CHAPTER 9

VECTOR CALCULUS
(9.1~9.8)

1
Chapter Contents
9.1 Vector Functions

9.2 Motion in a Curve

9.3 Curvature and Components of Acceleration

9.4 Partial Derivatives

9.5 Directional Derivatives

9.6 Tangent Planes and Normal Lines

9.7 Divergence and Curl

9.8 Lines Integrals

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 9.1 Vector Functions
Space curve (parametric curve in space )
(x, y, z)= ( f(t), g(t), h(t) )

Vector functions
r(t) = <f(t), g(t), h(t)> = f(t)i + g(t)j + h(t)k

Example 1: circular helix

Graph the curve by
r(t) = 2cos t i + 2sin t j + t k, t ≥ 0
Solution:
x2 + y2 = (2cos t)2 + (2sin t)2 = 22
3
 Example 3: Curve of Intersection
Find the vector functions that describes
the curve C of the intersection of y = 2x
and z = 9 – x2 – y2.
Solution:
Let x = t, then y = 2t,
z = 9 – t2 – (2t)2 = 9 – 5t2

Thus, r(t) = t i + 2t j +(9 – 5t2) k. See

Fig 9.1.4.

4
 Derivative of Vector Function
Definition 9.1.3 Derivative of Vector Function
The derivative of a vector function r is
1
= r′(t ) ∆lim
t →0 ∆t
[r (t + ∆t ) − r(t )] (2)
for all t which the limits exists.

Theorem 9.1.2 Differentiation of Components

If r (t ) = f (t ), g (t ), h(t ) , where f, g, and h are differentiable, then
r′(t ) = f ′(t ), g ′(t ), h′(t )

 Basic definition and properties of limits of vector functions can be found in textbook.
5
 Geometric Interpretation of r’(t)
r′(t) = lim ∆𝒓𝒓/∆𝑡𝑡 Smooth curve: r(t) = <f(t), g(t), h(t)> and
∆𝑡𝑡→0
f’(t), g’(t), h’(t) are continuous and r′(t) ≠ 0

EX4: r(t) = cos 2t i + sin t j

x = 1 − 2y2
r′(t) = −2sin 2t i + cos t j
r′(0) = j

 π 3
r′   =− 3i + j
6 2
6
 Vector Function Calculation
d r d r ds
Chain Rule: s = u(t)= = r′( s )u′(t )
dt ds dt
Rules of Differentiation:
d d
[r1 (t ) + r2 (t )] =r1′(t ) + r2′ (t ) t )．r2 (t )] r1 (t )．r2′ (t ) + r1′(t )．r2 (t )
[r1 (=
dt dt
d d
[u (=t )r1 (t )] u (t )r1′(t ) + u′(t )r1 (t ) [r1 (t ) × r2 (t )] = r1 (t ) × r2′ (t ) + r1′(t ) × r2 (t )
dt dt
 Integrals of Vector Functions:
 f (t ) dt  i +  g (t ) dt  j +  h(t ) dt  k
∫ r (t ) dt =
 ∫   ∫   ∫ 
b
 b
  b
  b
k
∫a r ( t ) dt =
 ∫ a
f (t ) dt
  ∫ a
i + g (t ) dt

j +
 ∫ a
h (t ) dt
 7
 Length of a Space Curve
Length of a smooth curve
b b
∫ [ f ′(t )] + [ g ′(t )] + [h′(t )] = ∫ || r′(t ) || dt
2 2 2
s
= dt
a a

EX9: Consider Example 1, r(t) = 2cos t i + 2sin t j + t k. Parameterize r

in terms of s.
 Solution: || r′(t ) || = 5
t
r(t) is s
length from r(0) to = 0 ∫=
5 du5t
s s s r’(s) is a unit
 t = s / 5  r ( s ) = 2 cos i + 2 sin j+ k tangent vector.
5 5 5
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 9.2 Motion on a Curve
Displacement r(t) = f(t)i + g(t)j + h(t)k
Velocity v (t ) =r′(t ) =f ′(t )i + g ′(t ) j + h′(t )k
Acceleration a(t ) =r′′(t ) =f ′′(t )i + g ′′(t ) j + h′′(t )k
Speed of the particle: 2 2 2
dr  dx   dy   dz 
|| v (t ) || = =   +  + 
dt  dt   dt   dt 
Arc length: t1
s = ∫ || v (t ) || s′(t ) = || v (t ) ||
t0

Centripetal acceleration: constant speed c

dv
||v(t)||2 = c2 or v ‧ v = c2 ．v = 0 or a(t) ‧ v(t) = 0
dt 9
 Example 2: V and A Vectors
Consider r(t) = 2cos t i + 2sin t j + 3k. Graph the velocity and acceleration
at t = π/4.
Solution:
v(t) = r′(t) = −2sin t i + 2cos t j
a(t) = r″(t) = −2cos t i −2sin t j
and

π  π π
v  =−2 sin i + 2 cos j =
− 2i + 2 j
4 4 4
π  π π
a  =−2 cos i − 2 sin j =
− 2i − 2 j
4 4 4
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 9.3 Curvature and Components of Acc.
r′(t )
Unit Tangent: T(t ) =
r′(t )
d T T′(t )
Curvature: κ = =
ds r′(t )
d r d r ds d r d r / dt r′(t )
= and also= = = T(t )
dt ds dt ds ds / dt r′(t )
dT dT ds dT dT / dt
= and consequently
dt ds dt ds ds / dt
T′(t ) Radius of curvature: ρ = 1/κ
κ (t ) =
r′(t ) 11
 Example 1: Curvature of a Circle
Find the curvature of a circle of radius a.
Solution:
We already know the equation of a circle is
r(t) = a cos t i + a sin t j,
then r′(t ) = − a sin ti + a cos t j and || r′(t ) ||=a
and || r′(t ) ||= a
We get
r′(t )
T(t ) = = − sin ti + cos tj and T′(t ) = − cos ti − sin tj
|| r′(t ) ||
Thus, ′
|| T (t ) || 2 2
cos t + sin t 1
= κ = = (5)
|| r′(t ) || a a
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 Tangential and Normal Components
Velocity: v(t) = ||v(t)||T = vT
Acceleration: dT dv
a=(t ) v + T
dt dt
normal tangential
T ⋅ dT/dt = 0 (T and dT/dt are orthogonal.)
Unit normal vector: dT / dt
N=
(principal normal) dT / dt

κ = ||dT/dt||/ v  dT/dt = κvN

dv
a(t ) κ v N + T
= 2

dt
normal tangential
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 The Binormal
Binormal: B(t) = T(t) × N(t) (||B|| = 1)

Moving trihedral: T(t), N(t), B(t)

mutually orthogonal vectors

Osculating plane: T(t) and N(t)

Rectifying plane: T(t) and B(t)

Normal plane: N(t) and B(t)

|| v × a || || r′(t ) × r′′(t ) ||
dv v．a r′(t )．r′′(t ) aN κ=
= v 2
=
a=
T = = || v || || r′(t ) ||
dt || v || || r′(t ) ||
Unit tangential vector
|| v × a || || r′(t ) × r′′(t ) ||
v=
× a a N (v T
 × N) + aT (v T
 ×=T) aN vB =κ =
B 0 || v ||3
|| r ′(t ) ||3
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 Example 3
r(t) = 2cos t i + 2sin t j + 3t k. At the point t = π / 2, find an equation of (a)
the osculating plane, (b) the normal plane, and (c) the rectifying plane.
Solution:

r′(t ) =
−2sin ti + 2cos tj + 3k , r′(t ) =
13 N(t) = – cos t i – sin t j

2 2 3 B T(t ) × N(t )
=
T=
− sin ti + cos tj + k
13 13 13 3 3 2
= sin ti − cos tj + k
13 13 13
dT 2 2 dT 2
=
− cos ti − sin tj and =
dt 13 13 dt 13

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 Example 3
At the point: r (π / 2) =〈0, 2, 3π / 2〉
3 2
(a) B(π / 2) =
T(π / 2) × N(π / 2) = i = k
13 13
 3π 
3(x − 0) + 0( y − 2) + 2  z − =0
 2 
3π
(b) −2( x − 0) + 0( y − 2) + 3( z − ) =
0
2
3π
(c) 0( x − 0) + (−1)( y − 2) + 0( z − ) =0
2

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 Example 4: Curvature of Twisted Cubic
r(t) = t i + ½t2 j + (1/3)t3 k, find the , , , at t and the curvature.
Solution:
v (t ) =r′(t ) =i + t j + t 2 k , a(t ) =r′′(t ) =j + 2tk

Since v ⋅ a = t + 2t3 and v = 2

1+ t + t 4 dv t + 2t 3
 a=
T =
dt 1+ t2 + t4
i j k
v × a = 1 t t 2 = t 2i − 2tj + k  || v × a || = t 4 + 4t 2 + 1
0 1 2t
4
t + 4t + 1 2 4 2
t + 4t + 1 (t 4 + 4t 2 + 1)1/2
aN κ=
= v 2
=  κ (t ) = 4 2
1+ t2 + t4 t4 + t2 +1 (t + t + 1)3/2
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 Level Curves & Level Surfaces F(x, y, z) = c
Level Curve Level Surface

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 9.4 Partial Derivatives For surface 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦)
∂z f ( x + ∆x, y ) − f ( x, y )
Partial derivative with respect to x = lim
∂x ∆x→0 ∆x

Partial derivative with respect to y ∂z f ( x, y + ∆y ) − f ( x, y )

= lim
∂y ∆y →0 ∆y
Mixed Derivatives:
∂  ∂z  ∂ 2 z ∂2 z
f xy (=
= fx )y =  ,=
f yx fxy = fyx
∂y  ∂x  ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
Chain rule: u = g(x, y) and v = h(x, y), then
∂z ∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v ∂z ∂z ∂u ∂z ∂v
=+ , =+
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂v ∂x ∂y ∂u ∂y ∂v ∂y
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9.5 Directional Derivative
Define the vector differential operator
as = ∂ ∂ ∂
∇ i + j +k
∂x ∂y ∂z
the gradients of the functions:
∂F ∂F ∂F
∇F ( x , y , z ) = i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
EX2: F(x, y, z) = xy2 + 3x2 – z3, find
∇F ( x, y, z ) at (2, –1, 4).
Solution:
∇F ( x, y, z ) =( y + 6 x)i + 2 xyj − 3 z k
2 2

∇F = (2, − 1, 4) = 13i − 4 j − 48k

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 9.5 Directional Derivative
∂F ∂F ∂F
The gradients of the functions: ∇F ( x , y , z ) = i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z

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 Directional Derivative
The directional derivative of z = f(x, y)
in the direction u = cos θ i + sin θ j is
f ( x + h cosθ , y + h sin θ ) − f ( x, y )
Du f ( x, y ) = lim
h →0 h
or Du f ( x, y ) = ∇f ( x, y )．u t=0

Proof: g(t) = f(x + t cosθ, y + t sinθ)

m n
g’(t)= fmmt + fnnt = fmcosθ + fnsinθ t
t=0
g (0 + h) − g (0)
g ′(0) = lim = f x ( x, y ) cos θ + f y ( x, y ) sin θ = ∇f ( x, y )．u
h →0 h
= 22
 Example 3: Directional Derivative
f(x, y) = 2x2y3 + 6xy, direction: angle π/6 with +x-axis. Find the directional
derivative at (1, 1).
Solution:
Now, θ = π/6, u = cos θ i + sin θ j
∂f 3 ∂f
= 4 xy + 6 y, = 6 x2 y 2 + 6 x
∂x ∂y 3 1
= u i+ j
2 2
∇f ( x, y ) = (4 xy + 6 y )i + (6 x y + 6 x) j
3 2 2

Du f (1, 1) = ∇f (1, 1)．u

∇f (1, 1) = 10i + 12 j  3 1 
= (10i + 12 j)． i + j = 5 3 + 6
 2 2 
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 Functions of Three Variables For 𝑤𝑤 = 𝐹𝐹(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, z)
∂w
 Du F ( x, y, z ) = ∇F ( x, y, z )．u and Dk F ( x, y, z ) =
∂z
EX5: Find the directional derivative of F(x, y, z) = xy2 – 4x2y + z2 at
(1, –1, 2) in the direction 6i + 2j + 3k.
Solution:
Since Since ||6i + 2j + 3k|| = 7, then
∂F 2 ∂F 2 ∂F
u = (6/7)i + (2/7)j + (3/7)k
= y − 8 xy , = 2 xy − 4 x , = 2z
∂x ∂y ∂z Du F (1, − 1, 2)
we have 6 2 3 
= (9i − 6 j + 4k )． i + j + k 
∇F ( x, y, z ) =( y 2 − 8 xy )i + (2 xy − 4 x 2 ) j + 2 zk 7 7 7 
54
∇F (1, − 1, 2) = 9i − 6 j + 4k =
7
24
 Most Rapid Increase of f
|| ∇f || || u || cos φ =
 Du f = || ∇f || cos φ , (|| u || =
1)

− 1 ≤ cos φ ≤ 1  − || ∇f || ≤ Du f ≤ || ∇f ||

Duf min, cos φ = -1

∇f EX7: Model of a hill
f decreases most rapidly
u f ( x, y ) = 4 − 2/3 x 2 + y 2 , 0 ≤ z ≤ 4,

2  −x −y 
∇f (=
x, y )  2 i+ = j
Duf max, cos φ = 1 3  x + y 2 x 2 + y 2 
f increases most rapidly (pointing to the center)
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 9.6 Tangent Plane and Normal Lines
Curve f(x, y) = c passes through P(x0, y0)

If x = g(t), y = h(t) such that x0 = g(t0), y0

= h(t0), then
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ∂f dx ∂f dy
= + = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ∂x dt ∂y dt
∂f ∂f dx dy
∇f ( x, y ) = i + j and r′(t ) = i + j
∂x ∂y dt dt
 ∇f ．r′ =
0
When at t = t0, ∇f ( x0 , y0 )．r′(t0 ) =
0
26
 Three Variables ∇F ( x0 , y0 , z0 )．r′(t0 ) =
0

∇F is normal to the level surface at P.

EX2: Find the level surfaces of F(x, y, z)

= x2 + y2 + z2 passing through (1, 1, 1).
Graph the gradient at the point.
Solution:
F(1, 1, 1) = 3
spherical surface: x2 + y2 + z2 = 3
The gradient of the function is
∇F ( x, y, z ) = 2 xi + 2 yj + 2 zk
27
 Tangent Plane
P(x0, y0, z0) is a point on F(x, y, z) = c
∇F ≠ 0.
Equation of the tangent plane at P is
Fx(x0, y0, z0)(x – x0) + Fy(x0, y0, z0)
(y – y0) + Fz(x0, y0, z0)(z – z0) = 0
 ∇F ( x0 , y0 , z0 )．(r − r0 ) = 0
Normal vector of the tangent plane
EX3: Find the tangent plane to x2 – 4y2 +
z2 = 16 at (2, 1, 4).
 Solution: ∇F ( x, y, z ) = 2 xi − 8 yj + 2 zk ,  ∇F (2, 1, 4) = 4i − 8 j + 8k
The equation: 4(x – 2) – 8(y – 1) + 8(z – 4) = 0
28
 Example 4&5
Find the tangent plane and normal line to z = ½ x2 + ½ y2 + 4 at (1, –1, 5).
Solution
Let F(x, y, z) = ½ x2 + ½ y2 – z + 4.
F(1, –1, 5) = 0 (OK).
Then ∇F ( x, y, z ) = xi + yj − k ,
and ∇F (1, − 1, 5) = i − j − k

Tangent plane: (x + 1) – (y – 1) – (z – 5) = 0
or –x + y + z = 3
Normal line: The line containing P that is parallel to ∇F(x0, y0, z0)
It is x = 1 + t, y = –1– t, z = 5 – t
29
 9.7 Divergence and Curl
Vector Fields: F(x, y) = P(x, y) i + Q(x, y) j
F(x, y, z) = P(x, y, z) i + Q(x, y, z) j + R(x, y, z) k

30
 Example 1: Two-Dimensional Vector Field
Graph the two-dimensional vector field F(x, y) = – yi + xj
Solution:
Since F ||
|| = x 2 + y 2 , let x2 + y 2 = k

For = k 1,= k 2 and k = 2, we have

(i) x2 + y2 = 1：at (1, 0), (0, 1), (–1, 0), (0, –1),
Vectors = j, –i, –j, i , length = 1.
(ii) x2 + y2 = 2：at (1, 1), (–1, 1), (–1, –1), (1, –1),
Vectors = – i + j, –i – j, i – j, i + j , length = 2.
(iii) x2 + y2 = 4：at (2, 0), (0, 2), (–2, 0), (0, –2),
Vectors = 2j, –2i, –2j, 2i , length = 2.
31
 Curl (旋度) & Divergence (散度)
The curl of a vector field F = P i + Q j + R k is the vector field
i j k
 ∂R ∂Q   ∂P ∂R   ∂Q ∂P  ∂ ∂ ∂
curl F =  − i+ − j +  − k or curl F = ∇ × F =
 ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y  ∂x ∂y ∂z
P Q R
The divergence of a vector field F = P i + Q j + R k is the scalar
function ∂P ∂Q ∂R
div F = + + or
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
div F = ∇．F = P ( x, y, z ) + Q( x, y, z ) + R ( x, y, z )
∂x ∂y ∂z
 curl(grad f ) = ∇ × ∇f = 0 (梯度的旋度是0)
div(curl F ) = ∇．(∇ × F ) = 0 (旋度的散度是0)
32
 Physical Interpretations

 div F near a point is the flux per unit volume.

(i) If div F(P) > 0: source for F.
(ii) If div F(P) < 0: sink for F.
(iii) If div F(P) = 0: no sources or sinks near P.

 If ∇ ⋅ F = 0: incompressible or solenoidal.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rB83DpBJQsE&ab_channel=3Blue1Brown
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=loCLkcYEWD4&ab_channel=BarryBelmont 33
 Physical Interpretations
Cross product for curl
Curl field:

Inner product for div

34
 Example 2: Curl and Divergence
If F = (x2y3 – z4)i + 4x5y2zj – y4z6 k, find (a) curl F and (b) div F and (c)
div(curl F).
i j k
Solution:
∂ ∂ ∂
(a) curl F = ∇ × F =
∂x ∂y ∂z
x 2 y 3 − z 4 4 x5 y 2 z − y 4 z 6
= (−4 y 3 z 6 − 4 x 5 y 2 )i − 4 z 3 j + (20 x 4 y 2 z − 3 x 2 y 2 )k
∂ 2 3 4 ∂ ∂
(b) div F = ∇．F = ( x y − z ) + (4 x y z ) + (− y 4 z 6 )=2 xy 3 + 8 x 5 yz − 6 y 4 z 5
5 2

∂x ∂y ∂z
∂ ∂ ∂
(c) div(curl F ) = (−4 x z − 4 x y ) + (−4 z ) + (20 x 4 y 2 z − 3 x 2 y 2 )
3 6 5 2 3

∂x ∂y ∂z
= 0 − 20 x 4 y 2 + x + 20 x 4 y 2 = 0 (旋度的散度是0) 35
 9.8 Line Integrals
 Suppose C is a curve (x = f(t), y = g(t), a ≤ t ≤ b)
 A and B are the points (f(a), g(a)) and (f(b), g(b))
(i) C is a smooth curve if
 f ' and g' are continuous on [a, b]
 f ' and g' not simultaneously zero on (a, b).
(ii) C is piecewise smooth if
 it consists of a finite number of smooth curves C1, C2, ..., Cn
joined end to end—or, C = C1 ∪ C2 ∪ ... ∪ Cn.
(iii) C is a closed curve if A = B.
(iv) C is a simple closed curve if
 A = B and the curve does not cross itself.
(v) If C is not a closed curve, then the positive direction on C
is the direction corresponding to increasing values of t.
36
 • ||P|| is the norm of the
Line Integrals in the Plane partition or the length
Definition 9.8.1 Line Integrals in the Plane of the longest subarc.
Let G be a function of x and y defined on a plane
containing a smooth curve C.
(i) The line integral of G along C from A to B with
respect to x is= n

∫C P →0
∑
G ( x, y ) dx lim G ( x* , y* )∆x
k =1
k k k

(ii) The line integral of G along C from A to B with ||P||

respect to y is n

∫ G( x, y) dy lim ∑ G ( xk , yk )∆yk
* *
=
C P →0
k =1

(iii) The line integral of G along C from A to B w.r.t.

arc length is n

∫ G( x, y) ds lim ∑ G ( xk , yk )∆sk
* *
=
C P →0
k =1
37
 Method of Evaluation—Curve Defined
Parametrically
If C is a smooth curve defined by x = f(t), y = g(t), a ≤ t ≤ b.

dx = f ′(t) dt, dy = g′(t) dt, ds= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2

dy
 ds
= [ f ′(t )]2 + [ g ′(t )]2 dt (differential of arc length)
b
dx
 ∫ G( x, y) dx = ∫
C a
G ( f (t ), g (t )) f ′(t ) dt (1)
b
(2)
∫ C
G ( x, y ) dy = ∫ G ( f (t ), g (t )) g ′(t ) dt
a

b
(3)
∫ G( x, y) ds ∫ ′ ′
2 2
= G ( f (t ), g (t )) [ f (t )] + [ g (t )] dt
C a

38
 Example 1: Evaluation of Line Integrals
Evaluate (a) ∫ xy dx (b) ∫ C
2
xy 2 dy (c)
∫ xy 2
ds on the ¼ circle C
C C
by x 4 cos
defined= = t , y 4 sin t , 0 ≤ t ≤ π /2 .

Solution:
x   y 2
dx
   
(a) π /2
∫ ∫
2 2
= xy dx (4 cos t )(16 sin t )(−4 sin t dt )
C 0
π /2
= −256 ∫ 3
sin t cos t dt
0
π /2
1 
−256  sin 4 t  =
= −64
4 0

39
 Example 1: Evaluation of Line Integrals
(b) x  y 2
dy
π /2

     
∫ C
xy 2 dy = ∫ (4 cos t )(16 sin 2 t )(4 cos t dt )
0
π /2 1
π /2 = 64 ∫ (1 − cos 4t ) dt
= 256 ∫ 2 2
sin t cos t dt 0 2
0
π /2
π /2 1 2  1 
= 256 ∫ sin 2t dt 32 t − sin 4t  =
= 16π
0 4  4 0
π /21 x y2 ds
= 64 ∫ (1
 −
cos
 4
t) dt
    
(c) ∫ xy 2 ds ∫
0 2(4 cos t )(16 sin 2 t ) 16(cos 2 t + sin 2 t ) dt
π /2

C 0 π /2
 1 π /2  π /2
= 32 t − sin 4t 2 = 16π 1 3  256
= 2564 ∫ =sin 0t cos t dt 256
=  sin t 
0
3 0 3
40
 Method of Evaluation—Curve Defined by
an Explicit Function ds= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
If the curve C is defined by y = f(x), a ≤ x ≤ b, dy
dy = f ′(x) dx and ds = 1 + [ f ′( x)]2 dx dx
b b

∫ G
C
( x , y ) dx = ∫ G ( x
a
, f ( x )) dx ∫ G ( x , y )
C
dy = ∫ G ( x ,
a
f ( x )) f ′( x) dx
b
∫ G( x, y) ds
=
C ∫ a
G ( x, f ( x)) 1 + [ f ′( x)]2 dx
Note: If C is composed of two smooth curves C1 and C2, then

∫=
G ( x, y ) ds ∫
C
G ( x, y ) ds + ∫ G ( x, y ) ds
C1 C2
In many cases, a line integral along a close curve:

∫ C
P ( x, y ) dx + ∫ Q( x, y ) dy
C
or ∫ P dx + Q dy
C
41
 Example 2&3: Curve of an Explicit Function
Evaluate ∫C xydx + x dy , where C is given by y = x3, –1 ≤ x ≤ 2.
2

Solution:  y
 dy
2
∫ ∫
2 3 2 2
xydx + x
= dy x ( x ) dx + x (3 x dx)
C −1
2
2 4 5 132
= ∫ = 4 x dx = 4
x 
−1 5  −1 5
Evaluate ∫C x dx , where C is the circle
= x cos t=, y sin t , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
2π
Solution: ∫C
x dx = ∫ cos t (− sin t dt )
0
2π
1 2  1
= cos t  = [1 − 1] = 0
2 0 2
42
 Example 4 Evaluate ∫C
y 2 dx − x 2 dy
2
∫ ∫
2 2 2
(i) On C1, y = 0, dy = 0, y dx − x dy = 0 dx − x (0) = 0
C1 0

4
(ii) On C2, x = 2, dx = 0, ∫C ∫
2 2
y dx − x dy= y 2 (0) − 4 dy
2 0
4
−4 y  =
4
= − ∫ 4 dy = −16
0  0
0
∫ y dx − x dy= ∫ x 4 dx − x 2 (2 x dx)
2 2
(iii) On C3, y = x2, dy = 2x dx,
C3 2
2
= ∫0
( x 4 − 2 x 3 ) dx
0
 1 5 1 4  8
8 72 = x − x  =
 ∫C y dx − x dy =−
2 2
0 16 + =− 5 2  2 5
5 5 43
Curves with Opposite Orientation

∫ −C
P dx + Q dy + ∫ P dx + Q dy =
C
0

In (a) of Example 1, ∫
2
xy dx = 64
−C

44
 Lines Integrals in Space ds= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2
dz
If C is defined by=x f (t=
), y g (t=
), z h(t ), a ≤ t ≤ b ,
b
∫ G ( x, y, z ) dz = ∫ G ( f (t ), g (t ), h(t ))h′(t ) dt dy
C a
dx
Similar method can be used for

∫ G( x, y, z )dx, ∫ G ( x, y, z )dy
C C
and
b
∫ G( x, y, z ) ds
=
C ∫ a
G ( f (t ), g (t ), h(t )) [ f ′(t )]2 + [ g ′(t )]2 + [h′(t )]2 dt
We usually use the following form
∫ P( x, y, z ) dx + Q( x, y, z ) dy + R( x, y, z ) dz
C

45
 Example 5: Line Integral in 3D-Space
Evaluate ∫ y d x + x dy + z dz , where C is
C
x= 2 cos t , y= 2 sin t , z= t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
Solution:
Since we have
dx =−2 sin t dt , dy =2 cos t dt , dz =dt , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
we get
2π
∫ C
y dx + x dy + z dz = ∫
0
(−4 sin 2 t + 4 cos 2 t ) dt + t dt
 
double-angle formula
2π
2π  t  2
= ∫ 0
dt  2 sin 2t +   = 2π 2
(4 cos 2t + t ) =
 2  0

46
 Work Done along a Curve
In 2D, r(t) = f(t) i + g(t) j, dr(t)/dt = f ′(t) i + g′(t) j = (dx/dt) i + (dy/dt) j
F(x, y) = P(x, y) i + Q(x, y) j , thus
∫ C P( x, y) dx + Q( x, y) dy = ∫ C F．d r (10)
In 3D, F(x, y, z) = P(x, y, z) i + Q(x, y, z) j + R(x, y, z) k
∫ ∫
P ( x, y, z ) dx + Q( x, y, z ) dy + R ( x, y, z ) dz = F．dr (11)
C C
F(x, y)
The work done by F along C is as the line integral
dr = dxi + dyj
W ∫ C
P ( x, y ) dx + Q( x, y )dy or W = ∫ F．dr
C
(12) dyj
dxi
=
Or W ∫= F．dr ∫ F =．T ds ∫ compTF ds
C C C
where T = dr/ds is a unit tangent to C.
47
 Example 6: Work Done by a Force
Find the work done by (a) F(x, y) = x i + y j (b) F = (¾ i + ½ j) along the
curve C traced by r(t) = cos t i + sin t j, from t = 0 to t = π.
Solution:
 3 1 
(a) dr(t) = (−sin ti + cos tj) dt, then (b)
= W ∫ F =．dr ∫  i + j ．dr
C 4 2 
C

=W ∫ F= ．dr ∫ ( xi + yj)．dr
C C π3 1 
π = ∫  i + j ．(− sin ti + cos tj) dt
= ∫ (cos ti + sin tj)．(− sin ti + cos tj) dt 0
4 2 
0
π 3 1 
π =∫  − sin t + cos t  dt
= ∫0 ( − cos t sin t + sin t cos t ) dt 0
= 0
 4 2 
(a) (b) 3 1 
π
3
= cos t + sin t   = −
4 2  0 2
48
 Circulation
A line integral of a vector field F around a simple
closed curve C (circulation of F around C)
circulation = ∫ F ⋅ dr = ∫ F ⋅ Tds
C C

49