Analysis Paper 63 | February 2024

Science O f L e arning
Part 1: O verview and Background
of the Science of Le arning
Trisha Jha

Analysis Paper 63
Contents

Executive Summary......................................................................................................................................1

Introduction.................................................................................................................................................. 2

Politics, philosophy and education......................................................................................................... 3

Progressive education in Australia............................................................................................................5

Progressive education versus modern evidence................................................................................. 7

Neuromyths........................................................................................................................................................8

What is the science of learning?..............................................................................................................9

Defining learning............................................................................................................................................. 9

Key concepts in cognitive science...........................................................................................................10

Biologically primary knowledge vs biologically secondary knowledge...................................... 10

Knowledge and skills are specific to domains, not generally applicable.................................... 10

Working memory is limited; long-term memory is the only way to improve it........................... 11

Cognitive load theory uses these models to inform instruction................................................... 12

Explicit teaching: connecting cognitive science insights to effective practice..........................13

The policy architecture of teaching and learning ............................................................................. 15

The Alice Springs (Mparntwe) Declaration.......................................................................................... 16

Initial teacher education.............................................................................................................................. 17

Professional standards, accreditation and registration................................................................... 18

The policy push for ‘evidence-based practice’................................................................................... 19

Implications of the science of learning............................................................................................... 20

For teachers....................................................................................................................................................20

For parents....................................................................................................................................................... 21

For policymakers............................................................................................................................................ 21

Conclusion...................................................................................................................................................22

References...................................................................................................................................................23
Executive Summary
Despite billions of additional dollars and • Domain-specific and domain-general
concerted efforts at reforming several skills: domain-general skills overlap
pillars of the Australian education with biologically-primary knowledge but
ecosystem, students’ results continue to critical thinking and analysis are specific
plateau. While the focus on teaching quality to domains such as maths, history etc;
and effective, evidence-based practices
• Working memory and long-term
is welcome, it is incomplete. Australian
memory: working memory is severely
education needs to position the science of
limited and can only handle small
learning as the foundation for policy and
amounts of new information; making it
practice.
a funnel to long-term memory. A strong
The establishment of the Australian long-term memory can help strengthen
Education Research Organisation (AERO) — working memory; and
in particular its recent work How students • Cognitive load theory: given these
learn best — and the Strong Beginnings models of human cognition, teachers
report into initial teacher education reforms should design instruction to optimise
are important because they create space the burden on working memory in a
for shifting focus towards the science of way that best helps learning.
learning.
The teaching approach best supported by
Unfortunately, key pillars of Australian the evidence is explicit instruction of a well-
education policy do not reflect the science sequenced, knowledge-focused curriculum.
of learning, due to the far-reaching impacts Some key features of explicit instruction
of progressive educational beliefs dating include:
back to the eighteenth century.
• Careful ordering of curriculum content
These beliefs include that: so that new information and concepts
are built sequentially;
• Students learn best when they guide
their own learning and it aligns with • Explanation of new information in small
their interest; steps, taught through modelling and
worked examples, with student practice
• Rote learning is harmful; after each step;
• Learning should be based on projects • Asking questions and checking for all
or experiences, and that doing this will students’ understanding of what has
result in critical and creative thinkers. been taught before gradual release
of students for independent work and
But these beliefs are contradicted by the
more complex tasks; and
science of learning, which is the connection
between: 1) insights from cognitive science • Regular review of previous content to
and educational psychology; and 2) the ensure retention.
teaching practices supported (and not
supported) by those insights. Key concepts There are many implications for the science
include: of learning:

• Biologically primary knowledge • For teachers, it is an opportunity to

(BPK) and biologically secondary design instruction in a way that is likely
knowledge (BSK): These concepts are to lead to most students’ success with
not about stages of schooling. Rather, learning;
BPK includes things like basic social • Parents can become more informed
relations and problem-solving skills we about how their child will learn best and
have evolved to learn and do not need more empowered when selecting or
to be taught. In contrast, BSK includes having conversations with their child’s
foundational skills — like reading, school; and
writing, maths as well as coding,
Cubism and how to kick a football (what • For policymakers, it provides a
schools are for) — we can only learn foundation for future reform of policy at
through instruction; all levels.

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 Introduction knowledge as the basis for teacher
professionalism and for student learning.

In recent years, the debate around school Concurrently, recent policy developments
effectiveness and school improvement have also helped to shift the trajectory of
has evolved, from structural elements of the debate. One is the 2020 establishment
education policy (such as funding, class of the Australian Education Research
sizes, school sectors and autonomy) to Organisation. Intended to help improve
a more intensive focus on the quality education outcomes by empowering
of teaching and learning — particularly educators with research and evidence, in
through the language of evidence-based September 2023 they released the report
practice. How students learn best: an overview of
the evidence, which explores effective
However, despite this increased policy teaching practices through the lens of how
attention — combined with significant students learn.1
injections of funding for education —
educational outcomes have not shifted in A more concrete policy development
the desired direction, with the most recent is the Strong Beginnings report, which
NAPLAN results showing roughly a third of (among other things) recommended that
students are not at the expected standard. initial teacher education degree courses
There are many reasons for this, but an include mandated core content such as
important contributor is the long legacy what effective teaching practices are and
of progressive educational philosophy why they align with scientific insights.2 By
and continuing vagueness embedded in stating explicitly what pre-service teachers
the policy landscape regarding the most need to know about the brain and learning
effective practices and how to implement and effective pedagogical practices, the
them. This is not for lack of knowledge report endorsed a conception of teaching
about what practices are most effective. that aligns with the principles of the
The past few decades of academic research science of learning.
into cognitive science and educational
Research suggests that evidence plays a
psychology have yielded many insights into
significant role in how teachers think about
how humans learn new information, with
their work, but ‘evidence’ is a broad term
valuable insights for education practice
and without a proper grounding in cognitive
— what is called ‘the science of learning’.
science foundations, many practices can
Unfortunately, this ‘science of learning’ has
be believed to be evidence-based while
informed policy and practice in only very
contradicting fundamental elements of
limited ways.
cognitive science. So, despite a relatively
The assertion that education should be positive finding from AERO that two-
underpinned by a scientific understanding thirds of teachers they surveyed use some
of how students learn seems commonsense form of evidence,3 such figures should
to a layperson. However, this scientific be interpreted with caution. Fortunately,
understanding is ignored in the the existence and work of AERO and the
underpinnings of several aspects of the Teacher Education Expert Panel’s Strong
current policy architecture regarding Beginnings report suggests a policy
teacher training, standards, curriculum appetite for moving beyond the status quo
content and teaching guidance. in education.

In an attempt to cut through the woolliness But despite growing enthusiasm for the
of this messaging, grassroots efforts from science of learning, there is no clear
segments of the education profession have consensus about what the science of
attempted to do the work themselves; learning is and how its principles can be
through running their own conferences adopted in both education policy and
and creating their own learning networks, education practice. This paper is the first
both formal and informal. Grassroots in a series that aims to fill this gap. This
initiatives to advance and promote science paper will outline a history of educational
of learning knowledge and practice are philosophy and approaches in Australia
the subject of future CIS research. Rather before elaborating on the science of
than representing a return to ‘traditional’ learning and practices that are supported
education that de-individualises teachers — or are not supported — by this body of
and students, the science of learning knowledge. The current policy architecture
emphasises contemporary scientific is analysed with respect to what

2
assumptions about teaching and learning and driven by his or her interests, and
are being made therein, before outlining that a truly educated person is one who
the implications of the science of learning has discovered knowledge for themselves,
for teachers, parents and policymakers. rather than being taught by a tutor or
The paper concludes with discussion of teacher.
areas for future research.
It is a truism that the modern classroom,
Politics, philosophy with its emphasis on a set curriculum,
and education physical classrooms and timetables —
often derided as the ‘factory model’ of
To adequately construct a case for why schooling — had its origins in the Industrial
a new set of first principles for education Revolution to prepare children for a lifetime
is needed, it is first important to briefly working in tightly controlled and directed
survey past attitudes and approaches, both environments of the era. However, what
in the Western world more broadly and is now termed ‘progressive education’, the
in Australia specifically. This section will dominant philosophy of education in the
show the old roots of several contemporary twentieth century, had its origins as early
beliefs about education, such as the notion as the eighteenth century in philosophy,
that education must be tailored to the child particularly as it related to new ideas about
democratic theory and practice (Box 1).

Box 1: A new, democratic education fostering the love of learning for its own
sake, where the ‘old education’ instead
In the 18th and 19th centuries, the growth “aimed… at purely passive reception by
of democratic ideas brought to the fore means of the power of memory” and
the need for better education for the “mechanical rote-learning.”7 The antipathy
common man. The earliest text in this vein towards rote-learning is a common theme
was political philosopher Jean-Jacques and addressed further in Box 2.
Rousseau’s Emile, published in 1762.
Here, Rousseau advocates a naturalistic Given the span of individuals across
approach to education for ‘Emile’, under centuries and countries of its advocates,
the watchful guise of his tutor. Rousseau’s it is difficult to argue that there is one
other work was also on this theme, simple unified theory of educational
advocating physical training (“To learn to progressivism. Nevertheless, some key
think we must exercise the limbs, senses principles can be said to unify them,
and organs, which are the instruments according to William Reese on the origins
of intellect”) and play-based — that is, of progressive education:
driven by the child and their interest —
learning for students up to the age of 12, … something fascinating had emerged in
eschewing traditional subject teaching.4 educational thought by the nineteenth
century. Critics of traditional forms of
Even for students older than this, child rearing and classroom instruction
Rousseau argues their education in condemned what they saw as insidious
traditional subject areas or disciplines notions about the nature of children and
should be guided by the student’s desire the antediluvian practices of the emerging
to learn it, rather than giving the student public school system… They proclaimed
knowledge (“He is not to learn science: he that children were active, not passive,
is to find it out for himself”).5 Rousseau’s learners; that children were innocent and
ideas were further built upon by Pestalozzi, good, not fallen; that women, not men,
who believed education was about best reared and educated the young;
guiding children’s natural impressions: that early education, without question,
“the business of instruction is to remove made all the difference; that nature, and
the confusion of [the child’s] first sense not books alone, was perhaps the best
impressions.”6 teacher; that kindness and benevolence,
not stern discipline or harsh rebukes,
The 19th century saw the further should reign in the home and classroom;
development of these ideas, with German and, finally, that the curriculum needed
philosopher and political reformer Johann serious reform, to remove the vestiges of
Gottlieb Fichte who posited that education medievalism. All agreed that what usually
should be about shaping a pupil’s passed for education was mind-numbing,
character for his own good and that of unnatural, and pernicious, a sin against
the nation, and his ‘new education’ about childhood.8

3
 The origins of modern progressive educa- In the latter part of the twentieth cen-
tion lie in the work of John Dewey, who is tury, progressive education was subject to
often referred to as the ‘father’ of progres- further offshoots and evolutions. Debates
sive education. The irony of this is that remained between those who had an overly
Dewey (though his conclusions are wrong romantic and individualistic understand-
by the standards of twenty-first century ing of a child’s education (sometimes laden
science) and his predecessor Johann Frie- with religiosity in language and theme),
drich Herbart, did important work in pio- and the criticism of this by those who saw
neering educational science.9 progressive education in the context of
broader social philosophy and viewed edu-
Both Herbart and Dewey developed theo- cation as a way to remediate social prob-
ries about education, put them into practice lems related to race and poverty.14
(Herbart taught students in a demonstra-
tion school and ran a training college;10 A key figure here is Paulo Freire, who criti-
Dewey ran a ‘Laboratory School’ at the cised what he called the ‘banking’ concept
University of Chicago) and attempted to of education as “an instrument of oppres-
measure impact to refine the theory. This sion”. Freire described ‘banking’ as:
is rudimentary educational science. Indeed,
Dewey described his approach thus: Narration (with the teacher as
narrator) leads the students to
If there is a science of education it memorize mechanically the narrated
is an experimental science, not a content. Worse yet, it turns them
purely deductive one. All well-or- into “containers,” into “receptacles”
dered experiment presupposes two to be “filled” by the teacher. The
things: a working hypothesis, an more completely she fills the recep-
idea to be put to the test, and ad- tacles, the better a teacher she is.
equate facilities for making the test. The more meekly the receptacles
There must be a continual union of permit themselves to be filled, the
theory and practice; of reaction of better students they are. Education
one into the other. The leading idea thus becomes an act of deposit-
must direct and clarify the work; ing, in which the students are the
the work must serve to criticise, to depositories and the teacher is the
modify, to build up the theory.11 depositor…15

Despite this important development, Freire accepted what was by his time an
Dewey’s theories about education were old tradition of critiquing memorisation and
not substantially different from his prede- suppression of a child’s natural instincts
cessors all the way back to Rousseau and (see Boxes 1 and 2) and added a political
Pestalozzi: in particular his Pestalozzi-like dimension. His ‘critical pedagogy’ advocat-
view that the ideal home was a model for ed that teacher-driven models of instruc-
school — where students engaged in learn- tion are inherently oppressive because they
ing by doing, related to home life, and for- created a hierarchy in which the teacher
mal instruction in reading and writing came ‘knows’ and is therefore valuable, whereas
as late as 8 years old.12 a student lacks knowledge and is thus val-
ued less:
Dewey’s educational philosophy inspired
others to apply it into the context of twen- … knowledge is a gift bestowed by
tieth century public education. W. H. Kilpat- those who consider themselves
rick’s ‘Project Method’ of teaching (1918) knowledgeable upon those whom
emphasises student learning through their they consider to know nothing. Pro-
own activity. Kilpatrick notes that there jecting an absolute ignorance onto
would be changes needed in schools in others, a characteristic of the ideol-
terms of furniture, architecture, textbooks, ogy of oppression, negates educa-
curricula and programs and ‘grading and tion and knowledge as processes of
promotion’.13 Another example was Helen inquiry… [Instead], education must
Parkhurst’s Dalton Method (1920), which is begin with the resolution of the
still used in at least one Australian school teacher-student contradiction, by
today. reconciling the poles of the contra-

4
 diction so that both are simultane- iterations, such as emphasis on the “whole”
ously teachers and students (em- person or child, learning by doing/active
phasis original).16 learning/learning through experience,
democratic and community engagement,
and real-world application.18 However, it
A critical pedagogy positions student-led
is one thing to observe the penetration of
learning as good for students but also these ideas across Europe and the United
argues that teacher-led learning is oppres- States and another to demonstrate their
sive. Given Freire’s philosophy is taught influence in Australia (though arguably,
to pre-service teachers in initial teacher neither case can be made comprehensively
education,17 it is easy to see how it could for reasons of sheer scale of schools,
potentially create hostility towards methods teachers and classrooms).
in which the teacher explicitly teaches. Echoing the criticisms of the US education
system’s over-emphasis on memorisation
(see Box 2), Australian professor Francis
Progressive education in Australia Anderson gave a speech in 1901 at the
University of Sydney in which he decried
Contemporary scholarship on progressive Australian students being taught to parrot,
education maintains some of the same like “New Guinea—North of Australia—birds
language observed in its historical of Paradise—gold”.19

Box 2: Rote learning and memorisation

Progressive educationalists of the 19th and early 20th century were united in a desire
to see the end of certain methods of teaching perceived as dominant, such as
‘memorisation of various facts’. This has continued to this day, with ‘Gradgrindian’
(after Dickens’ school superintendent in 1854’s Hard Times) still used by modern
commentators on education as a byword for what they see as mindless rote learning
and parroting of meaningless facts.20

In Dewey’s time, observations of US classrooms saw students memorise and recite

information such as “the boundaries and capitals, and principal towns and rivers
of States and nation” (Charles F. Adams in 1879) and “the names, dates, and chief
performances of the eighteen presidents of the United States” (an unnamed visitor as
quoted in J.G. Fitch, 1890).21

It is difficult to say with any certainty why this was a favoured approach to teaching
in some quarters, through Roediger states that this emphasis on memorisation was
part of a theory of formal discipline — that if someone was able to memorise a large
volume of content, they would be able to memorise other things more easily.22

This is interesting for two reasons. First, progressive educationalists were right in
their critique of memorisation, to the extent that this represented the be-all and
end-all of education. A return to this narrow view is not desirable. However, this also
shows that the reason for this obsession with memorisation — that memorisation
would generate ‘transferable’ or ‘generalisable’ skills in students — is still with us
today.

Rather than rejecting memorisation and the importance of memory, a better path for
modern education is to understand how memory works and to draw implications for
teaching practice from this knowledge, rather than the other way around.

5
 Crittenden, in his essay on the philosophy part of teacher education scholarship and
of education in Australia, notes the practice for many decades now.
influence of Herbart and Dewey in the early
part of the twentieth century, particularly There are more explicit ways in which
Dewey’s focus on problem-solving and strands of Dewey’s work — though,
inquiry skills.23 notably, less so his attempts at building
educational science — influence Australian
However, Crittenden also states that the education theory and practice. Dewey’s
best-known application of Dewey’s idea influence can arguably be seen in formal
was Kilpatrick’s ‘project method’, which government advice as to how to teach. The
he states “over-played individual interest 2003 government-commissioned report
in decisions on learning activities at the Making History: A Guide for the Teaching
expense of the place Dewey gave to the and Learning of History in Australian
systematic disciplines.”24 He also notes Schools, said the proper teaching of history
that influential texts on teacher training, should emphasise inquiry and critical
such as Australian educationalist Margaret thinking29 and that students’ informal
Mackie’s Educative Teaching (1968), see knowledge must be acknowledged and
the practice as “training in critical and built upon.30 It has also been argued
creative thinking.”25 that the Australian Curriculum’s ‘Ethical
Understanding‘, which is one of the cross-
In general, the trend in educational domain ‘general capabilities’ (i.e. intended
philosophy in Australia in the middle of to be embedded across all subjects and
the twentieth century mirrored that of domains for Foundation to Year 10) is an
elsewhere, with debates around the social example of Dewey’s influence.31
role of education taking place between
those that advocated strong education Dewey’s work continues to frame the work
for an informed citizen in a democracy, of Australian education researchers. For
and those who believed education should instance, Dewey’s thinking is used as a
be at the vanguard of broader ‘social challenge to ‘best practice’ and ‘standards-
reconstruction’. driven reform’ in the Australian context,
with claims that Dewey rejected “recipes
While the full extremes of the social and models to be followed in teaching”.32
reconstruction view have not been felt Other research has emphasised the
in Australia, Crittenden (writing in the democratic strand of Dewey’s thinking;
mid-1980s) observed that education as a focusing on the extent to which teachers
vehicle to “ensure equal opportunity for are able to truly ‘educate’ if they are
positions of economic and other advantage” unable to function democratically: “For
had become an article of faith in recent Dewey (1977a, p. 233) democracy means
reports and policy thinking of the past two that persons are “to have a share in
decades.26 In parallel, he notes the trend determining the conditions and the aims of
for ‘interpretive’ research in education [their] work”.33
abroad which drew on ethnographic
methods and in Australia was rebutted in One 2021 paper examined to what extent
favour of ‘action research’ based in critical Dewey’s four principles of experiential
theory. ‘Action research’ is where teachers learning, interdisciplinary and progressive
devise a problem and carry out their own education, democratic learning and
research, typically on their own practice.27 interactive learning are reflected in the
education system in NSW.34 The Australian
It is important to state that this form of Association for Research in Education
research is very much current in twenty- (AARE) hosted an online conference in
first century Australian education, notably 2022 with the title ‘The legacy of John
forming the foundation of mandatory pre- Dewey on Contemporary Pedagogy’.35
service teacher assessment at universities, While far from exhaustive, this shows
as well as the certification for graduate that Dewey and his brand of progressive
teachers moving to proficient in Victoria education have been highly influential in
to attain full teacher registration.28 That the Australian educational context.
the theoretical origins of action research
are critical of empiricism and ‘positivism’ Progressive education, in believing that
suggests that the devaluation of scientific education should be about more than
evidence has been well embedded as memorisation of information and about

6
developing children and young people who the basis of the latest research
are capable of thriving in modern liberal findings.36
democracies, has undoubtedly won the day
in the sense that this is now the bedrock This is not for lack of cumulative evidence
philosophy about the purpose of education. that some teaching methods were more
effective than others. For instance,
However, desired ends do not always Project Follow Through was a large-scale
translate to appropriate means. As educational experiment that took place
progressive education has become more in the United States beginning in 1968.
influential, beginning in the latter part Over 700,000 school-age children in 170
of the twentieth century, it has become disadvantaged communities were assigned
increasingly clear that modern education to different educational programs with
needs to be informed by science if it is to different foci (affective: promoting self-
achieve its noble goals. esteem; cognitive: generalised thinking;
and basic skills: foundational literacy
Progressive education versus and numeracy, including through the
modern evidence Engelmann Direct Instruction program).

The problem that has emerged in more Of the nine programs across these foci, the
recent decades is that as the pedagogies only programs to show consistent growth
inspired by progressive educational in student achievement across foundational
philosophy have spread and become skills were Direct Instruction and another
mainstream, education research — basic skills program called Behaviour
particularly in the fields of psychology and Analysis. However, Direct Instruction also
cognitive science — has developed in a showed positive impacts on the cognitive
way that casts doubt on the effectiveness skill and self-esteem scores of students
of these methods in the context of even though they were not directly
contemporary mass scale public education. targeted by the program.37 In other words,
well-sequenced and explicit teaching of
At the same time, the translation of academic knowledge and skills not only
that educational science, first into developed student ability in those areas,
knowledge held by teachers, and then but arguably helped to develop the ‘whole
into their practice, has occurred unevenly. child’ more effectively than other methods.
Washington University psychology
researcher Henry L. Roediger III observed Perhaps because of the long history
over a decade ago that “once an idea takes of progressive educational philosophy,
hold, it is hard to root out”, writing: according to which programs such as DI
would be considered insufficiently student-
The field of education seems directed and democratic, the findings of
particularly susceptible to the allure Project Follow Through were not seen for
of plausible but untested ideas the watershed in education research that
and fads (especially ones that they represented.
are lucrative for their inventors).
One could write an interesting Subsequent research, termed ‘process-
history of ideas based on either product research’, focused on the
plausible theory or somewhat flimsy relationship between observed teaching
research—the various methods of actions and behaviours and student
teaching math, reading, foreign outcomes to gain further clarity about what
languages, and on and on—that will help students learn.38
have come and gone over the
years… [I]n an ideal world, cognitive However, while Project Follow Through
and educational psychologists provides evidence — now half a century
would have created a translational old — about what methods are likely to be
educational science that would effective, neither it nor process-product
be eagerly adopted by education research on their own can explain why
schools and educators who would these instructional methods result in better
want to improve education on student outcomes.

7
 Neuromyths observational studies. While people may
have preferences or styles, that is not the
By the beginnings of the twenty-first same thing as a student learning better if
century, a new emphasis on neuroscience taught in a certain way. Instead, methods
and the brain was impacting public policy, of teaching should be based on the nature
with the US government declaring the of what is being taught. For example,
1990s ‘the decade of the brain’.39 However, many parts of mathematics require visual
a consequence of policy enthusiasm representation and it would be difficult to
untempered by scientific scepticism learn a new language without ever hearing
saw the emergence of myths and or speaking it.41
misconceptions about the brain, particularly
as it pertained to learning. This discussion of neuromyths is far from
exhaustive. Others include Piagetian
As early as 2002, the OECD published the conceptions of fixed age-related stages of
book Understanding the Brain: Towards cognitive development (if a child is outside
a New Learning Science, which dedicated their age-stage then they cannot learn),42
a section to ‘neuromyths’: what they are, students remember a small percentage
how they are mistakenly applied in real life of what they read or hear but a large
and what the evidence from neuroscience percentage of what they do (therefore
and cognitive psychology truly is. teachers should minimise reading and
One such neuromyth is ‘hemisphere explanations and students should learn
dominance’ or specialisation (i.e., that through experience) and the belief that
some people are right- or left-brained people retain new information better if
as a way to explain their traits, talents it is ‘discovered’ for oneself (therefore
and interests). Instead, the truth is that teachers should not simply tell students
while some tasks are dominant in one what they need to know but facilitate them
hemisphere, both hemispheres of the brain to discover it themselves). As this paper
have some role to play in most mental will show, on this latter point especially,
processes.40 the evidence is quite plainly in the opposite
direction.
Other neuromyths include visual, auditory,
and kinaesthetic (VAK) learning styles In more recent decades, the newer
and Gardner’s multiple intelligences developments in cognitive science and
theory. Cognitive psychology does not educational psychology have helped to
support these theories and nor is their explain how learning truly happens in
efficacy as a basis for teaching and the brain — and why some instructional
learning demonstrated in laboratory or practices are more effective than others.

Box 3: Where have neuromyths Another theory comes from American

come from? educationalist E.D. Hirsch, who links
modern neuromyths to a culture of
An interesting question is why these
‘hyper-individualism’ in American
neuromyths emerged and why it has
education and argues it is rooted in child-
been so difficult to eliminate them
centred progressive education, quoting
from how teachers are trained and
Dewey to support: “Education, therefore,
how individuals perceive themselves
— after all, endorsement of teaching must begin with a psychological insight
to students’ learning styles can be into the child’s capacities, interests
found in contemporary teacher training and habits. It must be controlled at
textbooks.43 A frequent observation is every point by reference to these same
the research to practice gap — where considerations.” Hirsch also cautions that
practices in education continue to the idea of inborn interests or inborn
be based on unfounded theories — capabilities such as those suggested
which puts the onus on to scientists to by VAK learning styles or multiple
accurately communicate with relevant intelligences can metastasise into notions
professionals about their findings and of inborn ability, which is the opposite of
‘translating’ this into practice.44 progressive education.45

8
What is the science has been added to long-term memory,
nothing has been learned.”47
of learning?
The influence of both versions of this
Put simply, the science of learning is definition is visible in the England schools
the cognitive science of how students inspectorate Ofsted’s current guidance for
learn, connected with the instructional school inspections, which states: “Learning
implications of that science.
can be defined as an alteration in long-
This two-part formulation of the science term memory. If nothing has altered in
of learning also aligns with the distinction long-term memory, nothing has been
proposed in the Strong Beginnings report, learned.”48 Similarly, AERO states “Learning
where ‘effective pedagogical practices’ is a change in long-term memory” as one
corresponds with what the evidence of four key areas of focus in its overview of
suggests about the best way to teach, and how students learn best.49
‘the brain and learning’ provides the ‘why’;
the facts about human cognition which Though influential and advanced by
form the foundation of effective practice. experts in cognitive science, the Kirschner,
Sweller and Clark definition is by no means
For the science of learning to become accepted as definitive. Cognitive scientist
the basis of teaching and learning
Daniel Willingham has noted that learning
practice across the education ecosystem,
is difficult to define outside specific narrow
practitioners at all levels require a sound
understanding of both how students learn contexts, and definitions are contestable.50
best and what teaching practices are — and Another definition comes from Nicholas
are not — likely to lead to effective learning C. Soderstrom and Robert A. Bjork, who
for students.
offer a definition of learning as “relatively
It is important to note that while there is permanent changes in comprehension,
a degree of academic debate concerning understanding, and skills of the types
founding principles and models of human that will support long-term retention and
cognition, the implications for teaching transfer”, but also distinguish learning
and learning within classroom settings from performance: “learning needs to be
are generally consistent. Science is never distinguished from performance, which
‘settled’ and refinements to theory will refers to the temporary fluctuations
always occur as the volume of relevant in behaviour or knowledge that can
knowledge grows, but this is not a be observed and measured during
reason to reject the science of learning
or immediately after the acquisition
as a foundation for teaching and learning
process.”51
practices.
Both definitions have similarities, notably
Defining learning the emphasis on change and the long-
term/permanent nature of that change.
To explain a ‘science of learning’, it is The Kirschner, Sweller and Clark definition
necessary to first offer some definitions specifies that memory is the site of
of ‘learning’ as it might apply to a school that change whereas Soderstrom and
context. Bjork’s definition, by using the terms
One definition comes from cognitive “understanding and skills”, implies
scientists Paul A. Kirschner, John Sweller demonstration; though, of course, one
and Richard E. Clark. In their original 2006 cannot demonstrate something that one
article in the Educational Psychologist does not know.
journal, the authors state “Learning, in
turn, is defined as a change in long-term Therefore, learning — both as a process
memory”.46 In their summary of this article and an end result — has a strong link to
for the American Federation of Teachers the brain and cognitive procedures. It is
magazine in 2012, the authors state “the knowledge of these that should become
aim of all instruction is to add knowledge an integral part of teacher knowledge and
and skills to long-term memory. If nothing practice.

9
 Key concepts in cognitive science Though BPK provides the foundation for
learning BSK, they are not the same and
1) ‘Biologically primary’ knowledge is BSK cannot be acquired through immersive
distinct from ‘biologically secondary’ and experiential learning in the same way
knowledge, and acquired differently BPK is. Instead, the purpose of schools and
other forms of education and training is to
One fundamental concept to the science explicitly instruct people in the knowledge
of learning was developed by University and skills that cannot be acquired
of Missouri evolutionary psychologist naturally,57 which can include fields as
David C. Geary: the distinction between diverse as coding, Cubism, or kicking a
biologically primary knowledge (BPK) and football.
biologically secondary knowledge (BSK).
The distinction is important because it has 2) Knowledge and skills are specific to
implications for how knowledge is acquired domains, not generally applicable
— it does not refer to the difference
If the categories of knowledge that can be
between primary and secondary school in acquired relatively effortlessly is limited,
the Australian context. then other categories of knowledge
In short, BPK relates to things humans required to equip a person for modern
have evolved to learn how to do through life are vast and require instruction. How
necessity of survival. One example is how can such a vast array of knowledge be
humans view themselves and each other in organised and taught in the context of
modern schools?
order to interact and negotiate socially with
others (folk psychology), which includes One view, seen in elements of progressive
using and comprehending verbal language, education, as well as formal discipline’s
as well as conveying and interpreting emphasis on memory (Box 2), is that by
emotions. Because evolution has meant teaching broad skills like inquiry or critical
these traits come naturally, children thinking, they can become ‘multipurpose
— according to Geary — “are largely muscles’ — transferable across domains
motivated to engage in activities that will and contexts. This idea continues to have
elaborate folk abilities”, such as socialising, currency and is evident when people say
exploration and playing with objects.52 education should be about ‘learning how to
learn’ or ‘how to think, not what to think’.
However, because other knowledge critical
to survival in modern life is not something However, research literature does not
that humans have evolved to acquire in support this idea. The Cambridge Handbook
the way BPK is, this learning will be a more of Expertise and Expert Performance states
effortful and less inherently motivating “Research clearly rejects the classical
process. Not only that, the “motivational views on human cognition in which general
interest” in, or bias toward, folk abilities abilities such as learning, reasoning,
can in practice distract from these other, problem solving, and concept formation
important types of knowledge.53 It is this correspond to capacities and abilities
category of knowledge that is referred to as that can be studied independently of the
‘biologically-secondary knowledge’ (BSK). content domains.”58

Geary defines BSK as “competencies By trying to teach ‘transferable’ skills,

acquired through formal or informal students are being asked to engage in
training”54 and “the acquisition of culturally random generation (of a solution to a
problem) and test (whether the solution is
important information and skills needed
effective in obtaining the desired result).
to live in modern societies.”55 Where
This process relies upon prior knowledge,
biologically primary knowledge is more
such as previous experience with a similar
effortlessly acquired, BSK requires
problem, to help in generation — but it
instruction. A simple example is the
does not require specific instruction as it is
difference between speaking in one’s native
a form of biologically primary knowledge.59
language (BPK) and the ability to read in
that same language (BSK) as the latter In addition, random generate-and-test
requires the ability to decode (connect is more efficient in gaining the correct
written symbols with their sounds).56 solution when performed by those who

10
have a great deal of prior experience and
domain-specific expertise60 compared to
those, such as students, who have very
little. Instead, these learners can only
develop critical thinking and inquiry skills
through strong knowledge of individual
domains. Nathan R. Kuncel, professor
of psychology at the University of
Minnesota, argues that “what people call
critical thinking is either a class of very
specific reasoning skills, or the formation
of expertise in a field (e.g. medicine,
Source: Daniel T. Willingham, Why Don’t Students Like
accounting). In all cases, domain specific
School?
knowledge is necessary to make anything
more than trivial progress with most This shows the crucial relationship between
problems.”61 working memory which is the access point
to long-term memory and that long-term
3) Working memory is limited, and memory, in turn, can be used in working
long-term memory is the only known memory.
way to improve it
Not shown in this diagram is that working
Debates continue about how many types memory is limited both in its capacity
of memory there are, and which forms of (quantity of units of information) and
memory have the most significant impact duration (how long these units can
on learning. In the interests of maintaining be stored without rehearsal).65 Earlier
accessibility, this section will discuss those theories of working memory posited that
elements which have the most relevance to it could hold about seven (plus or minus
learning. two) separate ‘chunks’ of information in
working memory. More recent scholarship
The oldest scientific theories concerning
has revised that figure down to about
memory are well over a century old. The
four.66 Duration is estimated to be around
earliest models of memory acknowledged
20 seconds.67 There is no consensus,
two types, a limited-capacity primary
as some people may display a working
memory and an unlimited-capacity
memory capacity greater than this and
secondary memory, and date back to as
some smaller, but there is agreement that
early as 1890.62
working memory is very limited.
Contemporary scholarship affirms the
Novel information can only enter long-term
limited nature of working memory, and
memory through the bottleneck of working
long-term memory is “now viewed as the
memory. In addition to the significant
central, dominant structure of human
limitations of working memory, there is
cognition. Everything we see, hear, and
no way of ‘training’ working memory to
think about is critically dependent on and
improve or increase its capacity, meaning
influenced by our long-term memory.63
that instruction or activity on popular
Cognitive scientist Daniel Willingham working memory tasks or training is
describes memory as “the residue of not time well-spent from a teaching
thought” and explains his idea further: perspective.68
“Given that you can’t store everything
However, there are two ways to improve
away, how should you pick what to store
the effectiveness of working memory: by
and what to drop? Your brain lays its increasing the store of information in long-
bets this way: If you don’t think about term memory, and by achieving greater
something very much, then you probably automaticity of learned processes.69
won’t want to think about it again, so it
need not be stored. If you do think about Greater automaticity is achieved through
something, then it’s likely that you’ll want overlearning, where a person’s ability to do
to think about it in the same way in the that task does not improve past mastery.
future.”64 Willingham created this simple Information is more strongly embedded in
model of memory for his book: long-term memory with reduced chance of

11
 forgetting70 and the ensuing process can 4) Cognitive load theory uses these
become so automatised it requires little to models to inform instruction
no working memory capacity.71
Cognitive load theory draws on these
Long-term memory can be defined as a findings from evolutionary psychology and
“vast store of knowledge and a record cognitive science to inform how to teach.
of prior events”72 or “that big mental In this term, ‘load’ refers to the burden on
warehouse of things (be they words, working memory. ‘Load’ is not inherently
people, grand philosophical ideas, or bad – some burden on working memory is,
skateboard tricks) we know.”73 after all, necessary for any type of learning.
Cognitive load can be divided into three
In contrast to the limitations of working types:77
memory, there are no known capacity
limits of long-term memory.74 In fact, the • Intrinsic load (sometimes combined
with germane load78), which is the
information from unlimited store of long-
necessary load of learning new
term memory can be retrieved (moved into
information;
working memory) when novel information
is being encountered. • Germane load, which is the load that
comes from transferring information
Willingham argues that “[e]very new into long-term memory; and
idea must build on ideas that the student
already knows. To get a student to • Extraneous load, which is load not
understand, a teacher… must ensure that necessary for what is being taught –
the right ideas from the student’s long- therefore, good instruction will aim to
term memory are pulled up and put into reduce extraneous load as much as
working memory.”75 possible.

Consequently, for novices such as school The application of cognitive load theory
students, well-learned and well-organised is to find ways of teaching students that
units of information (‘chunks’ or schemas*) maximise intrinsic and(/or) germane load
retrieved from long-term memory can and minimises extraneous load, while
be used to help ease processing of new ensuring there is no overload of students’
information and thus enable learning. working memory.
However, information in long-term memory The goal is to design instruction such
is also organised differently in the minds of that it enables students to process new
domain experts compared to novices. information, store it in long-term memory
and retrieve it when needed, either for
Analysis of experts completing tasks in
further learning or independent practice
their field suggests that their domain
and application.
knowledge is broader and more
interconnected, and procedural knowledge Cognitive load ‘effects’ have been derived
is characterised by greater automaticity.76 from the depth of literature on cognitive
load theory, and these effects are used to
inform instruction. The five main ones from
* A schema is a way of grouping and organizing Ashman and Sweller (2023) are:79
information that is stored in long-term memory. • The worked example effect: showing
A useful analogy is being asked to remember
learners example problems that have
a random numerical sequence of 10, versus
been worked out means they learn
remembering your own mobile number.
Remembering 10 random numbers is taxing on more than students who must solve
working memory and very few individuals will equivalent problems on their own using
be able to remember them in order, but your the random generate-and-test method;
own mobile number is no less random – the
• The element interactivity effect: When
difference is that your mobile number is stored
tasks and problems set for students rely
as one ‘chunk’ in your long-term memory due to
overlearning, and can be brought into working on a combination of new and existing
memory if needed as only one unique piece of knowledge, element interactivity is
information. high if the new knowledge is high and
their existing knowledge is low, with

12
 the reverse also being true. Element the eighteenth century. A basic summary
interactivity informs the level of of what this looks like in the modern
guidance required for students to learn; classroom is:

• The expertise reversal effect: While Teachers whose lessons are

using worked examples for teaching designed to offer partial or minimal
that involves high element interactivity instructional guidance expect
is an effective strategy with novice students to discover on their own
learners, this advantage decreases as some or all of the concepts and
expertise increases and the student skills they are supposed to learn.
may be better off with independent The partially guided approach
problem-solving; has been given various names,
including discovery learning,
• The redundancy effect: If information problem-based learning, inquiry
is provided that is redundant learning, experiential learning and
(unnecessary) for the learner, it can constructivist learning… [S]tudents
contribute to extraneous cognitive load receiving partial instructional
and reduce learning; and guidance may be given a new
type of problem and asked to
• The guidance fading effect: The level of brainstorm possible solutions in
guidance from the teacher fades from small groups without prompts or
highly guided practice in the form of hints (emphasis added)… Through
worked examples, to partly completed the process of trying to solve the
problems where students complete the problem and discussing different
remainder and then to independent students’ solutions, each student is
practice by the student. supposed to discover the relevant
mathematics. In some minimal
Explicit teaching: connecting guidance classrooms, teachers
cognitive science insights to use explicit instruction of the
solution as a backup method
effective practice (emphasis added) for those students
who did not make the necessary
On its own, an understanding of different
discoveries and who were confused
categories of knowledge, models of
during the class discussion.)81
memory and cognitive load is not enough
to be considered a ‘science of learning’. This description makes clear the ways this
These insights must be connected to does not align with what cognitive science
practice — that is, used to identify both suggests about the best way to provide
ineffective and effective practices. novel information to novice learners, who
learn and solve problems differently from
The NSW Department of Education’s Centre experts.
for Education Statistics and Evaluation, in
its 2017 literature review of cognitive load The inquiry learning approach does
theory, concluded that it provides support not acknowledge, for instance, that
for explicit models of instruction.80 mathematics (or any other domain taught
in schools) is biologically secondary
First, however, we will consider what knowledge that therefore requires explicit
instructional methods are not supported instruction with concepts and procedures
by the evidence, particularly regarding the specifically related to that domain. Inquiry
question of what students must be taught learning also does not account for the
and what knowledge students can figure limitations of working memory and the
out for themselves. burden on a student’s cognitive load in
trying to solve a complex problem without
There are a range of terms for what can
a pre-existing understanding of the
be grouped together as ‘partial or minimal
necessary concepts and procedures.82
instruction-based approaches’, such as
problem-based learning, experiential There is also an educational equity aspect
learning, the project method (which is over to the use of these methods of teaching.
a century old) or a general focus on inquiry While students must use prior and
driven by student interest that dates to background knowledge to solve problems

13
 in the classroom regardless of the domain, builds understanding, accompanied by
in the absence of a knowledge-focused clear explanations that teach through
curriculum at school, the knowledge modelling that guide practice through
students possess is going to be more worked examples, can effectively support
strongly a function of their upbringing and students in learning. By breaking down
family environment. E.D. Hirsch states “the complex concepts into manageable parts,
early knowledge advantage that has been providing explicit instruction on each
gained by fortunate students is like Velcro; component and checking for understanding
it is a base to which further knowledge before gradually releasing responsibility to
sticks more readily.”83 students, they are more likely to develop a
solid foundation of understanding.85
Similarly, Keith Stanovich has observed
‘Matthew effects’* in reading, one where * Direct Instruction is the brand name for a series
vocabulary knowledge facilitates reading of educational programs based on the work of
comprehension but reading comprehension Siegfried Engelmann which, though grounded in
also facilitates vocabulary growth, leading the same principles, do not represent the only
to students who already have advantages way of implementing explicit instruction/EDI in
schools.
gaining more.84

One description of explicit instruction is

* The ‘Matthew effect’ is a generic principle in from Anita Archer and Charles A. Hughes,
social science where advantages and benefits who clearly link explicit instruction with the
accrue more greatly to those who already have
insights of cognitive science:
some. It is named for the ‘parable of the talents’
in the gospels of Matthew and Luke. Effective and explicit instruction can
be viewed as providing a series of
Fortunately, the insights from cognitive instructional supports or scaffolds-
science suggest a better way to teach and --first through the logical selection
points us in the direction of practices that and sequencing of content, and
might be effective. then by breaking down that content
into manageable instructional
If working memory is limited, information units based on students’ cognitive
should be encountered in small steps and capabilities (e.g., working memory
practised, and clear, explicit, teacher- capacity, attention, and prior
directed instruction will make this process knowledge). Instructional delivery is
easier. It suggests that independent characterized by clear descriptions
student work should be carefully placed and demonstrations of a skill,
within a larger instructional sequence to followed by supported practice and
limit the chances of overloading working timely feedback. Initial practice
memory. If working memory relies is carried out with high levels of
strongly on long-term memory and novel teacher involvement; however,
information is more likely to ‘stick’ when it once student success is evident, the
can be connected to existing knowledge, teacher’s support is systematically
teaching and learning should involve the withdrawn, and the students move
same content and be practised over an toward independent performance.86
extended period of time to ensure it is
retained. The same process is described slightly
differently from a teacher point of view,
The set of pedagogical practices best published in 2012:87
supported by cognitive science is explicit
instruction, sometimes called ‘direct Teachers providing explicit
instruction’ (DI) or ‘explicit and direct instructional guidance fully explain
instruction’ (EDI).* which involves the (emphasis original) the concepts
explicit teaching of specific skills and and skills that students are required
knowledge by the teacher. to learn… In a math class, for
example, when teaching students
The rationale behind explicit instruction how to solve a new type of problem,
is rooted in research indicating that the teacher may begin by showing
clear, step-by-step instruction of a well- students how to solve the problem
sequenced curriculum that carefully and fully explaining the how and

14
 why of the mathematics involved. schools policy since at least the release
Often, in following problems, step- of 1973’s Karmel report into Australian
by-step explanations may gradually schools.88 In that context, the purpose
be faded or withdrawn until, through of education policy reform has been to
practice and feedback, the students focus on policy settings in the expectation
can solve the problem themselves.
that this will deliver on the desired goal.
In this way, before trying to
Only recently have policymakers begun
solve the problem on their own,
students would have already to pay closer attention to teaching (rather
been walked through both the than teachers) as a key determinant of
procedure and the concepts educational outcomes.
behind the procedure (emphasis
As this section will show, this policy
added).
agnosticism about teaching has meant the
In both examples, a general ‘I do, we do, system has gravitated towards reflecting
you do’ framework is being followed. The the progressive view of education and,
teacher first provides instruction to the paradoxically, led the nation further away
students (‘I do’), followed by students from the long-held objective of excellence
practising step-by-step with guidance (‘we and equity.
do’), before gradually releasing students
for independent practice (‘you do’). Key areas of policy attention include
school funding, teacher training, teacher
Along the way, feedback — from the
professional standards and — though least
students to the teacher about what has
subject to effortful policy coordination —
been learned and what may require further
attempts to build consensus on evidence-
practice — helps inform the teacher’s
based practice.
decisions about when and how to release
the students for independent practice. While school funding, teacher training and
Further implications for teacher practice are professional development were considered
discussed later in this paper.
in the Karmel report, the growing policy
attention in the intervening period on
The policy architecture of
teacher professional standards and
teaching and learning evidence-based practice has arguably
been influenced by education research (as
This paper has explored the history of
discussed previously) but also concern
progressive educational approaches and
how they are still commonly used in the around student achievement, as measured
classroom, as well as made the case for the by national and international testing.
insufficiency of these approaches on the It has been more than a decade since the
basis of the science of learning.
Review of Funding for Schooling, more
It is now worth critically examining widely known as the ‘Gonski review’,
Australia’s current policy framework to see proposed an overhaul to how federal
what the bedrock assumptions are and and state governments fund the nation’s
identify potential areas for reform. schools — resulting in annual public
funding reaching $72.2 billion in the 2020-
Policymakers have historically been
21 financial year; a figure that will continue
agnostic about how teachers should teach.
to increase in real per student terms until
While teachers, education researchers and
cognitive scientists have been asking and the end of the decade.89
answering questions about how students Despite a significant injection of funding
learn best, government was focused on the and other reform efforts, the educational
policy architecture required to improve the
achievement of Australian students has
overall capacity of Australian education to
largely trended towards either decline
deliver a quality education to all students.
or stagnation against national and
Equality of educational opportunity has international standardised testing measures
been a fundamental pillar of Australian (see Box 4).90

15
 Box 4: Australian performance in national and international testing

NAPLAN (National Assessment Plan for Literacy And Numeracy): The test has taken
place each year since 2008 (except 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic). Comparing
the first year of testing to the last comparative year (2022) shows little improvement
in most domains and year levels, and achievement gaps between disadvantaged and
more advantaged students have continued. In 2023, the reporting of NAPLAN results
changed and showed that about a third of students, at all year levels, failed to meet a
proficient standard in reading, numeracy and writing.91

PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment): PISA 2022 data for
Australia showed little change when compared to recent cycles but confirmed
that from the first round of testing, Australia's 15-year-old students have lost the
equivalent of a year of schooling in science, two years in maths and a year and a
half in reading. In addition, a lower proportion of students are meeting the proficient
standard, with a lower proportion of high performers and an increasing proportion of
low performers.92

PIRLS (Progress in International Reading Literacy Study): This tests Year 4 students
and Australia first participated in 2011. PIRLS 2021 data for Australia showed that
20% did not meet international benchmarks for reading, down from 24% in 2011.
Average scores were flat from PIRLS 2016 but higher than in 2011.

TIMSS (Trends in International Maths and Science Study): This tests students on
Maths and Science in Year 4 and Year 8, for the first time in 1995. TIMSS 2019
showed:

• Year 4 Mathematics achievement has improved relative to 1995 but is unchanged

since 2007;

• Year 8 Mathematics achievement declined between 1995 and 2007 before

improving to 2019; and

• Year 4 and Year 8 Science achievement has improved, declined and improved to
2019.

The Alice Springs (Mparntwe) individuals, successful lifelong learners,

Declaration and active and informed members of
the community. While Goal 2 refers to
Australian education ministers met in the desired end state for the education
Melbourne in 2008 and Alice Springs system, the first relates to what education
(Mparntwe) in 2019 to affirm educational should look like in Australia. It uses
goals for all Australians.93 The latter phrases such as “promot[ing] personalised
(henceforth ‘the Declaration’, “sets out a learning”, “individual capabilities”,
vision for a world class education system “enabl[ing] all learners to explore” and
that encourages and supports every learners’ “individual abilities, interests,
student to be the very best they can be, and experiences.” This aligns strongly with
no matter where they live or what kind of progressive educational philosophy as
learning challenges they may face” and explored earlier.
“places students at the centre of their
education by emphasising the importance In addition, the emphasis on the
of meeting the individual needs of all individualisation of learning and student
learners”.94 exploration does not necessarily align with
key science of learning principles (such
The document contains two goals: 1) The as the cognitive architecture shared by
Australian education system promotes all humans that means the way students
excellence and equity and 2) All young learn is more fundamentally similar that it
Australians become confident and creative is different) and practices (that the most

16
 Box 5: Recent history of ITE reform

The Teacher Education Ministerial Advisory Group (TEMAG), formed in 2014, was
established to provide advice to government on the nature and quality of ITE courses
and how graduates from those courses could be more effective. The final report,
Action Now: Classroom Ready Teachers, was released in late 2014 and the federal
government formally responded in early 2015.95 The report focused on stronger
quality assurance of ITE, more rigorous selection of students for ITE courses,
improved practicum for ITE students, proper assessment of graduates to ensure
classroom readiness.96

The most notable changes due to this review process were the introduction of
a literacy and numeracy test for teacher graduates (LANTITE) and Teaching
Performance Assessments (TPAs), a university-based assessment of teacher
performance that purportedly aligns with the Australian Professional Standards for
Teachers.97 With the exception of one area of attention on selection of ITE students,
the report primarily focused on what candidates are learning in teacher education.

A subsequent review, the Quality Initial Teacher Education Review, was announced
March 2021 and a final report in February 2022. It canvassed many of the same
issues as its predecessor report, with a more specific focus on ensuring teacher
preparation is “evidence-based and practical.”98 The report endorsed the need to
“strengthen ITE programs to ‘equip graduate teachers with a strong understanding
of what works best to improve student learning based on the best evidence’.”99
In particular, it clearly stated that ITE programs should inform graduates of “how
students learn to provide teachers with a foundational understanding of why specific
teaching practices work. This includes understanding how students process new
information, how they retain that information and how they apply that knowledge to
new situations.” The content of the report suggests that these questions are, in fact,
a matter of some consensus as opposed to highly individual to the student and which
therefore cannot be the subject of teacher training — the latter a cornerstone of
progressive beliefs about education.

effective way to ensure students learn Chancellor of the University of Sydney and
is not through students exploring and former secretary of the NSW Department
pursuing their own interests, but through of Education. Reports into ITE are nothing
carefully teacher-designed and -directed new (Box 5), but the contents of this report
learning). are instructive about what the expert panel
saw as the solution (at least as far as ITE
is concerned). The Panel established four
Initial teacher education areas of core content,100 of which the first
Federal government reform in the last two are most relevant to this report:
decade has largely focused on ITE. A 1. The brain and learning: content
cursory glance of the recent history of ITE that provides teachers with an
reform (see Box 5) shows that successive understanding of why specific
reviews of the sector have steadily instructional practices work, and how to
driven in the direction of more external implement these practices; and
prescription of ITE course content; perhaps
in part due to limited evidence the sector 2. Effective pedagogical practices:
has been responsive to the expectations of practices including explicit modelling,
policymakers. scaffolding, formative assessment,
and literacy and numeracy teaching
The most recent development was the strategies that support student learning
2023 release of Strong Beginnings, the because they respond to how the brain
report of the Teacher Education Expert processes, stores and retrieves
Panel led by Mark Scott, current Vice- information.

17
 The Strong Beginnings report makes the Professional standards,
case that pre-service teachers must be accreditation and registration
taught key knowledge about how people
learn, that this knowledge should inform A nationally consistent approach to teacher
how teachers teach, and which pedagogical standards — now known as the Australian
practices are best supported by this Professional Standards for Teachers
knowledge. (APST)101 — was finalised in 2011.102 The
APST has four stages (Graduate, Proficient,
In particular, it specifies that for Core Highly Accomplished and Lead) and is used
Content Area 1 (the brain and learning), for three purposes:
pre-service teachers must learn about
distinctions between novice and expert • For pre-service teachers: the Graduate
learners, short and long-term memory level is used to inform core content in
and cognitive load, mastery of knowledge initial teacher education (ITE), with pre-
including retrieval and application across service teachers required to complete
contexts and neuromyths. some form of teacher performance
assessment that aligns with the
This is significant because it is the first Graduate level of the standards;
time cognitive science insights have been
• For graduate teachers (generally 1-2
explicitly positioned as vital knowledge for
years in teaching): the Proficient level is
pre-service teachers — and therefore for
used to inform state-based registration/
teachers more generally.
accreditation with the relevant teacher
Further, it recommends that ‘core regulatory authority (for example,
content’ be present in any course seeking NESA in NSW or VIT in Victoria) and the
accreditation for producing graduate teacher must demonstrate that their
teachers; in other words, without practice aligns with the Proficient level
adequately offering the prescribed core of the standards; and
content, programmes will not meet • For mid-career and senior teachers:
accreditation standards. the Highly Accomplished and Lead
levels are used to inform a national
The nation’s education ministers met
certification program* to identify and
twice in 2023 to discuss the report; in July
recognise quality teachers, with the
when they provided in-principle support
certification process involving external
to progress its recommendations, and in
assessors.
December when they agreed AITSL will
require the teaching of core content (as
* HALT certification is not used in Victorian, WA
outlined in Strong Beginnings), with ITE and Tasmanian state schools. It is also not used in
providers to have until the end of 2025 the Catholic sector in WA and Tasmania and the
to make the necessary changes to their independent sector in Queensland and Tasmania.
programs.
At best, the APST can be described as
While the endorsement of the Strong
vague; at worst, the standards can
Beginnings report shows the broad level of be said to encourage practices that
support for science of learning principles in contradict the science of learning and
reforming ITE, delivering quality education the recommendations for core content
is a much more significant task than fixing mandates in the Strong Beginnings report.
ITE alone. For instance, over the past For instance, Standard 1 Know students
15 years between 16,500 and 19,000 and how they learn — does not contain
students graduated from ITE programs references to cognitive psychology, the
every year, but those who go into teaching science of memory, cognitive load theory or
join a total school full-time-equivalent any similar concepts; therefore, it is vague
teacher workforce of over 300,000. More about what the knowledge of the students
must be done at all parts of the education is and how they learn. Is it about cognitive
ecosystem to inform these teachers and science, or is it about individual learning
get good practice into their classrooms as styles and interests (as implied by the Alice
well. Springs Mparntwe Declaration)?

18
 AITSL provides some guidance as to first popular example to criticise learning
what the standards look like in practice styles, its method of collapsing the effect
through their standards-linked ‘illustration sizes of hundreds of studies of varying
of practice’ resources. One such video qualities on different instructional practices
resource for Standard 1.2 Understand has been subject to criticism.105
how students learn is of “a teacher of
mathematics us[ing] an inquiry approach Nevertheless, the method has been
to learning with her Prep students”,103 influential: the Victorian Department of
and this is intended as an illustration of Education uses Hattie’s effect size method
the ‘Proficient’ level for that standard. to identify 10 ‘High Impact Teaching
This plainly contradicts cognitive science Strategies’ as part of its pedagogical
principles about how best to instruct guidance to schools.106 The general
novice learners, which Foundation (Prep/ approach of synthesising studies and
Kindergarten) students certainly are. presenting information in an accessible
format is also used by the Education
Given that ITE providers will now be Endowment Foundation and its Australian
required to provide more specifics around offshoot, Evidence for Learning, in the
this standard in particular, it makes sense ‘Teaching and Learning Toolkit’.107
for the Standards themselves — which
apply to all teachers, not just pre-service At first glance, the pursuit of ‘evidence-
and graduate teachers — to be reviewed based practice’ or ‘what works’ seems
to align with the new core content entirely in keeping with the science of
requirements. learning. But the science of learning, as
outlined in this paper, is more particular
than the general desire for evidence-based
The policy push for ‘evidence- practices in teaching. It is fundamentally
based practice’ based in a belief that teaching should be
about what students learn; where ‘learning’
The fact that discussions around teaching is couched primarily in terms of change in
practice now utilise the language of long-term memory.
evidence is a significant improvement on
historical methods of teaching. However, This is not a view that is shared by all
unless the term ‘evidence’ has clear theorists and practitioners of education.
meanings, its use in practice can create As the previous section on the history
an illusion of progress among the teaching of educational approaches has shown,
profession. there are different philosophical views
about what learning is; going so far as to
Teachers and leaders know, to varying question the idea that there is an accepted
degrees, that evidence should be a central body of knowledge that students should
part of their work. AERO’s 2022 survey know.
of evidence use found 67% of Australian
teachers use teacher-generated evidence Furthermore, ‘evidence’ and ‘research’
(defined as evidence generated through are broad terms, and many practices can
daily practice such as observations, non- claim the mantle of being ‘evidence-based’
standardised formative or summative — even if that evidence is derived from
assessments or insights from student a limited number of studies, studies that
feedback) ‘often’ or ‘very often’, but use poor methodology, studies with limited
this compares to only 41% for research generalisability, or that evidence has
evidence.104 This suggests that while most been seriously challenged by subsequent
practitioners will engage with evidence, scholarship. If it is to be effective, ‘what
the conceptual understanding of what works’ practices cannot be presented
constitutes evidence is fluid. independently of research into cognitive
science and what approaches might be
‘Evidence-based practice’ arguably implied by that base of knowledge.
entered the Australian education lexicon
in 2008, when education professor John In addition, if teachers are presented
Hattie published Visible Learning, which only with overly simplified lists of ‘what
synthesised over 800 meta-analyses to find works’ that are divorced from learning
out what influences achievement in school- science evidence that provides a ‘why’,
age students. While Hattie’s work was the it poses several problems. Firstly, it

19
 becomes difficult for those practices to for teachers and leaders at a school or
be implemented with fidelity and in their system level is difficult. One example of
proper context if teachers do not fully how it could be done is the work of the
understand the rationale and reasoning Catalyst program in the Catholic Education
behind the practice. Secondly, if the Archdiocese of Canberra-Goulburn
practice has not resulted in the desired (CEACG). The Catalyst team examined
impacts, then this can engender scepticism research and evidence from educational
among teachers. Worse, it can contribute experts (many of whom were used in
more broadly to a deep pessimism or this paper) such as ED Hirsch Jr, Barak
cynicism about the language of ‘evidence’ Rosenshine, Dylan Wiliam and John Sweller
that hinders the update of even well- to develop eight ‘big ideas’ for learning.108
supported methods of teaching.
The principles show a combination of how
If teachers and leaders within the to teach, what the curriculum should focus
education ecosystem are equipped with a on, and the set of insights from cognitive
sound understanding of ‘why’, this could science that underpin this.
instead create a sense of empowerment
among teachers. Subsequent research will 1. School is where we learn biologically
examine how teachers have developed secondary information;
their practice and professional identity 2. Learning is a change in long-term
as a result of immersion in the science of memory;
learning. 3. Teaching is a profession that should be
informed by the evidence;
Implications of the science 4. Knowledge matters — it’s what we think
with;
of learning 5. The most efficient way to teach knowl-
edge is to teach explicitly;
A combination of government changes in
6. High quality whole class instruction will
policy as well as an increasingly vocal and
help all students learn;
active teaching profession mean there is
7. Reading is essential for students to ac-
opportunity for a wider public conversation
about what Australian schools should be quire knowledge; and
doing to prepare students to not simply 8. Curriculum should be ambitious, coher-
participate, but flourish in a modern ent, sequential and cumulative.
society. At a school level, creating a strong
curriculum is complex and labour-intensive.
For teachers To create a new curriculum or build on the
existing curriculum, specialist teachers
For teachers, the science of learning will need to work together and think
represents an opportunity to design carefully about what knowledge is crucial
instruction in a way that is likely to lead for students and how to best teach that
to most students’ success with learning.* knowledge across a learning sequence.
Teachers should also collaborate to develop
the most effective ways of creating quality
* Some students may have weaker working explanations for new concepts and ways of
memory capacity or have other conditions that
modelling these to students.
can inhibit their learning. These students can
be identified through universal screening and Despite not covering every subject and
assessment, followed by small group or individual year level, education non-profit Ochre
intervention, in what is called a ‘Response to Education is now providing a thorough
Intervention’ or ‘Multi-Tiered System of Supports’ suite of resources, aligned to relevant
framework. curriculum, to teachers free of charge
— including demonstrations of teacher
The evidence suggests explicit instruction practice.109
of a well-sequenced knowledge-focused
curriculum will lead to that success. There are several practices to consider
embedding across learning sequences
Nevertheless, turning the insights and individual lessons, with some being
explained earlier in the paper into a body more labour-intensive than others to
of knowledge and set of guiding principles implement. One well-regarded list is Barak

20
Rosenshine’s Principles of Instruction, If students are thinking about cutting and
derived from research in cognitive science, pasting, science equipment or the many
classroom practice of effective teachers and distractions of digital technology, they are
cognitive supports:110 unlikely to be learning, or consolidating
their learning, to any great degree.113
1. Daily review of previous learning;
Parents can also engage around the
2. New material in small steps with science of learning when selecting a new
student practice after each; school or during parent-teacher interviews.
3. Ask a large number of questions and Some helpful questions for understanding
check all student responses; a school’s approach to teaching are
“What does student learning mean?” and
4. Provide models; “How do you teach in a way that makes
5. Guide student practice; students most likely to succeed?” Other
questions could relate to the curriculum
6. Check student understanding; across the whole school, such as “How is
the curriculum for one year built upon in
7. Obtain high success rate;
subsequent years?”
8. Scaffolds for difficult tasks;
Looking at students’ classwork and
9. Require and monitor independent homework to see how homework tasks
practice; and build on what has been taught in class
could also be a valuable starting point to
10. Weekly and monthly review.
ask questions; though it is important to not
There are many other lists of similar make hasty judgements on the basis of one
practices, including a plausible lesson or two tasks.
structure and practice principles in other
For parents of younger students, it’s
work, such as Archer and Hughes111 and
particularly important to ask about how
Hollingsworth and Ybarra.112 Further
foundational skills such as reading and
work also exists on how to embed these
mathematics are taught, and how student
practices in a subject-specific manner.
progress is monitored. For older students,
particularly those in secondary school, it
For parents could be useful to ask questions about and
discuss what independent study techniques
Parents also have an important role to play are most helpful. For instance, common
in the public conversation about the science student study techniques, such as re-
of learning, as they are heavily invested in reading and highlighting, are not supported
the learning of their children. by evidence whereas self-testing retrieval
One factor that may influence parents’ practice can be more beneficial.114
perception of how their child is being
taught is the ‘curse of knowledge’ — a For policymakers
cognitive bias that means if you know
something, it is difficult to see things from By committing to change accreditation
the perspective of someone who doesn’t. In requirements for initial teacher education
this case, it might mean learning activities in line with the Strong Beginnings report,
that appear logical and useful to you as future cohorts of pre-service teachers will
someone with knowledge of multiplication be better equipped with the knowledge and
or essay writing may be too difficult for skills to succeed in the classroom. However,
your child. there are still questions as to what quality
assurance mechanisms will be put in place
Parents may also fall into the trap that for the sector.
befalls many teachers: using observed
levels of engagement (such as the extent In addition, ITE is one part of the
of student focus and interest when they educational ecosystem. The CEO of AITSL
are creating a project, doing a science has noted that if ITE is the only focus of
experiment or an online multimedia task) improvement within the policy landscape,
as a proxy for learning. As Willingham it will take approximately 28 years for
notes, people learn what they think about. the workforce to achieve what is desired.

21
 Policymakers also need to commit to any tricky federal-state relations issues.
reforming the Professional Standards for Systems could review their local syllabus
Teachers, as well as Principals, to reflect or curriculum to ensure knowledge is
the much more detailed view of teacher emphasised as the object of learning,
capacity that has emerged (and been and is built on sequentially within and
endorsed) from Strong Beginnings. For this across many year levels. Systems can also
to occur, policymakers need to consider revise pedagogical guidance and advice
how to upskill and develop the existing to teachers to prioritise cognitive science
teacher workforce, while monitoring the insights and explicit teaching practices. One
ever-present concern of workload and example of how this can be communicated
teacher shortages. Future CIS research is the short guide published in 2015 by
will focus on reform of standard and US organisation Deans for Impact, which
potential models for teacher professional summarises cognitive science principles
development. and connects it to practices for the
classroom.115
School systems and state governments
have other avenues that do not trigger

Conclusion

While this paper has sought to explain Canberra-Goulburn is the sole example of
why the science of learning provides the an exception to this).
ideal foundation for teaching and learning
practices in Australian schools, the actual Nevertheless, teachers and leaders have
extent to which these practices are adopted taken matters into their own hands and
by schools and teachers is difficult to used their own budgets to embark upon
measure. a significant program of professional
development to achieve a science of
Given the inconsistencies and learning-aligned approach in their schools.
contradictions embedded in the key policy
pillars of the Australian education system, Future CIS research will examine the
it seems safe to assume this practice, to experiences of some of these teachers and
the extent that it exists, has been the leaders to yield insights for how science
fruit of concerted effort by individual of learning can be more widely adopted
teachers and schools rather than the within the Australian education system,
result of school system priorities (the and find ways to measure and track
aforementioned Catalyst program from science of learning knowledge within the
the Catholic Education Archdiocese of teaching profession.

22
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27
Summary
Despite billions of additional dollars and concerted efforts at reforming several pillars of
the Australian education ecosystem, students’ results continue to plateau. While the focus
on teaching quality and effective, evidence-based practices is welcome, it is incomplete.
Australian education needs to position the science of learning as the foundation for policy
and practice.

This paper explains why the science of learning provides the ideal foundation for teaching
and learning practices in Australian schools.

Trisha Jha
Trisha Jha is a Research Fellow in the Education program, working on projects
relating to the science of learning, improvement of initial teacher education and
overall school quality.
Prior to rejoining CIS, Trisha had roles as a secondary teacher, including through
the Teach for Australia program, in state and independent schools in regional
Victoria. She has also worked as a senior policy adviser to opposition leaders in
Victoria. When previously at CIS from 2013 to 2016, Trisha worked on projects
in welfare, early education and schools policy. She holds a Masters of Teaching
with a specialisation in Research from Deakin University and a Bachelor of Arts in
International Relations from the Australian National University.

Related works
Prof John Sweller. Some Critical Thoughts about Critical and Creative Thinking. CIS Analysis Paper
32, February, 2022.
https://www.cis.org.au/publication/some-critical-thoughts-about-critical-and-creative-thinking/

Prof John Sweller, Why Inquiry Based Approaches Harm Students’ Learning. CIS Analysis Paper 24.
August, 2021.
https://www.cis.org.au/publication/why-inquiry-based-approaches-harm-students-learning/

Analysis Paper 63 (AP63) • ISSN: 2209-3753 (Online) 2209-3745 (Print) • ISBN: 978-1-922674-66-1
Published February 2024 by the Centre for Independent Studies Limited. Views expressed are those of
the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Centre’s staff, advisors, directors or officers.
© Centre for Independent Studies (ABN 15 001 495 012)
This publication is available from the Centre for Independent Studies. Visit cis.org.au

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