LEADERSHIP & MANAGEMENT -expanded on Fayol’s management functions in his introduction of

By: Francheska Illana the “Seven Activities of Management” - planning, organizing,

staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting.
Leadership - The act of influencing and motivating a group of Mary Parker Follett (1926)
people to act in the same direction towards achieving a common -was one of the first theorists to suggest participative decision
goal. making or participative management.
-Managers should have authority with, rather than over, employees.
Management - The process of leading and directing an Elton Mayo and his Harvard associates (1927-1932)
organization to meet its goals through the use of appropriate -look at the relationship between light illumination in the factory and
resources. productivity. -Hawthorne effect indicates that people respond to the
fact that they are being studied, attempting to increase whatever
LEADERSHIP MANAGEMENT behavior.
• do not have delegated authority but obtain their power through Douglas McGregor (1960)
other means, such as influence -X and Theory Y, posited that managerial attitudes about employees
• legitimate source of power due to the delegated authority can be directly correlated with employee satisfaction
• focus on group process, information gathering, feedback, and -Theory Y managers believe that their workers enjoy their work, are
empowering others self-motivated, and are willing to work hard to meet personal and
• emphasize control, decision making, decision analysis, and organizational goals. Theory X managers believe that their
results employees are basically lazy, need constant supervision and
• have goals that may or may not reflect those of the organization direction, and are indifferent to organizational needs.
• greater formal responsibility and accountability for rationality and Chris Argyris (1964)
control than leaders -managerial domination causes workers to become discouraged
and passive.
Frederick W. Taylor -If self-esteem and independence needs are not met, employees
- “father of scientific management” will become discouraged and troublesome or may leave the
Henri Fayol (1925) organization.
-first identified the management functions of planning, organization, Fiedler’s (1967)
command, coordination, and control. -Contingency Approach, suggests that no one leadership style is
Luther Gulick (1937) ideal for every situation.
-Interrelationships between the group’s leader and its members
were most influenced by the manager’s ability to be a good leader.
Hersey and Blanchard (1977) • Unfreezing occurs when the change agent convinces members of
-developed a Situational Approach to leadership. the group to change or when guilt, anxiety, or concern can be
-Tridimensional leadership effectiveness model predicts which elicited.
leadership style is most appropriate in each situation on the basis of • Movement, the change agent identifies, plans, and implements
the level of the followers’ maturity. appropriate strategies, ensuring that driving forces exceed
-As people mature, leadership style becomes less task focused and restraining forces.
more relationship oriented. • Refreezing phase, the change agent assists in stabilizing the
• Burns (2003) system change so that it becomes integrated into the status quo.
-Suggest that both leaders and followers have the ability to raise Stages of change and responsibilities of the change agent:
each other to higher levels of motivation and morality. There are two
primary types of leaders in management. STAGE 1—UNFREEZING
-The traditional manager, concerned with the day-to-day operations, 1. Gather data.
was termed a transactional leader. 2. Accurately diagnose the problem.
-The manager who is committed, has a vision, and is able to 3. Decide if change is needed.
empower others with this vision was termed a transformational 4. Make others aware of the need for change; do not proceed until
leader. the status quo has been disrupted and the need for change is
perceived by the others.
STAGE 2—MOVEMENT
1. Develop a plan.
2. Set goals and objectives.
3. Identify areas of support and resistance. 4. Include everyone who
will be affected by the change in its planning.
5. Set target dates.
6. Develop appropriate strategies.
7. Implement the change.
8. Be available to support others and offer encouragement through
Kurt Lewin (1951) the change.
-identified three phases through which the change agent must 9. Use strategies for overcoming resistance to change.
proceed before a planned change becomes part of the system: 10. Evaluate the change.
11. Modify the change, if necessary.
 STAGE 3—REFREEZING 2. A scientific personnel system must be established so that
1. Support others so that the change continues. workers can be hired, trained, and promoted based on their
Edward Lorenz (1960s) technical competence and abilities.
-discovered that even tiny changes in variables often dramatically 3. Workers should be able to view how they “fit” into the
affected outcomes. organization and how they contribute to overall organizational
-Even small changes in conditions can drastically alter a system’s productivity.
long-term behavior (butterfly effect). 4. The relationship between managers and workers should be
● A budget is a financial plan that includes estimated cooperative and interdependent, and the work should be shared
expenses as well as income for a period of time. equally.
● Accuracy dictates the worth of a budget; the more accurate Theory of Social and Economic Organization Bureaucracy
the budget blueprint, the better the institution can plan the - Need for legalized, formal authority and consistent rules and
most efficient use of its resources. regulations for personnel in different positions
Workforce or personnel budget
-largest of the budget expenditures because healthcare is labor Trait Theories
intensive. -assume that some people have certain characteristics or
Operating budget personality traits that make them better leaders than others.
-reflects expenses that change in response to the volume of
service, such as the cost of electricity, repairs and maintenance,
and supplies.
Capital budgets
-plan for the purchase of buildings or major equipment, which
include equipment that has a long life (usually greater than 5 to 7
years).
The Great Man Theory, from Aristotelian philosophy
-asserts that some people are born to lead, whereas others are Democratic Leader exhibits the following behaviors:
born to be led. • Less control is maintained.
-Great leaders will arise when the situation demands it. • Economic and ego awards are used to motivate.
Four overriding principles of scientific management: • Others are directed through suggestions and guidance.
1. Traditional “rule of thumb” means of organizing work must be • Communication flows up and down.
replaced with scientific methods. • Decision making involves others.
• Emphasis is on “we” rather than “I” and “you.”
• Criticism is constructive.
Authoritarian Leader characterized by the following behaviors: Gardner (1990) asserted that integrated leader-managers
• Strong control is maintained over the work group. possess six distinguishing
• Others are motivated by coercion.
• Others are directed with commands.
• Communication flows downward.
• Decision making does not involve others.
• Emphasis is on difference in status (“I” and “you”).
• Criticism is punitive
Laissez-faire Leader characterized by the following behaviors:
• Is permissive, with little or no control.
• Motivates by support when requested by the group.
• Provides little or no direction. TRAITS
• Uses upward and downward communication between members of ● Power- the capacity to act or the strength and potency to
the group. • Disperses decision making throughout the group. accomplish something
• Places emphasis on the group. ● Ex: The manager who is knowledgeable about the wise use
• Does not criticize. of authority, power, and political strategy is more effective at
meeting personal, unit, and organizational goals.
Kouzes and Posner’s Five Practices for Exemplary Leadership ● Reward power - is obtained by the ability to grant favors or
reward others with whatever they value.
● Punishment or coercive power - is based on fear of
punishment if manager’s expectations are not met.
● Legitimate power - is the power gained by a title or official
position within an organization.
● Expert power - is gained through knowledge, expertise, or
experience.
● Referent power is power that a person has because others
identify with that leader or with what that leader symbolizes.
\
● Charismatic power is distinguished by some from referent
power
 ● Informational power is obtained when people have ● Threats are external conditions that challenge or threaten
information that others must have to accomplish their goals. the achievement of organizational objectives.
MODES OF PLANNING DESCRIPTION Vision statements
-Reactive occurs after a problem exists - are used to describe future goals or aims of an organization.
-Inactivism seek the status quo - It conjures up a picture for all group members of what they want to
-Proactivism utilize technology to accelerate change and accomplish together.
are future oriented - An organization will never be greater than the vision that guides it.
-Interactive or Proactive attempt to plan the future of their The mission statement
organization rather than react to it -is a brief statement identifying the reason that an organization
-Forecasting involves trying to estimate how a condition will exists.
be in the future. - It identifies the organization’s constituency and addresses its
● Takes advantage of input from others, gives position regarding ethics, principles, and standards of practice.
sequence in activity, and protects an organization
against undesirable changes. ❖ The philosophy flows from the purpose or mission
● Strategic planning examines an organization’s statement and delineates the set of values and beliefs that
purpose, mission, philosophy, and goals in the guide all actions of the organization. It is the basic
context of its external environment. foundation that directs all further planning toward that
● Complex organizational plans that involve a long mission.
period (usually 3 to 10 years) are referred to as long- ❖ The organizational philosophy provides the basis for
range or strategic plans. developing nursing philosophies at the unit level and for
SWOT Analysis, also known as TOWS Analysis nursing service as a whole.
- was developed by Albert Humphrey at Stanford University in ❖ Goals and objectives are the ends toward which the
the 1960s and 1970s. organization is working.
SWOT definitions: ❖ Objectives are similar to goals in that they motivate people
to a specific end and are explicit, measurable, observable or
● Strengths are those internal attributes that help an retrievable, and obtainable.
organization to achieve its objectives. ❖ Policies are plans reduced to statements or instructions that
● Weaknesses are those internal attributes that challenge an direct organizations in their decision making. These explain
organization in achieving its objectives. how goals will be met and guide the general course and
● Opportunities are external conditions that promote scope of organizational activities. Policies also can be
achievement of organizational objectives. implied or expressed:
 Implied policies
Neither written nor expressed verbally, have usually
developed over time and follow a precedent.
Ex: a hospital may have an implied policy that employees
should be encouraged and supported in their activity in
community, regional, and national health-care organizations.

Expressed policies
Are delineated verbally or in writing. Expressed policies may
include a formal dress code, policy for sick leave or vacation
time, and disciplinary procedures.

Procedures
Are plans that establish customary or acceptable ways of
accomplishing a specific task and delineate a sequence of
steps of required action. Identify the process or steps
needed to implement a policy and are generally found in
manuals at the unit level of the organization.

Rules and regulations

Are plans that define specific action or nonaction. Existing
rules should be enforced to keep morale from breaking
down and to allow organizational structure.