According to Newton's third law of motion, to every action, there is

always an equal and opposite reaction. Also, the action and reaction
occur in two different bodies. When two bodies interact with each other,
they exchange force, which is equal in magnitude but act in opposite
directions.
For example, a laptop kept on a table exerts a downward force,
which is equal to its weight on the table, and consequently, the table
exerts an equal and opposite force on the laptop. This force comes into
play because the weight of the laptop slightly deforms the table, and in
return, the table pushes back the laptop.

Isaac Newton was a scientist from England. He was a bit stuffy with
unpleasant hair, but he was a brilliant person. Newton is the founder of
differential calculus and has dedicated his life to the world of physics.
One of his significant works is the laws that govern classical physics. His
ideas and concepts have been experimentally verified throughout the
years. These are called Newton's Laws of Motion.

javelin

Understanding how projectile motion works is very beneficial in

determining how to best propel an object. For the javelin throw, being
able to calculate the different variables helps the athlete to develop a
better technique for them personally in order to throw the longest
distance. Often from looking at the projectile motion of an object, faults
in other phases of the technique can be identified. The initial velocity of
the javelin for example can be used as an indication of the amount of
momentum created during the preparatory phase of the action. Often a
low initial velocity is a result of a loss of momentum during this phase
and so the technique needs to be altered hence improving the initial
velocity. This is the same for other sports such as shot put, basketball, a
throw-in in soccer and many more

The major cause of friction between metals appears to be the forces

of attraction, known as adhesion, between the contact regions of the
surfaces, which are always microscopically irregular. Friction arises from
shearing these “welded” junctions and from the action of the
irregularities of the harder surface plowing across the softer surface.
 Force that resists the sliding or rolling of one solid object over
another. Frictional forces, such as the traction needed to walk without
slipping, may be beneficial, but they also present a great measure of
opposition to motion. About 20 percent of the
engine power of automobiles is consumed in overcoming frictional forces
in the moving parts.
Two simple experimental facts characterize the friction of sliding solids.
First, the amount of friction is nearly independent of the area of
contact. If a brick is pulled along a table, the frictional force is the same
whether the brick is lying flat or standing on end.
Second, friction is proportional to the load or weight that presses
the surfaces together. If a pile of three bricks is pulled along a table, the
friction is three times greater than if one brick is pulled.
Thus, the ratio of friction F to load L is constant. This constant
ratio is called the coefficient of friction and is usually symbolized by the
Greek letter mu (μ).

F
Mathematically , μ=
L

Because both friction and load are measured in units of force (such
as pounds or newtons), the coefficient of friction is dimensionless.
The value of the coefficient of friction for a case of one or more bricks
sliding on a clean wooden table is about 0.5, which implies that a force
equal to half the weight of the bricks is required just to overcome friction
in keeping the bricks moving along at a constant speed. The frictional
force itself is directed oppositely to the motion of the object. Because the
friction thus far described arises between surfaces in relative motion, it is
called kinetic friction.

(1)Static friction, in contrast, acts between surfaces at rest with

respect to each other. The value of static friction varies between zero and
the smallest force needed to start motion. This smallest force required to
start motion, or to overcome static friction, is always greater than the
force required to continue the motion, or to overcome kinetic friction.
(2)Rolling friction occurs when a wheel, ball, or cylinder rolls freely
over a surface, as in ball and roller bearings. The main source of friction
in rolling appears to be dissipation of energy involved in deformation of
the objects. If a hard ball is rolling on a level surface, the ball is
somewhat flattened and the level surface somewhat indented in the
regions in contact. The elastic deformation or compression produced at
the leading section of the area in contact is a hindrance to motion that is
not fully compensated as the substances spring back to normal shape at
the trailing section. The internal losses in the two substances are similar
to those that keep a ball from bouncing back to the level from which it is
dropped. Coefficients of sliding friction are generally 100 to 1,000 times
greater than coefficients of rolling friction for corresponding materials.
This advantage was realized historically with
the transition from sledge to wheel.

Adhesive forces are the attractive forces existing between the different
substances. For example, adhesive forces exist between water and glass
or Mercury and glass. In case of water taken in a glass tube, adhesive
forces are stronger than Cohesive forces whereas it is reverse for
Mercury taken in a glass tube.
 Consider three molecules A, B, C having their spheres of influence
as shown in the figure. The sphere of influence of A is well inside the
liquid, that of B partly outside and that of C exactly half of total
Molecules like A do not experience any resultant force, as they are
attracted equally in all directions. Molecules like B or C will experience a
resultant force directed inward. Thus the molecules will inside the liquid
will have only kinetic energy but the molecule near surface will have
kinetic as well as potential energy which is equal to the work done in
placing them near the surface against the force of attraction directed
inward Surface energy Any Strained body possesses potential energy,
which is equal to the work done in bringing it to the present state from
its initial unstained state. The surface of liquid is also a strained system
and hence the surface of a liquid also has potential energy, which is
equal to the work done increasing the surface. This energy per unit area
of the surface is called surface energy To derive an expression for
surface energy consider a wire frame equipped with a sliding wire AB as
shown in figure. A film of soap solution is formed across ABCD of the
frame. The side AB is pulled to the left due to surface tension. To keep
the wire in position a force F has to be applied to the right. If T is the
surface tension and l is the length of AB, then the force due to surface
tension over AB is 2lT to the left because the film has two surfaces
( upper and lower) Since the film is in equilibrium F = 2lT

Surface tension allows insects (e.g. water striders ), usually denser

than water, to float and stride on a water surface.
• At liquid–air interfaces, surface tension results from the greater
attraction of liquid molecules to each other (due to cohesion to adhesion)
than to the molecules in the air (due).
• The net effect is an inward force at its surface that causes the
liquid to behave as if its surface were covered with a stretched elastic
membrane. Thus, the surface becomes under tension from the
imbalanced forces, which is probably where the term "surface tension"
came from
.Because of the relatively high attraction of water molecules for
each other through a web of hydrogen bonds, water has a higher surface
tension (72.8 millinewtons per meter at 20 °C) compared to that of most
other liquids.
Surface tension is an important factor in the phenomenon of
capillarity.
 Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length or of
energy per unit area , The two are equivalent, but when referring to
energy per unit of area, it is common to use the term surface energy ,
which is a more general term in the sense that it applies also to solids .
In materials science , surface tension is used for either surface stress or
surface free energy.

Surface Tension: • Free surface of a liquid has tendency to contract in

surface area is called surface tension. • SI unit of Surface tension: N/m.
or (J/m²). • Its Dimension is [M⁰L¹T ²]. •

Temperature ↑ surface tension ↓ • At Critical temperature Surface

tension: Zero • Critical temperature of water 3744K • Surface tension
Increase with impurity. •

Surface tension is a property of liquids which is felt at the interface

between the liquid and another fluid (typically a gas). Surface tension
has dimensions of force per unit length, and always acts parallel to the
interface.
Surface molecules are subject to an attractive force from nearby
surface molecules so that the surface is in a state of tension.

The units of the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are called degrees . The symbol for degree is ° .

• Fahrenheit is a measure of temperature that is abbreviated F. • Water freezes at 32°F and boils at
212°F . • This scale was developed by Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit in 1714. • The Fahrenheit scale is
used in the USA but not in many other countries . • The degrees in Fahrenheit are smaller than
those in Celsius, making weather-related temperatures more easily wri en (without having to use a
decimal point). • Celsius (also called Cen grade) is a measure of temperature that is abbreviated C . .
• Water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C • This scale was developed by Anders Celsius in 1742.
• Kelvin is a measure of temperature that is abbreviated K . • Kelvin is a temperature scale designed
so that 0 (zero) K is defined as absolute zero , and the size of one unit is the same as the size of one
degree Celsius . • (Absolute zero is a hypothe cal temperature at which all molecular movement
stops) . • All actual temperatures are above absolute zero. • Absolute zero would occur at -
273.16°C, -459.69°F, or 0 (zero) K.] • Water freezes at 273.16K; water boils at 373.16K . • Many scien
sts use this scale (because all the temperatures are posi ve, making calcula ons simpler) or the
Celsius scale . • This temperature scale was designed by Lord Kelvin (William Thomson).
• Temperature is how hot or cold something is. Temperature is really a measure of how fast the
atoms and molecules that make up a substance are moving cannot see it). (this movement is sub-
microscopic; you • A thermometer measures the temperature showing how hot or cold it is. of
something, • There are many different types of thermometers that measure the temperature of
different things. We use thermometers to measure the temperature of the air, our bodies, food, and
many other things . There are analog and digital thermometers . An analog thermometer shows the
temperature on a scale or dial; a digital thermometer shows the temperature as a number . • The
higher the number above zero, the higher the temperature .