Chapter 6: Memory

V. The Capacity of STM

Memory As Information Processing
A. George Miller suggested that STM had a
A. Memory is a set of systems involved in capacity of seven, plus or minus two,
the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of chunks of information.
information. B. A chunk is the representation in memory
B. Using one's memory involves three of a meaningful unit of information.
interrelated processes.
1. Encoding is the active process of VI. Long-Term Memory (LTM)
putting information into memory a
matter of forming cognitive A. Long-term memory (LTM) refers to
representations of information. memory for large amounts of information
2. Storage is the process of holding that is held for long periods of time.
encoded information in memory. B. It is not known how long information
3. Retrieval involves the process of remains stored in LTM.
locating, removing, and using C. It is possible that memory is
information stored in memory. reconstructed from recollections of past
experiences.
II. Sensory Memory D. Simple repetition of information is seldom
sufficient to process it into long-term
A. Sensory memory stores a large amount memory.
of information for a few seconds or less. E. Elaborative rehearsal refers to thinking
B. There are sensory memory systems for about, organizing, and forming images of
each sense, but two are usually considered. information to make it meaningful; or
1. Visual sensory memory, or iconic relating information to something already in
memory, is the sensory store LTM.
associated with vision. 1. This term was proposed by Craik
2. Echoic memory is the sensory and Lockhart in 1972. 2. It is not an
storage system associated with the either-or process; information can be
sense of hearing. elaborated to greater or lesser
degrees.
C. Information is not encoded in sensory
memory; it is stored just as it is received. VII. Are There Different Types of
Long-Term Memories?
III. Short-Term Memory (STM)
A. Declarative memory includes semantic
A. Information from sensory memory can be memory and episodic information can be
processed more fully by moving it into intentionally recalled. memory from which
short-term memory. 1. Vocabulary, concepts, language
B. Short-term memory (STM) is a level, or rules, and facts are stored in
store, in human memory with limited semantic memory.
capacity and, without the benefit of a. Clustering refers to the
rehearsal, a brief duration. process of recalling related
C. This STM is often called working items ofinformation together
memory. on the basis of shared
1. Information from sensory memory or associations.
from long-term memory can be b. Subjective organization
moved into STM, where we can refers to the process of
work with it. imposing personal
2. Getting information into STM organization if there is a list
requires that one attend to it of unrelated words to recall.
c. Hierarchical network models
IV. The Duration of STM propose that concepts or
propositions are stored in
A. Maintenance rehearsal is the simple interrelated, predictable
repetition of information already in STM. ways.
B. STM can hold information for
approximately 15 to 20 seconds.
 2. In episodic memory, life events and stored in memory can lead to
personal experiences are stored. inaccurate reconstruction.
a. It is time-related, and 2. At encoding, inadequate separation
experiences are stored in of episodes from other similar
chronological order. episodes may cause a person not to
b. A separate category is remember a feature specific to a
autobiographical memory, given episode.
which contains events
(episodes) that are D. Retrieval cues may match more than one
particularly significant. set of features representing more than one
c. Some episodic memories are episode.
formed and stimulated by
senses rather than verbal E. A repressed memory is one that is so
descriptions. Certain odors, disturbing that a person has pushed it into
for example may evoke the unconscious where it is no longer
specific episodic memories. readily available for retrieval.
d. There are consistent gender 1. There is controversy as to whether
differences in the recall of memories recovered during therapy
episodic memories. Females are actual or false memories.
tend to recall those with an 2. There is ample research showing
emotional flavor (particularly that memories can be implanted.
positive) than do men. There 3. This is an important issue for
are sex differences in the role psychology, as well as the legal
of the amygdale in forming system.
and retrieving episodic
memories. F. Eyewitness testimony is another area in
which the accuracy of long-term memory is
B. Nondeclarative memory (procedural of critical importance.
memory) involves the acquisition, retention, 1. Compromise memory involves the
and retrieval of performance skills such as a blending of conflicting information in
tennis stroke or golf swing. memory so that an "averaged"
version of information will be
VIII. On the Accuracy of Long-term recalled.
Memories a. The weapons focus effect
claims that eyewitnesses are
A. Determining the accuracy of past more likely to notice a
experiences is difficult. weapon than characteristics
B. According to Bartlett, people tend to form of a perpetrator. b. The
features of what is experienced. weapon is even more likely
1. Through a process called to be a focus if the
reconstructive memory, features are perpetrator is female.
retrieved and reconstructed to form
a report of what was encoded and 2. There is much debate about whether
stored. eyewitness testimony is accurate.
2. Recent research and theory support
Bartlett's general idea. IX. Where and How are Memories
a. Features are scattered Formed in the Brain?
widely over different parts of
the brain. A. Scientists assume that most human
b. Therefore, no single part of memories are stored in the cerebral cortex,
the brain houses a complete but recognize that other, lower structures
memory. are involved.
c.
C. Sometimes, the reconstruction process 1. The hippocampus seems most
results in inaccurate reports of what is in necessary for memory formation.
memory 2. Retrograde amnesia refers to the
1. Inadequate connections among the loss of memory for events that
features associated with an event occurred before the onset of
amnesia.
 requires fewer trials than did the
3 Anterograde amnesia occurs when one is original learning.
unable to remember events occurring after 2. Procedural memory (knowing how to
the onset of amnesia do things) is another example of an
indirect measure of memory.
B. Memories are formed when changes
occur in the cerebral cortex that are, in part, XI. Retrieval and How We Encode
influenced by the action of the Memories
hippocampus.
C. Memory formation can be influenced by A. The Power of Context
changes at the synapse.
1. The encoding specificity principle
1. With repetition or experience, the asserts that how we retrieve
flow of impulses across synapses information depends on how it was
becomeseasier. encoded in the first place,
2. The neurotransmitter, glutamate, 2. State-dependent memory refers to
causes a change in the ion balance the idea that retrieval depends on
on the postsynaptic membrane, so the extent to which a person's state
that the neuron may be stimulated of mind at retrieval matches the
more readily. person's state of mind at encoding.
3. Other research claims that what 3. Flash-bulb memories refer to
matters are changes (increases in memories that are unusually clear
the number of receptor sites) in the and vivid, but emotions surrounding
postsynaptic membrane. an remembered event are less clear
and vivid than details of the event.
X. Retrieval and How We Measure It
B. The Usefulness of Meaningfulness
A. Direct, Explicit Measures of Memory
1. Recall asks someone to produce 1. Meaningfulness refers to the extent
information to which he or she has to which new information evokes
been previously exposed. associations with information already
a. In free recall, a person can in LTM.
recall information in any 2. Meaningfulness resides in the
order, but is given the fewest learner, not in the material to be
retrieval cues. learned.
b. In serial recall, a person is
required to recall information C. The Value of Mnemonic Devices
in the order presented.
c. In cued recall, retrieval cues 1. Mnemonic devices are encoding
are provided. techniques that can aid retrieval of
information
2. In recognition, a person is asked to a. a. Narrative chaining occurs
identify previously experienced when unorganized material is
material. woven into a meaningful
a. First, the person must story. Imagery at encoding
retrieve information stored in can improve retrieval, such
memory. as the key word
b. Second, the person must b. method of study. The method
match that memory with of loci involves taking a
material to be recognized well-known location and
and decide whether the visually placing material to be
material was seen before. recalled in various places.

B. Indirect, Implicit Measures of Memory D. The Role of Schemas

1. Relearning is the change in
performance that occurs when one 1. A schema is an organized mental
is required to learn material for a representation of the world that is
second time and almost always adaptive and formed by experience.
 a. A person scheme helps to
organize information about
the characteristics of people.
b. A role scheme includes
information and expectations
about how people in certain
roles should behave.
c. Event schemes house ideas
about how events should
occur.

2. Retrieval is enhanced when

information he remembers is
consistent with prior, existing
information.

XII. Retrieval and How We Schedule

Practice

A. Overlearning
1. Overlearning is the process of
practicing or rehearsing material
over and above what is needed to
learn it.
2. Overlearning improves retrieval, but
a diminishing returns phenomenon
occurs.
3. The benefits of overlearning may not
be long lasting.

B. Scheduling, or Spacing. Practice

1. In massed-practice conditions, there
is no break between learning trials.
2. In distributed-practice, rest intervals
are interspersed among the learning
trials.
3. Short and meaningful study periods
are more efficient than study periods
massed together

XIII. Retrieval and How We Overcome

Interference

A. Retroactive interference occurs when

interfering activities come after the learning
that is to be remembered or retrieved.
B. Proactive interference occurs when
previously learned material interferes with
the retrieval of material learned later.

XIV. A Final Note on Practicing Retrieval

A. Certainly in classroom testing situations,

what really gets measured is not how much
one learns, but how much one can correctly
retrieve from long-term storage.
B. Retrieval is enhanced to the extent that
one practices retrieval.
C. Here is justification for self-testing.