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Elements of Ecology: Bly 101: General Biology I

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16 views52 pages

Elements of Ecology: Bly 101: General Biology I

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adaorjiakor5
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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ELEMENTS OF ECOLOGY

BLY 101: GENERAL


BIOLOGY I
Topic discussion outline
2

 Elements of Ecology

❑ Ecology: Definitions and Introductory Concepts

❑ Energy Flow

❑ Ecological Pyramids

❑ Biogeochemical Cycles
INTRODUCTION TO ECOLOGY
3

 The word ecology is coined from two root Greek words:


oikos meaning home or dwelling place; and logos
meaning knowledge, discourse.

 Ecology thus simply implies the study of living


organisms in their natural homes/dwelling places

 The science of ecology generally describes the study of


organisms, their interactions with other organisms;
and with all the components of the environment
Introduction to Ecology
4

 The study of ecology considers the functions and


interactions of an organism(s) at six (6) levels:
➢ Individual (Organismal)

➢ Population

➢ Community

➢ Ecosystem

➢ Landscape

➢ Global
Definitions
5

 Biotic component: This comprises the living part of


the ecosystem including plants, animals and
microorganisms

 Abiotic component: This describes the non-living


part of the ecosystem, which contains matter and
energy. This includes climate, rock, soil, air and
water

 Population: A group of individual organisms,


usually of one species, occupying a defined area and
isolated to some degree from other similar groups
Definitions
6

 Niche: The functional role of an organism/species in


an ecosystem. It involves all the ways the organism
interacts with the biotic and abiotic components of
its environment.

 Two major types:


 Fundamental
 Realized
Definitions
7

 Community: Populations of different species,


coexisting in the same area and interacting through
spatial and trophic relationships

 Ecosystem: This consists the diverse communities of


organisms, interacting together; and with their
physical environment as an ecological unit

 Habitat: This describes the typical living area or


environment of an organism, population,
community, or ecosystem
Definitions
8
 Microhabitat: A small habitat, with special living
conditions for the organism

 Environment: The complete range of external conditions


in which organisms live. The community forms the
biotic environment, while the non-living part forms the
abiotic environment, which includes:
i. Climatic factors: Light, temperature, wind, water
ii. Edaphic factors: Soil texture, soil pH, depth, organic
matter content
iii. Topographic factors: Angle and aspect of slope, land
relief, height above sea level, etc.
Structure of Ecosystems
9

 Two major types: Terrestrial (land) and aquatic


(water)

 Similarities and differences exist in the structure and


composition of these systems

 Generally, the biotic component of all ecosystems is


divided into autotrophic and heterotrophic
organisms
Comparison of major ecosystem types
10

Components Terrestrial Aquatic

I. BIOTIC Herbs, trees, grasses Phytoplankton


a) Producers (autotrophs)

b) Heterotrophs Caterpillar, Zooplankton


i) Primary Consumers grasshopper

b) Heterotrophs Lizard, frog, bird Large fish


ii) Secondary Consumers

Detritovores Soil non-vertebrates Bottom living non-


vertebrates
Decomposers Bacteria and fungi Bacteria and fungi
Comparison of major ecosystem types
11

Components Terrestrial Aquatic

II. ABIOTIC Soil, air, sun, Sediments, water,


other climatic sun, other climatic
factors factors
Structure of Ecosystems
12

 There are two major interactions always on-going


within an ecosystem. They are the important
functional links between the different ecosystem
components. They are:

1. Energy flow through the system (Energetics)

2. Cycling of nutrients/elements within the system


(Biogeochemical cycles)
ENERGY FLOW
13
 The sun is the vital source of energy powering the life
activities of ecosystems on Earth

 Solar energy captured by photoautotrophs are used to create


organic food molecules via photosynthesis. Autotrophs in
turn, form the food source or potential chemical energy
supply for all other organisms in the ecosystem

 Photosynthetic organisms in the ecosystems are generally


plants, algae and autotrophic bacteria

 Consumers (animals and heterotrophic protists) eat


autotrophs and also one another to gain their supply of
chemical energy
Energy Flow
14

 Decomposers comprising bacteria and fungi obtain their


energy by breaking down waste products and dead organisms’
remains in the process called decomposition

 At each step, the great majority of energy is dissipated as heat


energy, eventually returned to space as infra-red radiation

 Due to loss of energy as it is transferred within the system,


frequent and regular inputs of solar energy are needed. Thus
energy is said to flow through ecosystems

 About 5% of incoming radiation from the sun is converted in


photosynthesis into Gross Primary Productivity (GPP).
Energy Flow
15

 The net primary productivity (NPP), [which is the net


gain of organic materials in photosynthesis after energy
loss in respiration], forms between 50% - 80% of Gross
Primary Productivity.

 Transfer of energy containing molecules as food within


the organisms in an ecosystem can be summarized using
the food chains, food webs, and ecological pyramids
Trophic Levels
16

 These indicate the feeding position in a food chain that a


particular organism occupies. The organism at each level
vary from one ecosystem to the other. The various levels are:

 Producers/Primary producers: These are mostly autotrophs


that manufacture their own food
i. Terrestrial: Green plants
ii. Aquatic: Algae, blue-green algae, cyanobacteria
(phytoplankton)
Trophic Levels
17

 Primary consumers: These organisms feed on producers and


are called herbivores
i. Terrestrial: Insects, reptiles and mammals
ii. Aquatic: Crustaceans, molluscs, protozoans (zooplanktons)

 Secondary/Tertiary/Other Consumers: Secondary consumers


feed on herbivores; tertiary and other consumers feed on
secondary consumers and others below respectively. They may
either be predators, carrion feeders or parasites

 Consumers typically become larger in size and fewer in


number at each successive trophic level
Trophic Levels
18

 Decomposers and Detritovores: These organisms feed on


mainly on dead organic matter (chiefly bacteria and fungi),
otherwise known as saprotrophs

 Detritovores feed on small fragments of decomposing or


dead materials termed detritus. Examples include
ragworms, sea slugs, sea cucumbers and sludgeworms
(aquatic), earthworms, woodlice, millipedes and dung
flies/beetles (terrestrial)
Food Chain
19

 This is a linear sequence of energy transfer through a


series of organisms, each feeding on the preceding
organism and providing raw materials and energy for the
next organism

 This sequence may also be called a grazing link

 A food chain usually starts with producers and ends with


a top consumer, each organism shown as only feeding on
only one other type of organism

 Food chains are generally limited to three or four links.


20
Food Web
21

 This is a mesh of interlinking food chains reflecting the true


complex state of feeding relationships in an ecosystem

 Usually, most organisms feed on more than one other


organism and itself preyed on by more than one kind of
organism

 Some organisms feed in both grazing and detrital food


chains (higher carnivores)

 Some animals such as humans, feed on organisms at all


trophic levels (omnivores)
22
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
23

 These are diagrams used to summarize feeding relationships


and efficiency of energy transfer through biotic components
of ecosystems
 Pyramids are useful in comparing:
i. Different ecosystems
ii. Seasonal variation within a particular ecosystem
iii. Changes in an ecosystem
 Three major types:
a. Pyramid of Numbers
b. Pyramid of Biomass
c. Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid of Numbers
24

 Organisms of a given area are first counted and


grouped into trophic levels,

 The number of organisms in a given trophic level is


represented by a rectangle, whose length/area is
proportional to the number of organisms in the given
area (or volume, if aquatic)

 A progressive decrease in number of organisms at


each successive level is usually found
25

Pyramid of Numbers
Pyramid of Numbers
26

 Problems associated with use of this pyramid are:

i. True pyramid shape difficult to obtain due to great


varying sizes of producers
ii. Range of numbers between trophic levels may be so
great it is difficult to draw them to scale
iii. Trophic level of an organism may be difficult to
ascertain
Pyramid of Biomass
27

 The total mass of organisms (biomass) is estimated for each


trophic level at any one time

 Rectangles are used to represent masses of organisms at each


trophic level per unit area (or volume, if aquatic)

 Biomass taken at a given time of sampling is known as


standing (crop) biomass

 Most biomass pyramids are upright, whether producers are


large or small

 Pyramids mostly inverted in aquatic ecosystems when


producers have very high reproduction and subsequent death
rates e.g. phytoplankton mass in ocean or pond ecosystems
28

Pyramid of Biomass (Upright)


29

Pyramid of Biomass (Inverted)


Pyramid of Biomass
30

 Limitations associated with use of this pyramid are:

i. Laborious and expensive methods and equipment


for measuring biomass of organisms

ii. They indicate only quantity of organic material


present in the system at one time
Pyramid of Energy
31

 Most fundamental and reliable way of representing


relationship among organisms at different trophic levels

 Takes into account the rate of production of organisms over a


period (per year)

 Each bar of the pyramid represents the amount of energy per


unit area/volume flowing through that trophic level in a given
time period e.g. kJm-2yr-1
32

Pyramid of Energy
General problems using ecological
pyramids
33

 Identifying organism’s specific trophic level for ideal


placement (many organisms feed at several levels)

 Assigning all plant material to producer level is


inappropriate, as some plant organs possess no
chlorophyll

 Detrital organic matter (DOM) is often omitted from


pyramid diagrams
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
34
 This describes the cyclical movement of elements (inorganic
nutrients) through the biotic and abiotic components of the
ecosystems on Earth

 During the cycle, the element may be combined within


complex organic molecules

 These are later broken down in decomposition to simpler


organic and inorganic forms, which can be used again to make
up the living material of biotic organisms

 Biogeochemical cycles (BGCs) involving elements essential to


life are also called nutrient cycles
Biogeochemical cycles
35

 At any one time, an element may be in one of four


compartments in nature:
1. In living tissue or by-products of living organisms such
as faeces or shells

2. In solution (soil water or other aquatic environment)

3. In atmosphere as a component of gases in the air

4. In rocks and soil in forms temporarily unavailable to


organisms
Nitrogen Cycle
36
 Nitrogen is an essential component of many life building
molecules including proteins, amino acids and nucleic acids

 The chief reservoir of nitrogen (N2 gas) is the atmosphere,


where it exists in a largely non-reactive state for use by most
biological organisms

 Most living organisms thus depends on the more reactive


compounds, such as ammonium and nitrate, present in soil

 The process by which nitrogen is cycled through the biotic and


abiotic components of the ecosystem is called the nitrogen
cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
37
 The cycle consists of the following steps:
i. Nitrogen fixation

ii. Nitrogen assimilation

iii. Ammonification

iv. Nitrification

v. Denitrification

vi. Sedimentation
38
Nitrogen cycle
39

 Nitrogen fixation: This involves the conversion of


atmospheric nitrogen into the more biologically
available ammonium ions, and made available for
transfer to nitrogenous organic compounds (e.g. amino
acids). It involves two types:
i. Physicochemical fixation
ii. Biological fixation

 In the first type, nitrogen is fixed primarily by


electrical discharge caused by lightning action during
storms or industrially through the Heber process
Nitrogen cycle
40

 Nitrogen fixation occurs biologically via nitrogen fixing


bacteria. These include Azotobacter and Clostridium
(free-living) and Rhizobium, Bradyrhizobium
(symbiotic, living in root nodules of legumes)

 The microbes combine gaseous nitrogen with


hydrogen obtained from respiration to form ammonia,
which reacts with organic acids to form amino acids

 Biological nitrogen fixation is the major source of


fixed nitrogen, far higher in relation to nitrogen fixed
by electric discharge and photochemical fixation
Nitrogen cycle
41

 Nitrogen assimilation: Here, inorganic nitrogen in form


of nitrates, nitrites and ammonia is absorbed by green
plants and converted to nitrogenous organic compounds

 The amino acids formed are utilized by plants in the


synthesis of proteins, enzymes, chlorophylls, etc.

 Animals also derive their nitrogen requirement from


consuming plant proteins. These are broken down during
digestion into amino acids which are utilized for production
of organic molecules such as animal proteins and various
nucleic acids
Nitrogen cycle
42

 Ammonification: Organic nitrogenous compounds


from faeces and dead animal/plant remains are
decomposed in this process into simpler forms by
saprophytic bacteria and various fungi

 These organisms use organic compounds in their


metabolism and in the process, release excess nitrogen as
ammonium ions (NH4+) or ammonia gas (NH3)

 This process is also known as nitrogen mineralization


Nitrogen cycle
43

 Nitrification: In this process, ammonia/ammonium ions in


soil are oxidised by nitrifying bacteria, yielding nitrites; and
nitrites converted to nitrates for uptake by plants

 The oxidation of ammonium to nitrites is mainly brought


about by chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria such as
Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus, which utilize the energy
released for their metabolic life activities

 Conversion of (toxic) nitrites to nitrates by oxidation with


attendant release of energy is achieved by other genera of
bacteria including Nitrobacter, Penicillum species,
Nitrocystis, etc.
Nitrogen cycle
44

 Denitrification: Is an anaerobic process by which


nitrates and ammonia are reduced to volatile forms of
nitrogen (nitrogen gas and nitrous oxide), which returns
to the atmosphere

 Common examples of denitrifying bacteria include


Thiobacillus denitrificans and Pseudomonas aeruginosa

 It is a system of nitrogen loss from the soil-plant system,


occurring universally in soils.
Nitrogen cycle
45

 Sedimentation: Is also a system of nitrogen loss from


the cycle, where nitrates in soil are washed down to the
sea or leached deep into the Earth along with percolating
water.

 Nitrates thus lost from the system are locked up in rocks


and sea bed sediments

 Nitrogen is released only when such rocks are exposed


and weathered.
Carbon Cycle
46

 The carbon cycle involves the movement of carbon atoms


between living and non-living components of the ecosystem

 The carbon cycle involves three broad components:


i. Carbon stored in atmosphere and ocean
ii. Fixation of carbon
iii. Release of CO2 back into the atmosphere

 The chief carbon source for living organisms is CO2 gas


present in the atmosphere, or dissolved in surface water
47
Carbon Cycle
48

 CO2 gas is converted in photosynthesis by photoautotrophs


into simple carbohydrates [CHO]n and transferred among
biotic organisms along the food chain
 Carbon is returned back to the atmosphere via respiration
of living organisms (animals)
 Some carbon are however locked away for longer periods
in sediments of slowly decomposing organic matter. These
leads to formation of compounds such as coal, chalk, oil
and limestone
 A small, but significant amount of CO2 is also released during
deforestation, production of cement from limestone and
burning of fossil fuels
Hydrological (Water) cycle
49

 Water is an essential component of all living organisms.


It is important as solvent and medium for chemical
reactions
 The water cycle plays a major role regulating the surface
temperature and temperature distribution on Earth
 98% of the water supply on Earth is present in oceans,
lakes and rivers/streams
 Of the remaining 2%, some is frozen in polar ice and
glaciers, some in soil water, some as water vapour in
atmosphere and some in bodies of living organisms
 The water cycle is mainly driven by solar energy
50
Hydrological (Water) cycle
51

 Sunshine evaporates water from the major sources and bodies


of living organisms, drawing water back into the atmosphere

 The water condenses and falls back on Earth as precipitation


(rain, snow, sleet or ice)

 Evaporation exceeds precipitation over the oceans, resulting


in a net movement of water vapour from ocean to land
(carried by wind)

 Over 90% of water lost on land is by plant transpiration


(evaporation of water from soil plus transpiration from plants
is called evapotranspiration)
Hydrological (Water) cycle
52

 Some water that falls on land percolates down through soil


to a zone of saturation. Here, all crevices and holes in the
bedrock are filled with water from the major sources and
bodies of living organisms, drawing water back into the
atmosphere.

 Below the saturation zone is the impermeable solid rock


layer.

 Upper surface of the zone of saturation is called the water


table.

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