation signal voltage variations can be used as an FM demodulator. FM demodulators are often called FM detectors or FM discriminators. Many different FM demodulator circuits have ~ been developed over the years. The simplest is the slope detector, shown in Figure 10-3. It makes use of an L-C resonant tank circuit (Ly and C)), a diode (D), and a low-pass R-C filter (R and C) to convert frequency variations into voltage variations. The slope detector utilizes the slope of the L-C resonant tank circuit's frequency response. By tuning the L-C tank circuit resonant frequency just above the carrier frequency, the cartier frequency falls on the left side of the tuned circuit frequency response curve. As the cartier frequency increases, the amplitude of the tuned circuit output increases. As the carrier frequency decreases, the amplitude of the tuned circuit output decreases. Therefore, the tuned tank circuit output amplitude depends on the frequency of the FM carrier. In effect, the frequency-modulated carrier has been converted to an amplitude-modulated carrier across the tuned tank circuit, This amplitude-modulated carrier is then rectified and filtered by the diode and low-pass R-C filter to produce the modulating signal voltage variations, as discussed in Experiment 7 on AM demodulators. In order to work properly, the low-pass R-C filter should have a cutoff frequency that is equal to or higher than the highest modulating frequency and lower than the carrier frequency so that it will pass the modulating frequencies and reject the carrier frequency. This will result in an output that will consist of only the modulating signal. The modulating signal output of the detector circuit will have a de component. Figure 10-3 FM Slope Detector zoxorm | aor a a 200k0hm RL 135The purpose of capacitor Cc is to block the de component so that the output signal will ride on a zero de voltage level. The main disadvantage of the slope detector is that the tuned L-C tank circuit is linear over only a narrow range of frequency variations, making it not very useful for wideband FM. The phase-locked loop FM detector, which will be studied in a later experiment, produces less distortion over a wider frequency deviation. For this reason, itis the most. popular FM detector. PROCEDURE Step1 Open circuit file FIGIO-1. This circuit will demonstrate frequency modulation using a 555 timer wired as a voltage-controlled oscillator. Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement and make sure that the following settings are selected: Time base (Scale = 20 us/Div, Xpos = 0, Y/T), Ch A (Scale = 2 V/Div, Ypos = 0, DC), Ch B (Scale = 2 V/Div, Ypos = 0, DC), Trigger (Pos edge, Level = 0, Auto), Step 2 Run the simulation to completion. The oscilloscope blue curve plot is the frequency-modulated carrier and the red curve plot is the modulating signal sine wave, Questions: Does the carrier frequency follow the amplitude of the modulating signal sine wave? Us the carrier a sine wave or a square wave? Is this acceptable as a carrier? Step 3 Measure the time period for one cycle at the lowest frequency (Tj) and at the highest frequency (3) and record your answers. T= Z T=____ Step 4 Based on the values of T; and Tp, calculate the lowest and highest carrier frequencies (f; and f). Step 5 Based on fj and fh, calculate the carrier frequency deviation (8). 136Step 6 Step 7 Step 8 Step 9 Based on the carrier frequency deviation, calculate the modulation index. Remove the modulating signal generator and run the simulation to completion. Determine the unmodulated carrier frequency (f,) using the procedure in Steps 3 and 4 and record your answer. f= Open circuit file FIG10-2. This tuned-circuit phase modulator will be used to demonstrate indirect FM (phase modulation). Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement and make sure that the following settings are selected: Time base us/Div, Xpos = 0, ¥/T), Ch A (Scale = 5 V/Div, Ypos = 0, DC), Ch B Div, Ypos = 0, DC), Trigger (Pos edge, Level = 0, Auto). Run the simulation. The blue curve plot is the phase-modulated output and the red curve plot is the carrier input to the phase modulator. Questions: Disregarding the output amplitude, is the modulator output phase changing with time relative to the carrier input sine wave? What is the reason? Step 10 Pause the simulation and measure the time between the curve plots at the point of ‘maximum phase shift (Imax) and the time period for one eycle (T) of the carrier input. Record your answers. From the values of trax and T, calculate the phase difference (Omax) between the input and output. trax = T= 137Step 11 Step 12, Step 13 Step 14 Step 15 Repeat Step 10 for the point of minimum phase shift and calculate the value of min tin Based on the maximum and minimum phase shift, determine the phase deviation (4g), in radians, at the modulator output. Based on the phase deviation (Ag), in radians, and the modulating signal frequency (f,), determine the frequency deviation (6) at the modulator output. Based on the frequency deviation (5) and the modulating frequency (fa), determine the modulation index (m). Bring down the spectrum analyzer enlargement and make sure that the following settings are selected: Frequency (Center = 100 kHz, Span = 100 kHz), Amplitude (Lin, Range = 1 V/Div), Resolution = 500 Hz. Run the simulation until the Resolution Frequencies match, then pause the simulation. You have displayed the frequency spectrum for a phase-modulated carrier. Determine the bandwidth (BW) for the phase-modulated carrier from the frequency spectrum and record your answer. Neglect any side frequencies with amplitudes less than 1% of the unmodulated carrier amplitude (10 V). BW Question: \s this wideband or narrowband FM? Explain why. 138Step 16 Change the modulating frequency generator voltage to 0 V. Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement and change the channel B scale to 5 V/Diy, then run the simulation, Questions: Is the modulator output phase changing with time relative to the input? What is the reason? Step 17 Pause the simulation and measure the time period (T) for one cycle of the output (blue) and calculate the unmodulated carrier frequency (f.). Question: How does this compare with the carrier oscillator frequency? Was this expected? Step 18 Measure the time between the input (red) and the output (blue) and calculate the reference phase (0,). Questions: Is the difference between the reference phase and the maximum or minimum phase measured in Steps 10 and 11 approximately equal to the phase deviation? Is this expected? Step 19 Bring down the spectrum analyzer enlargement and run the simulation until the Resolution Frequencies match, then pause the'simulation and examine the frequency spectrum. Question: Is the frequency spectrum that of an unmodulated carrier? Explain why. Step 20 Open circuit file FIGLO-3. This circuit will be used to demonstrate how an FM slope detector converts the frequency variations of a carrier back to the modulation signal voltage variations. Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement and make sure that the following settings are selected: Time base (Scale = 100 us/Div, Xpos = 0, Y/T), Ch A (Scale = 5 V/Div, Ypos = 0, DC), Ch B (Scale = 2 Viiv, Ypos = 0, DC), Trigger (Pos edge, Level = 0, Auto). 139Step 21 Run the simulation to completion. The blue curve plot is the slope detector output and the red curve plot is the frequency-modulated carrier. Questions: Does the slope detector output sine wave amplitude follow the frequency of the frequency-modulated carrier? Is this expected? Was there much sine wave distortion of the slope detector sine wave output? Step 22 _ Measure the time period of one cycle (T) of the output sine wave (blue curve plot) and calculate the frequency (f) from the time period. Questions: How did the measured frequency in Step 22 compare with the modulating signal sine wave frequency on the FM generator? Was this expected? Step 23 Calculate the cutoff frequency (fgc) of the low-pass R-C filter (R and C), Questions: What is the relationship between the low-pass filter cutoff frequency and the modulating sine wave frequency? Is this expected? ‘What is the relationship between the low-pass filter cutoff frequency and the carrier sine wave frequency? Is this expected? ‘What is the purpose of the low-pass R-C filter? Step 24 Change capacitor C to 25 nF. Calculate the new R-C filter cutoff frequency (fc). 140Step 25 Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement and run the simulation to completion. Questions: What happened to the detector output (blue)? ‘What caused this problem? What is the relationship between the new cutoff frequency and the modulating sine wave frequency? Step 26 Change capacitor C to 500 pF. Caleulate the new R-C filter cutoff frequency (re). Step 27 Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement and run the simulation to completion. Questions: What happened to the detector output (blue)? ‘What caused this problem? What is the relationship between the new cutoff frequency and the previous cutoff frequencies with respect to the carrier sine wave frequency? Step 28 — Retum the value of capacitor C to 4 nF. Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement and run the simulation to completion. Measure the peak-to-peak ‘output voltage (blue) and record your answer. Vo PP Step 29 Change the modulation index to 5 on the FM generator and run the simulation to completion. Measure the peak-to-peak output voltage (blue) and record your answer Vo =___pp 141Question: What effect did reducing the modulation index have on the peak-to-peak detector output voltage? Explain why. ‘Step 30 Return the modulation index to 20 and change the modulating signal frequency to I kHz on the FM generator. Run the simulation to completion. Question: What happened to the detector output frequency (blue)? Explain why. Step 31 Return the modulating signal frequency to 2 kHz.on the FM generator. Connect. oscilloscope channel B to the top of capacitor C. Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement and run the simulation to completion. Question: What happened to the detector output (top) waveshape? Explain why. Step 32 Remove capacitor C from the circuit. Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement and change the Y position on channel A to ~2.0. Run the simulation to completion. Question: What happened to the detector output (top) waveshape? Explain why. Step 33. Remove diode D from the circuit and replace it with a short circuit. Bring down the oscilloscope enlargement and run the simulation to completion. Question: What happened to the detector output (top) waveshape? Explain why. 142What is the relationship between the AM output (top) amplitude and the input (bottom) FM frequency? Step 34 Replace the FM generator with an ac voltage source. Bring down the Bode plotter enlargement and make sure that the following settings are selected: Magnitude, Vertical (Log, F = 0 dB, I= ~20 dB), Horizontal (Log, F = 2 MHz, 1= 10 kHz). The Bode plot of the tank circuit voltage gain in dB will be plotted on the Bode plotter. Step 35. Run the simulation to completion and draw the Bode plot in the space provided. Step 36 Measure the L-C tank circuit resonant frequency (f,) and record your answer on the Bode plot in Step 35. Step 37 Mark the location of the carrier frequency on the Bode plot. Question: Is the carrier frequency in the correct location on the Bode plot for an FM slope detector? Explain. 143