Nervous System

A&P-II Unit-III

Muhammad Iqbal
Lecturer
KMU
 Objectives
At the end of this unit the learners will be able to:
• Define Nervous system.
• Briefly discuss organization of Nervous system.
• Define nerve & its types.
• Describe the structure and function of Neuron and
neuroglia.
• Identify the principal parts of the brain i.e. Hind brain,
Mid brain & Fore brain.
• Discuss the structure & function of:
--Brain stem (Mid brain, pons & medulla oblongata)
--Cerebellum
• Describe the structure of cerebrum in terms of:
-- Lobes (sulci and gyrus)
--Functional areas
 Objectives
• Describe the three meninges covering the brain &
spinal cord.
• Identify the ventricles of the brain.
• Briefly explain the formation, circulation,
reabsorption & functions of cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF).
 Objectives
• Discuss the general & cross sectional structure of the spinal
cord.
• Describe reflex arc.
• Discuss the distribution of the spinal nerves and spinal
plexus.
• Discuss the cranial nerves in terms of:
• Central connection
• Peripheral connection
• Functions
• Define Autonomic Nervous System
• Discuss the sympathetic and Para sympathetic Nervous
system.
 Nervous System
• Definition: The network of nerves and nerve fibers
that transmits nerve impulses between parts of the
body.
• With a mass of only 2 kg, the nervous system is one
of the smallest and yet the most complex of the 11
body systems. It is an intricate , highly organized
network of billions of neurons and even more
neuroglia.
• The structures that make up the nervous system
include the brain, cranial nerves, and their branches,
the spinal cord, spinal nerves and their branches,
ganglia, enteric plexuses and sensory receptors.
• The skull encloses the brain, which contains about 100
billion (1011) neurons.
• Twelve pairs (right and left) of cranial nerves emerging
from the base of the brain.
• The spinal cord connects the brain through the foramen
magnum of the skull and is protected by the bones of the
vertebral column.
• It contains about 100 million neurons. 31 pairs of spinal
nerves leave the spinal cord for specific region on the right
or left side of the body.
• Ganglia (swelling or knot) are small masses of nervous
tissue, consisting basically of neuron cell bodies that are
located outside the brain and spinal cord.
• Ganglia are closely associated with cranial and spinal
nerves. In the walls of organs of the GIT, extensive
networks of neurons, called enteric plexuses, help
regulate the digestive system.
 Functions of the Nervous System

• The nervous system carries out different functions like

smell, speech, storing, remembering past events. It
controls body movements and regulates the operation
of internal organs. All these diverse activities are
grouped into three basic functions such as sensory,
integrative, and motor.
• Sensory function: Sensory receptors detect internal
stimuli, such as an increase in blood acidity, external
stimuli, such as a housefly sitting on your body part.
Neurons called sensory or afferent neurons (af=toward;
ferrent=carried) carry this sensory information into the
brain and spinal cord through cranial and spinal nerves.
• Integrative Function: The nervous system
integrates (processes) sensory information by
analyzing and by making decisions for appropriate
responses. An important integrative function is
perception, the conscious awareness of sensory
stimuli. Perception occurs in the brain.
• Motor Function: Once the sensory information is
integrated, the nervous system gives an
appropriate motor response such as muscle
contraction or gland secretion.
• The neurons that serve this function are called
motor or efferent neurons.
• Motor neurons carry information from the brain
toward the spinal cord or effectors (muscles and
glands). Stimulation of the effectors by motor
neurons causes muscles to contract and glands
to secrete.
Nervous Supporting Tissues (Neuroglia)
• Neuroglia (glia=glue) are cells of the nervous
system that perform various supportive functions.
• They outnumber neurons.
• In contrast to neurons, they divide and multiply.
• Brain tumors arise from neuroglia, called glioma.
• There are six types of neuroglia.
• Four types found in the CNS are astrocytes,
oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells.
• Other two types found in the PNS are Schwann,
and satellite cells.
 Neuroglia of the CNS
Astrocytes (astro=star; cyte=cell)
• These star shaped cells are the largest and most
numerous of the neuroglia.
• The processes of astrocytes make contact with
blood capillaries, neurons, and the pia matter.

• When neurons are damaged, astrocytes form

hardened masses of scar tissue and fill space
formerly occupied by neurons. This process is
called astrocytosis or sclerosis.
• Functions of Astrocytes:
• Astrocytes provide a supportive framework.
• Together with the endothelial cells of blood
capillaries they form a blood brain barrier (BBB) to
isolate harmful materials from CNS.
• They help in nourishing neurons.
• Regulate the chemical composition of tissue fluid.
• Take up excess neurotransmitters.
Astrocyte
Oligodendrocytes: (oligo=few; dendro=tree)
• They resemble astrocytes but have fewer processes.
• Their processes form myelin sheath around axons in
the brain and spinal cord.

Microglia:
• They are small cells with thinner processes.
• They function as phagocytes (macrophages).
 Ependymal Cells (epen=above; dym=garment):
• They are cuboidal to columnar cells.
• Arranged in a single layer.
• Possess microvilli and cilia.
Functions:
• They line cavities of brain and spinal cord.
• Secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and circulate it.
Neuroglia
 Neuroglia of PNS
Schwann Cells:
• They surround the axons in the PNS.
• Each cell encircles (myelinates) only one axon.
• They form myelin sheath around the axons.
• They aid in regeneration of damaged axons of PNS.
Satellite cells:
• These flat cells surround the cell bodies of neurons of
PNS and form ganglia.
• They regulate the exchange of materials between
neuronal cell bodies and interstitial fluid.
Schwann Cell
PNS Axon Regeneration
Nerve
Nerve
Neuron
 Properties of Neuron
Special characteristics of neurons
– Longevity – can live and function for a lifetime
– Amitotic— Do not divide
– High metabolic rate – require abundant oxygen and
glucose
 Properties of Neuron
– Excitability—the ability to respond to the stimulus
and convert it into an action potential.
– Conductivity: The transmission of nerve impulse.
– Secretion: When the electrical signal reaches the end
of a nerve fiber, the neuron secretes a chemical
neurotransmitter that stimulates the next cell.

Action potential (nerve impulse) is an electrical signal

that propagates (travels) along the surface of the
membrane of a neuron.
 Parts of the Neuron
• Most neurons have three parts
1. A Cell Body
2. Dendrites
3. An Axon
• Cell Body or soma or Perikaryon:
– Contains nucleus and organelles
 Neuron Processes
• Dendrites: short, often highly branched.
– Receptive regions of the neuron
• Axon: Long cytoplasmic process carrying nerve impulse
– Neuron has only one axon
– Transmits impulse away from soma toward another
neuron, muscle fiber or gland
The processes (dendrites and axon) are collectively called
neurites
– Axon hillock: cone shaped elevation of Axon
– Initial segment: the closest part to the axon hillock
Note: Axons vary in length from 1 mm long up to 1
meter.
– Axoplasm: Cytoplasm of axon
– Axolemma: plasma membrane of axon
– Axon terminals or telodendria: Terminal branches of
axon
– synaptic end bulbs or synaptic knobs: Bulb
shaped structures on the tip of axon terminals
with synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters

– Synapse: The site of communication between two

neurons or a neuron and an effector.
 Structural Classification of Neurons
Multipolar – possess more than two processes
• Numerous dendrites and one axon
• Most neurons in the brain and spinal cord are of this type
Bipolar – possess two processes
• One main dendrite and one axon
• Rare neurons – found in some special sensory organs
Unipolar – possess a single short process
Neurons Classified by Structure

Figure 12.10a–c
 Classification of Nerve Fibres
• Structure based
• Myelinated and non-myelinated
• Distribution based
• Somatic and visceral/autonomic
• Origin based
• Cranial and Spinal
• Function based
• Sensory, Motor , and interneuron
• Polarity based
• Multipolar, Bipolar, and Unipolar
• Secretion based
• Adrenergic (secrete noradrenalin) and Cholinergic (Ach)
• Diameter and Conduction based (Erlanger and Gasser)
• Type A, Type B, and Type C
• A and B are myelinated while C is not
• A is the thickest while C is the thinnest
 Functional Classification of Neurons
1. Sensory neurons are sensitive to various stimuli. There are
sensory neurons in the skin, muscles, joints, and organs that
indicate pressure, temperature, and pain. There are more
specialized neurons in the nose and tongue that are sensitive to
the molecular shapes we perceive as tastes and
smells. Neurons in the inner ear are sensitive to vibration, and
provide us with information about sound. And the rods and
cones of the retina are sensitive to light, and allow us to see.
2. Motor neurons are able to stimulate muscle cells
throughout the body, including the muscles of the heart,
diaphragm, intestines, bladder, and glands.
3. Interneurons are the neurons that provide connections
between sensory and motor neurons. The neurons of the
central nervous system, including the brain, are all
interneurons.
Interneuron
Nervous system Division
Brain
 Brain
• The average adult brain weighs about 1600 g in men
and 1400 g in women. The brain is divided into three
major portions—cerebrum, cerebellum, and
brainstem.
• The cerebrum, the largest part of the brain, consists
of two hemispheres. Each hemisphere is marked by
thick folds called gyri (gy= turn, twist) separated by
shallow grooves called sulci (sulc= furrow, groove).
• The right and left hemispheres are separated by a
very deep groove called longitudinal fissure.
• The hemispheres are connected by a thick bundle of
nerve fibers called the corpus callosum (corpus=body;
call=thick).
• The cerebellum (cereb=brain; ellum=little), the
second largest part of the brain, lies inferior to
the cerebrum and occupies the posterior cranial
fossa. It is also marked by gyri, sulci, and fissures.
• The brainstem which is like a vertical stalk with
the cerebrum perched on the top of it like a
mushroom cap on its stalk.
• The major components of the brainstem, from
rostral to caudal, are the diencephalon, midbrain,
pons and medulla oblongata.
 Grey and white matter

• The brain, like the spinal cord, is composed of

grey and white matter.
• Grey matter (cell bodies and dendrites) forms a
surface layer called the cortex over the cerebrum
and cerebellum, and the deeper masses called
nuclei.
• A bundle of axons form tracts in CNS.
 Terms
• Grey matter: A cluster of cell bodies forming grey
matter and is found in the periphery of the brain and
in the center of the spinal cord.
• White matter: Nerve fibers forming white matter.
• Nucleus (plural, nuclei): A group of cell bodies forming
grey matter in CNS is called nucleus.
• Ganglion: A cluster of nerve cell bodies in the PNS
(except basal ganglia in CNS).
• Basal ganglion: A cluster of grey matter deep in each
cerebral hemisphere.
• Tract: A bundle of axons in the CNS.
• Nerve: A bundle of axons in the PNS is called a nerve.
 Major Parts of the Adult Brain
• The adult brain consists of three major parts:
1. Hindbrain— a) Medulla Oblongata, b)Pons, and
c) Cerebellum
2. Midbrain
3. Forebrain
a) Diencephalon
—thalamus
— hypothalamus, and
— Epithalamus
b) Cerebrum
Functions of the medulla:
• Cardiac center, which adjusts the rate and force
of the heartbeat.
• Vasomotor center, which adjusts blood vessel
diameter to regulate blood pressure and reroute
blood from one part to another.
• Respiratory center, which controls the rate and
depth of the breathing through medullary
rithmicity.
• The medulla contains nuclei associated with
five pairs of cranial nerves:
• Vestibulocochlear nerves(VIII)
• Glossopharyngeal nerves (IX)
• Vagus nerves (X)
• Accessory nerves (XI)
• Hypoglosal nerves (XII)
 Pons (=bridge)
• Like medulla, the pons consists of both nuclei and
tracts.
• It is a bridge that connects parts of the brain with one
another through axons.
• The pons contain nuclei that relay signals from the
cerebrum to the cerebellum which are concerned with:
Sleep, hearing, equilibrium, taste, eye movements,
facial sensation, respiration (pneumotaxic and
apneustic), swallowing, bladder control, and posture.
The nuclei of the pons are associated with four
pairs of cranial nerves:
• Trigeminal nerves (V)
• Abducens nerves (VI)
• Facial nerves (VII)
• Vestibulocochlear nerves (VIII)
 Cerebellum
• Cerebellum is the largest part of the hindbrain.
• It lies posterior to the medulla and pons and
inferior to the posterior portion of the cerebrum.
• It consists of the right and left cerebellar
hemispheres.
Midbrain
• It is a short segment of the brainstem that connects
the hindbrain and forebrain.
• It extends from pons to diencephalon.
• It connects the cerebrum with the lower parts of the
brain.
• It contains nuclei and tracts.
• It contains several other nuclei called substantia nigra
(nigra= black) which are darkly pigmented.
• Dopaminergic neurons extend from substantia nigra.
• The loss of these neurons results in parkinson disease.
Reticular Formation
• Running vertically through the core of the midbrain,
pons, and medulla is a loosely organized core of gray
matter called the reticular formation (ret= net),
composed of more than 100 small nuclei,
interspersed among the small bundles of myelinated
axons (white matter). It extends from the upper part
of the spinal cord throughout the brain stem and into
the lower part of the diencephalon. Part of the
reticular formation, called the reticular activating
system (RAS), consists of sensory axons that enter
the cerebral cortex.
Functions
• Coordination of skeletal muscles.
• Coordination of activities controlled by ANS, e.g.
cardiovascular, respiratory and GI activities.
• Selective awareness that selectively blocks or passes
sensory information to the cerebral cortex or the
brain learns to ignore repetitive, inconsequential
stimuli while remaining sensitive to others, e.g. a
person can sleep through a traffic noise but wake
promptly to the sound of an alarm clock.
Similarly, the slight sound made by a child in bed
may arouse his mother but the noise of regularly
passing trains may be suppressed.
 Diencephalon
• The diencephalon extends from the brain stem to the
cerebrum and surrounds the third ventricle.
• It includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and
epithalamus.
Thalamus
• The thalamus (= inner chamber), which makes up 80%
of the diencephalon, consists of paired oval masses of
grey matter with interspersed tracts of white matter. A
bridge of grey matter called the intermediate mass
(interthalamic adhesion) joins the right and left halves
of the thalamus.
• Thalamus is the gateway to the cerebrum. It is
involved in arousal, eye movement, taste, smell,
hearing, and equilibrium.
Hypothalamus
• It is a small part of diencephalon which lies inferior
to the thalamus.
• The pituitary gland is attached to the
hypothalamus by a stalk (infundibulum).
• It is the major control center of the ANS and
endocrine system and control visceral functions as;
• Hormone secretion, Autonomic effect,
thermoregulation, food and water intake, Sleep
and circadian rhythms, memory, and emotional
behaviors are its functions.
Epithalamus
• It consists mainly of the pineal gland (= pine cone-
like) and habenular nuclei. The pineal gland is
about the size of a small pea. The pineal gland is a
part of the endocrine system which secrets the
hormone melatonin. A more melatonin is liberated
during darkness than in light. It promotes sleep.
• The habenular nuclei are involved in olfaction,
especially emotional responses to odors of food.
 Cerebrum
• Cerebrum is the “seat of intelligence”. It enables us to
read, write, speak, and think. The hemispheres consist
of an outer rim of grey matter called cerebral cortex
(2—4 mm thick). Deep to the cerebral cortex lies the
cerebral white matter.
• The cerebral folds are called gyri (= circles) or
convolutions. The shallower grooves between the
folds (gyri) are called sulci; and, the deepest grooves
between the folds are termed fissures. The most
prominent fissure is the longitudinal fissure that
separates the two hemispheres called falx cerebri.
• The hemispheres are internally connected by white
matter called the corpus callosum.
Lobes of the cerebrum
• Each cerebral hemisphere is further subdivided
into four lobes. They are named after the bones
that cover them: frontal, parietal, temporal, and
occipital lobe. The central sulcus separates the
Frontal lobe from the parietal lobe. The lateral
sulcus separates the frontal lobe from the
temporal lobe. The parieto-occipital sulcus
separates the parietal lobe from the occipital
lobe. A small fifth lobe or part of the cerebrum,
called insula lies deep to the lateral sulcus which
is made visible by retracting or cutting away some
of the overlying cerebrum.
Brain
Basal ganglia or nuclei
• Deep within each cerebral hemisphere are three nuclei
that are collectively called basal ganglia or may also be
called basal nuclei in some textbooks as the word is
best restricted to the clusters of neurons outside the
CNS.
• The three basal ganglia/nuclei are globus pallidus
(globus=ball; pallidus=pale), putamen (=shell, pod or
husk), and caudate nucleus (caud=tail). The putamen
and globus pallidus are collectively called the lentiform
(lens shaped), while the putamen and caudate nucleus
are collectively called corpus straitum.
• The basal ganglia help regulate initiation and
termination of movements.
• Figure 8.12 The motor circuit. The motor circuit is formed by interconnections between motor areas of the
cerebral cortex, the basal nuclei (basal ganglia), and other brain regions. Note the extensive inhibitory, GABA-
ergic effects (shown in red) made by the globus pallidus on other structures of this circuit. The excitatory
neurotransmitters of this circuit are glutamate (green) and dopamine (blue).
The Limbic system
• The limbic (=border or rim) system, named for the
medial border of the temporal lobe, is a ring of
cortical structure surrounding the corpus callosum
and thalamus. The limbic system is sometimes called
the “emotional brain” It includes the nuclei called as:
• Amygdala (almond-shaped): is composed of several
groups of neurons located close to the caudate
nucleus which is concerned with emotions.
• Hippocampus (=seahorse): It extends into the floor
of the lateral ventricle which functions in memory.
 MENINGES
• The cranium and the cranial meninges (made up of
connective tissue) surround and protect the brain.
The cranial meninges are continuous with the spinal
meninges. They have the same basic structure and
names. The three meninges are:
• DURA MATER (=tough mother)—the outer dense
connective tissue cover of the brain. It is also called
pachymeninx.
• Cranial or Cerebral Dura
• Two layers----outer endosteal layer lining cranium,
and inner meningeal layer.
 Meninges cont….

• Two large rigid folds of the meningeal layer

project into the cranial cavity to support the
brain and hold it in position. The two folds are:
• Falx cerebri, and tentorum cerebelli
 Meninges cont....
• In certain places, the meningeal layer of the dura
matter folds inward to separate major parts of the
brain:
• 1) The falx cerebri (falx=sickle) extends into the
longitudinal fissure and separates the two
hemispheres of the cerebrum.
• 2) The falx cerebelli separates the two hemispheres
of the cerebellum.
• 3) the tentorum cerebelli ( tentorum=tent)
separates cerebellum from the overlying cerebrum.
• The two dural layers are fused together but in some
places they are separated by dural sinuses, spaces
that collect venous blood.
• The two major dural sinuses are the superior
sagittal sinus, found just under the cranium along
the mid sagittal line, and the transverse sinus,
which runs horizontally from the rear of the head
toward each ear.
• These sinuses meet like an inverted T at the back of
the brain and ultimately empty into the internal
jugular veins of the neck.
• The space between dura and arachnoid matter is
called subdural space.
 Meninges cont….
• Spinal Dura
• Spinal dura matter is a thick fibrous membrane
extending from foramen magnum to the lower
border of 2nd sacral vertebra.
• The spinal dura matter has only one layer.
• The space between the dura matter and the wall of
the vertebral canal is called the epidural or
extradural space.
• The spinal epidural space is occupied by loose
aereolar tissue, fat and internal vertebral venous
plexus.
• Nerves entering and leaving the spinal cord pass via
the epidural space.
 Meninges cont....
• ARACHNOID MATER
• Cerebral Arachnoid: (arachn=spider; oid= similar
to)—because of its spider’s web arrangement of
delicate collagen and elastic fibers forming the
middle cover.
• It is separated from pia matter by subarachnoid
space, which contains CSF.
• In some areas, the subarachnoid spaces are large
and called cisterns having more CSF. One of them is
cisterna magna lying b/w the undersurface of
cerebellum and medulla.
• It may be used for cisternal puncture by inserting
needle b/w occipital bone and atlas vertebra to get
a sample of CSF.
 Meninges cont...

• Spinal Arachnoid:
• It continues downward to envelop the spinal
cord and ends by merging with the dura mater at
the level of 2nd sacral vertebra.
• Pia mater (pia=delicate)— A thin transparent
connective tissue layer forming the innermost
meninx.
• The spinal cord ends at L1 vertebra.
• Pia mater pierces other meninges and extends as
‘’filum terminale’’ up to the coccyx
 Ventricles
• The brain has four internal interconnected
chambers or cavities called ventricles (=little
cavities):
• Lateral ventricles are two cavities, one located in
each cerebral hemisphere.
• Each ventricle is C-shaped comprising a central part,
anterior, posterior, and inferior horn.
• Anterior horn extends into the frontal lobe;
posterior horn into occipital lobe; and inferior horn
extends downward and forward into temporal lobe.
 Ventricles cont….
• The third ventricle is a narrow medial cavity along the
midline inferior to the corpus callosum, superior to the
hypothalamus and between the right and left halves of the
thalamus. It communicates on either side with the each
lateral ventricle through interventricular foramen. A canal,
called the cerebral aqueduct passes down the core of the
midbrain and leads to the fourth ventricle.
• The fourth ventricle, a small chamber lies between the
pons (of brain stem) and cerebellum. Caudally, this
chamber narrows and forms a central canal that extends
through the medulla oblongata into the spinal cord.
Ventricles (Fox)
 Four Ventricles

• From top to bottom:

Blue - Lateral ventricles
Cyan - Interventricular foramina (Monro)
Yellow - Third ventricle
Red - Cerebral aqueduct (Sylvius)
Purple - fourth ventricle
Green - continuous with the central canal
(Apertures to subarachnoid space are not visible)
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
• The cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless liquid
that fills the ventricles and canals of the CNS and
bathes external surface of brain.
• The total volume of CSF is 80 to 150 ml in an adult.
CSF contains glucose, proteins, lactic acid, urea, cations
(Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+), and anions (Cl- and HCO3-). It also
contains some WBCs.
Formation:
The CSF is produced by the choroid plexuses
(choroid=membrane like), networks of capillaries in the
walls of the ventricles. The blood capillaries are
covered by ependymal cells that form CSF from blood
plasma by filtration and secretion.
Circulation of CSF
• The CSF formed in the choroid plexuses of each lateral
ventricle flows into the third ventricle through two
narrow oval openings, the interventricular foramina.
• More CSF is added by the choroid plexus in the roof of
the third ventricle.
• The fluid then flows through the cerebral aqueduct
which passes through the midbrain into the fourth
ventricle.
• The choroid plexus of the fourth ventricle adds more
fluid. CSF enters the subarachnoid space through
three openings (one median aperture and two lateral
apertures) in the roof of the fourth ventricle. CSF then
circulates in the central canal of the spinal cord and in
the subarachnoid space around the surface of the
brain and spinal cord.
• Reabsorption of CSF
• CSF is gradually reabsorbed into the blood
through arachnoid villi, fingerlike extensions of
the arachnoid that project into the dural sinuses
especially the superior sagittal sinus and finally
into the venous blood. Normally CSF is
reabsorbed as rapidly as it is formed, at a rate of
about 20 ml/hr.
Functions of CSF
1. Mechanical Protection: CSF serves as a shock-
absorbing medium that protects the brain and spinal
cord from mechanical injuries. The fluid also buoys
(keeps afloat) the brain the cranial cavity.
2. Chemical protection: CSF provides an optimal
chemical environment for accurate neuronal
signaling. Even a slight change in the ionic
composition of CSF within the brain can seriously
disrupt production of action potentials.
3. Circulation: CSF keeps flowing through and around
the CNS and ultimately reabsorbing into the blood
stream. It allows exchange of nutrients and waste
products between the blood and nervous tissue.
 Cranial Nerves
• The 12 pairs of cranial nerves are so named because
they pass through various foramina of the cranium.
Like the 31 pairs of spinal nerves, they are part of the
PNS. Each cranial nerve is designated by both a
number (roman numeral, from I to XII) and a name.
the numbers indicate the order, from anterior to
posterior, in which the nerves arise from the brain.
The names designate a nerve’s distribution or
function.
• Cranial nerves emerge from the nose (cranial nerve I),
and the eyes (cranial nerve II). These two pairs of
neurons are sensory. The rest are classified as mixed
nerves as they contain both motor and sensory axons.
 Cranial Nerves
Olfactory Nerve (I)
Composition: Sensory
Function: Smell
Origin: Olfactory mucosa in nasal cavity.
Termination: Olfactory bulbs beneath frontal lobe of
brain

Optic Nerve (II)

Composition: Sensory
Function: Vision
Origin: Retina
Termination: Thalamus
Oculomotor Nerve (III) (oculo= eye)
Composition: mixed but mainly motor
Function: Eye movements, opening of eyelid,
constriction of pupil, focusing, proprioception
Origin: Midbrain
Termination: Somatic fibers lead to levator
palpebrae superioris, superior, medial, and
inferior rectus, and inferior oblique muscles;
parasympathetic fibers enter eyeball and
constrict iris and ciliary muscles.
Trochlear Nerve (IV) (trochle= pulley)
Composition: mixed but mainly motor
Function: Eye movements and proprioception
Origin: Midbrain
Termination: superior oblique muscle of eye
Trigeminal Nerve (V) (=triple, for its three branches):
The largest of the cranial nerves; consists of three divisions or
branches designated V1(ophthalmic), V2(maxillary), and V3
(mandibular)
Composition: Mixed
Ophthalmic Division (V1)
Composition: Sensory
Function: Sensation from upper eyelid, eyeball, lacrimal
glands, upper part of nasal cavity, and side of nose,
forehead, and anterior half of the scalp.
Origin: superior region of face, eyeball, lacrimal gland, superior
nasal mucosa, frontal and ethmoid sinuses.
Termination: Pons
Effects of damage: loss of sensation
Clinical test: test corneal reflex—blinking in response to light,
touch to eyeball.
Maxillary Division (V2):
Composition: sensory
Function: Same as V1, including lower face sensation
Origin: Middle region of face, nasal mucosa,
maxillary sinus, palate, upper teeth and gums.
Termination: Pons
Effects of damage: Loss of sensation
Clinical test: test sense of touch, pinpricks, hot and
cold touch.
• Mandibular division (V3):
• Composition: Mixed
• Function: Same sensation as V1 and V2 lower on
face; mastication.
• Sensory origin: Inferior region of face, anterior
tongue (but not taste buds), lower teeth and gums,
floor of mouth.
• Sensory termination: Pons
• Effects of damage: Loss of sensation, impaired
chewing
• Clinical test: Test the mobility of mandible and to
open mouth against resistance.
Trigeminal Nerve
Abducens nerve (VI) (ab=away; ducens= to lead)
Composition: predominantly motor
Motor Function: Eye movements
Motor Origin: Inferior pons
Termination: lateral rectus muscle of eye
Effects of damage: Inability to rotate eye laterally.
Clinical test: test eye movement laterally
Facial Nerve (VII)
Composition: Mixed
Sensory Function: Sense of taste
Sensory Origin: Anterior taste buds
Sensory Termination: Thalamus
Motor Function: Facial expression, autonomic
control of tear glands, nasal and palatine glands
submandibular and sublingual salivary glands.
Motor origin: Pons
Effects of damage: Inability to control facial
muscles, sagging (drooping or hanging loosely),
distorted sense of sweet taste
Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII): vestibule=small
cavity; cochlea= spiral, snail like
Composition: predominantly sensory
Function: hearing and equilibrium
Sensory origin: Inner ear
Sensory Termination: Pons and medulla
Motor Origin: Pons
• Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX): glosso=tongue;
pharyngeal= throat
Composition: Mixed
Sensory Function: Taste, sensation from tongue
and pharynx
Motor Function: Swallowing, salivation, gagging
Moto Origin: Medulla Oblongata
• Vagus Nerve (X): vagus= vagrant or wandering
Composition: Mixed
Sensory Origin: Proprioceptors in neck and throat muscles,
baroreceptors in the arc of aorta, chemoreceptors in the
aorta,
Sensory termination: Medulla and Pons
Sensory Function: Taste and somatic sensations, monitoring
BP, and O2 and CO2 in blood,
Motor Origin: Originates from medulla
Innervation: Skeletal muscles in neck and throat,
parasympathetic supply to smooth muscles in the airway,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, most of large
intestine, gall bladder, cardiac muscles, and GIT glands
Somatic Motor Function: Swallowing, coughing and voice
production
• Autonomic Motor Function (Parasympathetic):
Smooth muscle contraction, and relaxation in
organs of GI tract, GIT secretion, slowing of the
heart rate.
• Accessory Nerve (XI) = Additional, assisting): it
differs from all other cranial nerves because it
originates from both the brain stem and the
segments (C1 through C5)of spinal cord. The cranial
root is motor while the spinal root is mixed. It passes
via the jugular foramen
Composition: Mixed but mainly motor
Motor Function: Swallowing; head, neck , and
shoulder movements
Origin: Medulla oblongata
Termination: palate, pharynx, sternocleidomastoid
and trapezius muscles.
Effects of damage: impaired movement of head, neck,
and shoulders, difficulty in shrugging shoulders,
paralysis of sternocleidomastoid.
Clinical test: test ability to rotate head and shrug
shoulders against resistance.
Accessory Nerve
• Hypoglossal Nerve (XII)
Composition: Mixed but mainly motor
Function: Tongue movements of speech, food
manipulation, and swallowing.
Origin: Medulla oblongata
Termination: Intrinsic and extrinsic muscles of
tongue.
Cranial Nerves
Mnemonics for Cranial Nerves taken from Saladin page 547