Nervous System

Paper: CC-3, Semester: 2

Unit: 3.3
By
Senjuti Saha, SACT.
Nervous System
The nervous system is the portion of the body which actually act as a communicator
between the external and internal environment. It collects different information from the
external environment, processes it via higher neuronal centre and produces necessary
motor activities in response to that external stimuli, it is the control centre for the internal
environment as well. The higher centre of nervous system was brain which is the control
centre for registering sensation, co-relating them with one another, making decision and
taking action. It is also the centre for intellect, arrogation, behaviour and memory.

The nervous system is made up of a unite structure called

the neuron. The study of different aspects of nervous system is called neurology. The
special branch of physicians dealing with different devices related to nervous system are
known as Neurologist.

Different parts of nervous system:

The nervous system can be divided in to several sub division depending upon their
structural arrangement and functionally and structurally the nervous system can be
divided into two classes:

a) Central nervous system

b) Peripheral nervous system

The central nervous system consists of brain and the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous
system consists of craniospinal nervous system and the visceral nervous system. Cranial
nerves are 12 pairs nerves, and spinal nerves are 81 pairs nerves.
 Nervous System

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

Autonomic Somatic
nervous system nervous system
Brain Spinal cord

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Nervous System Nervous System

Fore Brain Mid Brain Hind Brain

Telencephalon Diencephalon
Mesencephalon Meten cephalon Myelen cephalon
Cerebral cortex Thalamus
Teectum Pons
Medulla
Basal ganglia Hypothalamus Tegmeatum cerebellum
Hippocampus

Amygdala
 Nervous System

Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System

Motor neurons Sensory neurons

Brain Spinal cord Central nervous Sensory organs to

system to muscle and cetral nervous system
It controls our Conducts signals glands
thoughts, memory to and from the
And speech, brain, controls
movement of the reflex action.
arms and legs and Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System
the function of Controls voluntary movements Controls involuntary responses
many organs
within our body.

“Fight or flight” “Rest or digest”

Central Nervous System (CNS):

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is the
part of the CNS that is located in the skull and contains about 85 billion neurons. The spinal
cord contains about 100 million neurons. The CNS processes many different kinds of
incoming sensory information. It is also the source of thoughts, emotions, and memories.
Most signals that stimulate muscles to contract and glands to secrete originate in the CNS.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

The PNS consists of all nervous tissue outside the CNS. Components of the PNS include
nerves and sensory receptors. A nerve is a bundle of hundreds to thousands of axons plus
associated connective tissues and blood vessels that lies outside the brain and spinal cord.
12 pairs of cranial nerves emerge from the brain and 31 pairs of spinal nerves emerge
from the spinal cord. Each nerve follows a defined path and serves a specific region of the
body. The term sensory receptor refers to a structure of the nervous system that monitors
changes in the external or internal environment. Examples of sensory receptors include
touch receptors in the skin, photoreceptors in the eye, and olfactory (smell) receptors in
the nose.
 The PNS is divided into sensory and motor divisions. The
sensory or afferent divisions of the PNS conveys input into the CNS from sensory receptors
in the body. This division provides the CNS with sensory information about the somatic
senses (tactile, thermal, pain, and proprioceptive sensations) and special senses (smell,
taste, vision, hearing, and equilibrium).

The motor or efferent division of the PNS conveys output

from the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands).

Somatic Nervous System (SNS) and Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):

The motor or efferent division of the PNS conveys output from the CNS to effectors
(muscles and glands). This division is further subdivided into a somatic nervous system
and an autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system (SNS) conveys output
from the CNS to skeletal muscles only. Because its motor responses can be consciously
controlled, the action of this part of the PNS is voluntary.

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) conveys

output from the CNS to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands. Because, its motor
responses are not normally under conscious control, the action of the ANS is involuntary.
Autonomic system is the part of the nervous system, which controls the viscera. Its actions
are generally unconscious and independent like the somatic system it has get a spinal and a
cranial outflow. Certain special nerve centres are situated in the medulla, pons and
midbrain are included in this system. Higher centres like hypothalamus, thalamus,
cerebrum and corpus stratum also control this centre.

 Classification:
This can be classified in 3 ways:
1. Anatomical: According to the situation of outflow:
a) Craniosacral
b) Thoracolumbar
2. Functional: According to the nature of function:
a) Sympathetic
b) Parasympathetic
3. Chemical: According to the chemical substances liberated at their ends:
a) Adrenergic
b) Cholinergic

Neural arrangements:

ANS reflexes are very important in the control of viscera. Like SNS, ANS reflex also contain
3 neurons: afferent, connector and efferent. In ANS the afferent neurons lie in the posterior
horn cell, the connector neurons are found in the lateral horn cells and the efferent neurons
are not found in the CNS. They lie outside the CNS. They lie in the form of neuron and
ganglia. The presence of peripheral ganglia is the characteristic feature of CNS. In the
sympathetic system the ganglia is away from the viscera. Hence, the parasympathetic
system exerts a nerve localized action than the sympathetic.

Sympathetic System:

Sympathetic outflow takes place from the thoracic and lumbar region. The connector cells
lie in the lateral horn cells of the spinal cord pass out through the anterior root and enter
the anterior divisions of the mixed spinal nerve. These fibres are thinly medullated, hence
white. They leave the nerve in the form of branch called the white ramus communicans
and enter the sympathetic ganglion. The effector fibres arise from the sympathetic ganglion
and are non medullated. They are called Grey ramus communicans.

Parasympathetic System:

Outflow take place from the cranial and spinal region lie in the lateral horn cells. The
presence of peripheral ganglia is also a characteristic feature of parasympathetic system.
Hence, the ganglia lie in or near the viscera (except Markeli’s ganglion and otic ganglion.)
Hence, the parasympathetic system exerts a nerve localized action.

Dual supply:

Most of the organs of the body are supplied both by sympathetic and parasympathetic
nerves exerting antagnostic actions. The parasympathetic reactions are usually localized
reactions and the sympathetic reactions are concerned with mass reactions. The
parasympathetic activity results for instance, in slowing of heart rate and increase in the
peristaltic and glandular activities of the gut. These conserve the body energies.
Sympathetic activities result, for example in constriction of the cutaneous arteries,
acceleration of heart rate and increase of BP. Constriction of the sphincters and distending
of the peristalsis of the gut. These two are functionally opposite. Broadly speaking, function
of the sympathetic are catabolic, while those of parasympathetic are anabolic.

Some of the structures of the body are supplied by

sympathetic alone, e.g: ureters, uterus, fallopian tubes, seminal vesicles, While there are
certain other structures having parasympathetic supply alone e.g: oesophagus, gastric
glands, pancreas including islets of langerhans, lacrimal gland etc.

Neurotransmitters of ANS:

A nerve impulse is transmitted either through the nerve endings or through the synapses.
It passes through an intermediate chemical agent. It has been established that certain
chemical substances are actually liberated at the nerve endings which help in the
transmission of nerve impulses. These are as follows:

a) Norepinephrine
b) Acetylcholine

The chemical transmitters at most of the postganglionic sympathetic endings are closely
similar to epinephrine. The post ganglionic adrenergic fibres secret both epinephrine and
norepinephrine, but the relative proportions of their secretion vary from nerve to nerve.
Evidences indicate that excepting the nerve fibres to the sweat gland norepinephrine is
liberated at all the post ganglionic sympathetic nerve endings.

Acetylcholine is another neurotransmitter of the ANS. It is the acetyl ester of

the strong quaternary base, chlorine. Acetylcholine is formed at all parasympathetic nerves
and nerve endings. The rate increases on stimulation of the parasympathetic nerves. It is
also produced at all the synapses and plays an important role in propagation of nerve
impulse. The sympathetic nerve endings supplying the sweat glands and ancestor pilli also
produces acetylcholine. Nerve fibres liberating acetylcholine are known as cholinergic
fibres.

Control of the ANS:

The ANS is controlled in the following way:

1. Nervous control
2. Hormonal control
The hypothalamus and centres in the brain stem and medulla controls the
ANS.

Epinephrine, norepinephrine, and also acetyl choline control the ANS through the
activation of certain hypothalamic nuclei.

Synapse:

Synapse is the junctional region where the neuron and the other begins. The word
‘synapse’ is derived from the Greek word “Syn” which means “to clasp” or “join”. It is a
junction that mediates transfer of information from one neuron to the next or from a
neuron to an effector cell.

Types of Synapses:

Synapses are of the following types:

 a) Axodendritic synapse:
The synapses between the axon endings
of one neuron and the dendrites of the
other neurons are called axodendritic
synapse.

b) Axosomatic synapse:
When axon endings of one neuron joins
cell bodies of other neurons, they are
called axosomatic synapse.

Beside these, there are synapses between

the axons (axoaxonic), between dendrite
(dendodendritic), or between cell bodies
and dendrites (somatodendritic) but
these are less common.

The neuron which conducts

impulses towards the synapse is called
the presynaptic neuron and the neuron
transmitting the impulse away from the
synapse is called the post synaptic
neuron.

Anatomy of the synapse:

At the synapse, although close to each

other, presynaptic and post synaptic membranes are always
separated by a fluid filled space, approximately 30-50 mm wide.
The space is called synaptic cleft . Under electron microscope, it is
seen that presynaptic fibres end in an expanded terminal called
the synaptic knob. The synaptic knobs are separated from the
postsynaptic membrane by the synaptic cleft. The synaptic cleft
actually represents the real discontinuity of the cell cytoplasm of
the synaptic junction. The synaptic knobs contain mitochondria
and a large number of synaptic vesicles. The synaptic vesicles are
more concentrated towards the sites fronting the synaptic clefts.
The vesicles contain the transmitter material that mediate transmission of impulses from
one neuron to the next.

 Mechanism of Synaptic transmission:

The transfer of information across the synaptic junction is called synaptic

transmission and these transmissions are brought about either by chemical or by
electrical or by both processes. The transmission of nerve impulse along an axon
and across electrical synapses to
chemical signals that travel across the
synapse to the post synaptic cell,
where they are converted back into
electrical signals. The following chain
of events occur:

 Action potential arrives at the axon

terminal and neurotransmission
begins at the presynaptic axon
terminal.

 The neurotransmitter substances are

synthesized and stored in the vesicle of the presynaptic axon terminals. When nerve
impulses arrive, Ca2+ channels open up, Ca2+ floods down its electrochemical
gradient from extracellular fluid into the terminal.

 Surge of Ca2+ into the axon terminal acts as an intracellular messenger. A Ca2+
sensing protein (synaptotagmin) binds Ca2+ and interacts with another protein
(SNARE) which controls membrane fusion. Under the action of these proteins, the
synaptic vesicles fuse with the axon membrane and comply their contents into the
synaptic cleft by exocytosis [Ca2+ is actively removed by an active Ca2+ pump].

 The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to specific
receptors at the post synaptic membrane.

 Binding of neurotransmitter open ion channels creating graded potential.

Depending upon the receptor protein the postsynaptic neuron may be either excited
or inhibited.
 Neurotransmitter effect is terminated. The binding of a neurotransmitter to its
receptor is reversible. As long as the neurotransmitter bound to a post synaptic
 receptor, it continues to affect the membrane permeability. So, it should be renewed
which is done by either of the following way –
 The neurotransmitter is diffused away from the synapse
 It is degraded by the enzymes
 It is reuptaken by the astrocytes

Neurons:
Like muscle cells, neurons possess electrical excitability, the ability to respond to a
stimulus and convert it into an action potential. A stimulus is any change in the
environment that is strong enough to initiate an action potential. An action potential is an
electrical signal that propagates (travels) along the surface of the membrane of a neuron. It
travels and begins due to the movement of ions (such as sodium and potassium) between
interstitial fluid and the inside of a neuron through specific ion channels in its plasma
membrane.

Parts of Neuron:
Most Neurons have three parts: a) a cell
body b) dendrite c) axon.

a) Cell body:

The cell body contains a nucleus

surrounded by cytoplasm that includes
typical cellular organelles such as
lysosomes, mitochondria and a Golgi
complex. Neuronal cell bodies also contain free ribosomes and prominent clusters of rough
endoplasmic reticulum, termed Nissl bodies. The ribosomes are the sites of protein
synthesis. Newly synthesized proteins produced by Nissl bodies are used to replace
cellular components, as material for growth of neurons, and to regenerate damaged axons
in the PNS. The Cytoskeleton includes both neurofibrils, composed of bundles of
intermediate filaments that provide the cell shape and support, and microtubules which
assist in moving materials between the cell body and axon. Ageing neurons also contain
lipofuscin, a pigment that occurs as clumps of yellowish brown granules in the cytoplasm.
Lipofuscin is a product of neuronal lysosomes that accumulate as the neuron ages, but does
not seem to harm the neuron. A collection of neuron cell bodies outside the CNS is called
Ganglion.

b) Dendrites:
A nerve fibre is a general term for any neuronal process (extension) that emerges
from the cell body of a neuron. Most neurons have two kinds processes: multiple
 dendrites and a single axon. Dendrites are the receiving or input portion of a
neuron. The plasma membranes of dendrites (cell bodies) contain numerous
receptor sites for binding chemical messengers fron other cells. Dendrites usually
are short, tapering and highly branched. In many neurons the dendrites from a tree-
shaped array of processes extending from the cell body. Their cytoplasm contains
Nissl bodies, mitochondria and other organelles.

c) Axon:
The single axon of a neuron propagates nerve impulses toward another neuron, a
muscle fibre, or a gland cell. An axon is a long, thin, cylindrical projection that often
joins to the cell body at a cone-shaped elevation, called axon hillock. The part of the
axon closest to the axon hillock is the initial segment. In most neurons, nerve
impulses arise at the junction of the axon hillock and the initial segment, an area
called the trigger zone, from which they travel along the axon to their destination.
An axon contains mitochondria, microtubules and microfibrils. The cytoplasm of
axon is called axoplasm, is surrounded by a plasma membrane known as
axolemma. Along the length of an axon, side branches called axon collaterals may
branch off, typically at a right angle to the axon. The axon and its collaterals end by
dividing into many fine processes called axon terminals or axon telodendria.

Enteric Nervous System (ENS):

A third branch of the ANS is the ENS, an extensive network of over 100 million neurons
confined to the wall of the GI tract. The ENS helps regulate the activity of the smooth
muscle and glands of the GI tract.

The fundamental functions of nervous system:

The nervous system is the master controlling and communicating system of the body. It has
3 overlapping functions:

i) There are millions of sensory receptors to monitor changes occurring both

inside and outside the body.
The gathered information is called sensory input.
ii) The gathered information is then processed and brain interprets the sensory
input and decides what should be done at each moments. This is called
integration.
 iii) It then causes a response called motor output by activating the effector organ for
example whenever you see a redlight ahead at the time of driving your foot goes
for the break to stop the car. Here the red traffic signal is the sensory input, the
brain integrates the input and the motor output draws the drivers feet for the
brake:

Histology of the nervous system:

The nervous system consists of nervous tissue. There are two main types of cells present in
the nervous system:

The supporting cells or the glial cells and neurons. These cells combine in a variety of ways
in different regions of nervous system. The neurons are the original cells which are the unit
of nervous system. In addition to forming the complex processing networks within the
brain and spinal cord, neurons also connect all regions of the body to the brain and spinal
cord. Neurons provide most of the unique functions of the nervous system, such as
thinking, sensing, controlling muscle activity, remembering, and regulating glandular
secretions.

The neurons are closely associated with much

smaller cells called Neuroglia or Glial cells. There are different types of glial cells present
in the nervous system. These cells actually protect, support, nourish the neurons and
maintains the interstitial fluid that bathes them. Unlike neurons, neuroglia continue to
divide throughout an individual’s life time.

Brain:
The brain constitutes the main portion of the nervous system. It is about two good fist fulls
of quivering pinkish grey
tissue, wrinkled like a walnut
and has the consistency of cold.
The average adult brain has a
mass of 1600 gm.

Human brain remains

protected by the bony skull.
The skull protects the brain
from exterior and the hairs
present on skull also increases
the magnitude of protection.
Meninges is a connective tissue
covering which lies beneath the
skull and provides internal protection to the brain. The meninges has got 3 different
layers:

i) The outer most covering is a tough cover, called the dura mater.
ii) The next layer is known as arachnoid mater which forms a loose covering and
is richly supply with blood vessels.
iii) The inner most lining is pia mater which is made up of delicate connective
tissue.
The spaces between the different layers of
meninges is the route of CSF flow. The fluid acts as a soft absorber and helps to
minimize the sudden blow on the delicate nervous mater of the brain.

What do you mean by Synaptic delay?

A nerve impulse travels at a speed of 150 m/s down the axon, but at the synapse it
becomes comparatively slow. It reflects the time required for neurotransmitter to be
released, diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors. This time taken at the
synapses called Synaptic delay (which lasts from 0.3-5.0 ms). This is the slowest step (rate
limiting) of neural transmission.

What are the different types of Neurotransmitter?

Neurotransmitters are the language of the nervous system – this means by which each
neuron communicates with others to process and send messeges to the rest of the body.
These are the substances released at the synapses which helps in the transmission of
impulses. The neurotransmitters are classified chemically and functionally.

Chemical classification of Neurotransmitter:

a. Acetylcholine (Ach): The first neurotransmitter identified, it is released by all

neurons that stimulate skeletal muscle.
b. Biologic amines : These amines are mainly distributed in the brain. Ex:
Catecholamine (dopamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine), serotonin and
Histamine.
c. Amino acids: There are some amino acids for which a neurotransmitter role is
certain includes glutamate, aspartate, glycine and GABA. (Gaama amino butyric
acid).
d. Peptides: Endorphin, somatostatin, cholecystokinin are some examples.
e. Purines: ATP and adenosine.
f. Gases and lipids: NO and CO are some so called gasotransmitter. Brain makes
natural neurotransmitter the ‘endocannabinoids’.
Classification of Neurotransmitter by function:

1. Effects: Some neurotransmitters are excitatory, and some are inhibitory, while
others exert both effects depending upon the receptor type. For example, GABA is
inhibitory and glutamate is excitatory. Acetylcholine and Norepinephrine exert both
the opposite effects. Acetylcholine is excitatory for skeletal muscle but inhibitory
for cardiac muscle.
2. Action: Some neurotransmitters act directly as they bind to the ion channels. They
provoke rapid response. Example: Acetylcholine. There are neurotransmitters that
exert power long lasting effects and their action is similar to that of many hormones.
Example: biogenic amines, peptides etc.

What is Meninges?

The meninges are three connective tissue membranes that lie just external to the CNS.
From external to internal
the three layers are:

a. Dura malin:

The word Dura malin

means “tough mother”. It is
leathery and is the
strongest layer. It is made
up of two layered sheet of
fibrous connective tissue.
In several places, the dura
mater extends inward to
form partitions that
subdivides the cranial
cavity.

b. Arachnoid mater:

It is the middle layer of the

three layered meninges. It
forms a loose covering and is
separated from the dura
mater by a narrow serous cavity which contains a thin layer of fluid . This space is called
subdural space. Beneath the arachnoid membrane is the wide subarachnoid space. There
are spider like projection in this space which secure the arachnoid mater with the
underlying pia mater. This area continues CSF and large blood vessels.

c. Pia mater:
It means ‘delicate mother’, and is composed of delicate connective tissue and
supplied with tiny blood vessels. This layer clings tightly to the brain like
atmosphere wray.

Write the functions of meninges.

1. Protects and covers the CNS

2. Protects blood vessels and encloses venous sinuses
3. Contains cerebro spinal fluid (CSF).

What is Cerebro Spinal Fluid (CSF)?

CSF is a modified tissue fluid present in and around the brain and spinal cord forming a
liquid cushion that gives buoyancy to CNS structures.

The CSF is similar in composition to blood plasma, from

where it is formed. It contains less protein than plasma and its ion concentration are also
different. It has more Na+, Cl-, and H+ than plasma and less Ca2+ and K+.

Write the functions of CSF.

1. Remaining inside and outside the CNS it

equalizes mechanical pressure and acts as a
cushion between the soft brain tissue and rigid
cranium. CSF protects the brain and spinal cord
from blows and other trauma.
2. It receives the metabolites from brain.
3. Supplies nutrient and oxygen to the same
extent.

What do you mean by grey matter and white

matter?

Brain and spinal cord contain dense collection of nerve fibres and nerve cell bodies.

The collection of myelinated fibres are

referred to as white matter as they appear white
in colour due to the tres concentration of myelin
sheath. Grey matter mainly contains nerve cell
bodies and unmyelinated fibres. In cerebral region, the white matter remain deep to the
cortical grey matter but in spinal cord (in cross section) the grey matter looks like the
letter ‘H’.

How the neurons are classified?

Neurons are classified both structurally and functionally:

a. Structural classification:
Neurons are classified structurally according to the number of processes extending
from their cell bodies. They are of following types:

i) Multipolar Neurons:
The neurons have three or
more processes. One axon
and the rest dendrites.
They have the most
common neuron.
ii) Bipolar Neurons:
Have two processes – an
axon and a dendrite that
extend from opposite sides
of the cell body.
iii) Unipolar Neurons:
They have a single short
process that engages from
the cell body and divides T
like into proximal and
distal branches. These neurons are also referred to as pseudounipolar
neurons.

b. Functional classification:
According to this scheme neurons are classified according to the direction in which
nerve impulse travels relative to the CNS. They are of the following types:

a. Sensory or afferent Neurons:

These neurons transmit impulses from sensory receptors or internal organs
towards or into the CNS.
b. Motor or efferent Neurons:
Carry impulses away from the CNS to the effector organ of the body periphery.
 c. Interneurons or association Neuron:
These neurons lie between senses and motor neurons in neural pathways and
shuttle signals through CNS pathways where integration occurs.

What are brain ventricles?

The interior of the nervous system is

hollowed out by four cavities and two canals,
all filled up with CSF. The cavities are called
brain ventricles. If one cavity is present in
each cerebral hemisphere, called the lateral
ventricle. They open into a common central
cavity – the third ventricle, through an
opening on each side – the Foramen of
Monro. The third ventricle is continued
down through the midbrain as the
Aqueduct of Sylvius. The aqueduct opens
into another decatation in the medulla – the fourth ventricle, which again in continued
downwards, as the central canal of the spinal cord.

What do you mean by ‘gyri’ and ‘sulci’?

The human brain looks

wrinkled like a walnut . The brain (during
developmental phase) grows rapidly than the
membraneous skull that contains it, folds upto occupy
the available space (average wt 1500 gm).

The elevated ridges of tissues called gyri . The shallow grooves

separating the ridges are called sulci. Deeper grooves are called fissures, which
separate large region of the brain.

What are cranial nerves?

There are twelve pairs of nerves associated with the brain. These nerves are called the
Cranial Nerves. The first two pairs are attached to the forebrain and the rest are
associated with the brain stem. They are:

I. Olfactory (sensory)
II. Optic (sensory)
 III. Oculomotor (motor)
IV. Trochlear (motor)
V. Trigeminal (both motor and sensory)
VI. Abducens (motor)
VII. Facial (both motor and sensory)
VIII. Vestibulocochlear (mainly sensory, to some extent motor)
IX. Glossopharyngeal (both motor and sensory)
X. Vagus (both motor and sensory)
XI. Accessmy (motor)
XII. Hypoglossal (motor)

What are spinal nerves?

The nerves that originate from the spinal cord are called spinal nerves. There are 31 pairs
of spinal nerves. Spinal nerves are named according to where they issue from the spinal
cord. The spinal nerves are all mixed nerves i.e. they serve both sensory and motor
functions.

The nerves include:

 8 pairs of cervical spinal nerves (c1-c8)

 12 pairs of thoracic nerves (T1-T12)
 5 pairs of lumbar nerves (L1-L5)
 5 pairs of sacral nerves (S1- S5)
 1 pair of tiny coccygeal nerve (CO1)

Comparison between Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Nervous System:

Parasympathetic Nervous System Sympathetic Nervous System

Introduction The parasympathetic nervous The sympathetic nervous

system is one of the two main system is one of the two main
divisions of the Autonomic Nervous divisions of the ANS. Its
System (ANS). Its general function general action is to mobilize
is to control homeostasis and the body’s fight-or-flight response.
body rest – and- digest – response.

Function Control the body’s response while Control the body’s response
at rest. during perceived threat.

Originates in Several region of the spinal cord, Thoracic and lumbar region of
medulla, cranial nerves 3,7,9 and the spinal cord.
10.
 response of Rest and digest Fight-or-flight.

Action Longer pathways, slower system Very short neurons, faster

pathways system

Neural body Counter balance, restores body to Body speeds up, tenses up,
response state calm. becomes more alert. Functions
not critical to survival
shutdown.
Cardiovascular Decreases heart rate Increases contraction and
system heart rate.
Coronary system Bronchial tube constricts Bronchial tube dilates

Musculo Muscles relax Muscles contract

skeletal
system

Pupils Constrict Dilate

Gastro Increases stomach movement and Decreases stomach movement

intestinal secretion and secretion.
System

Salivary ends Saliva production increases. Saliva production decreases.

Renal gland No involvement Releases adrenaline

Parasympathetic Nervous Sympathetic Nervous System

System
Glycogen to No involvement Increases, converts glycogen to
glucose glucose for muscle energy
conversion

Urinary Increase in urinary output Decrease in urinary output

response

Neuromuscular junction (NMJ):

The neuromuscular junction connects the nervous system to the muscular system via
synapses between efferent nerve fibres and muscle fibres, also known as muscle cells. As
an action potential reaches the end of motor neurons, voltage – dependent calcium
channels open allowing calcium enter the neuron. Calcium facilitates vesicle binding and
subsequent neurotransmitter release from the motor neuron into the synaptic cleft. In
vertebrates, motor neurons release acetylcholine (Ach), a small molecule neurotransmitter,
which diffuses through the synapse and binds nicotinic acetyl choline receptors (nAchRs)

on the plasma membrane of the muscle fibre, also known as Sarcolemma. nAchRs are
ionotopic, meaning they serve as ligand gated ion channels. The binding of Ach to the
receptor can depolarize the muscle fibre, causing a cascade that eventually results in
muscle contraction.

Structure:
Skeletal muscle cells are
stimulated by motor neurons
of the somatic nervous
system. Although these motor
neuron resides in the brain, or
spinal cord, their long thread
like extension called axons
travel within nerves, the
muscle cells they serve. The
axon of each motor neuron
divides profoundly as it enters
a muscle and each axon ending
gives off several short curling
branches that form an
elliptical NMJ with a single muscle fibres. As a rule, each muscle fibre has only one NMJ,
located approximately midway along its length. Although the axon terminal and the muscle
fibres are exceedingly close (1-2 nm apart) they remain separated by a space called
Synaptic cleft. This space remain filled with a gel like extracellular substances rich in
glycoprotein and collagen fibre. The terminal portion of the axons become flattened and
round like. These are called synaptic vesicles. Within these vesicles there are small
membraneous sacs containing neurotransmitter acetylcholine or Ach. The motor endplate
is the part of muscle fibres sarcolemma that helps to form the NMJ. This part is highly
folded. These junctional folds provide a large surface area for millions of Ach receptors
located there.

Mechanism of action:

1. Upon the arrival of an action potential at the presynaptic neuron transmit voltage
dependent calcium channels open & Ca2+ ions flow from the extracellular fluid into
the presynaptic neurons cytosol.
2. This influx of Ca2+ causes neurotransmitter containing vesicles to lock and fuse to
the presynaptic neuron’s cell membrane through SNARE proteins.
3. Function of the vascular membrane and with the presynaptic cell membrane results
in the emptying of the vesicles contents into the synaptic cleft, a process known as
Exocytosis.
4. Acetylcholine diffuses into the synaptic cleft and can bind to the nicotinic
acetylcholine receptors on the step-end-plate.
5. These receptors are ligand gate ion channel and when they bind to the
acetylcholine, they open, allowing Na+1 and to flow on and K+ to flow it to the muscle
cells.
6. Because of differences include chemical gradients across the plasma membrane,
more sodium moves in than potassium out, producing a local depolarization of
motor end plate known as end-plate-potential (EPP).
7. This depolarization spreads across the surface of the muscle fibre and continues the
excitation co function coupling to contract the muscle.
8. The action of acetylcholine terminated when Ach diffuses away from the synapse or
the enzyme acetylcholinesterase degrades part of Ach.
9. The choline produced by the action of acetylcholinesterase is required – it is
transported through , reuptake, back into the presynaptic terminal and where it is
how to synthesize new acetylcholine molecule.
Anatomy and different parts of brain:
Cerebrum:

The cerebrum is the ‘seat of intelligence’. It provides us with the ability to read, write and
speak. It helps us in calculation and compose music.

The cerebrum forms the greater part of the brain. It

consists of an outer cerebral cortex, an internal region of cerebral white matter, and grey
matter nuclei deep within the white matter.

The cerebral cortex is a region of grey

matter, that forms the outer rim of the cerebrum. The
cerebral cortex contains billions of neurons arranged in
layers. The cortex shows rolls and folds. The folds or
convolutions are called gyri. The deepest grooves
between the folds are called fissures. The shallower
grooves between folds are called sulci.

The most
prominent longitudinal fissure, divides those cerebrum
into right and left halves. These are called cerebral
hemispheres. The cerebral hemispheres remain
connected by a broad band of white matter called corpus callosum.

Each cerebral hemisphere is further divided by

three deep fissures into 4 lobes:

i) Frontal lobe ii) Parietal lobe

ii) Temporal lobe iv) Occipital lobe

A central fissure demarcates the frontal lobe from parietal lobe; a parieto-occipital fissure
demarcates the parietal lobe from occipital lobe and a sulcian fissure demarcates the
frontal and parietal lobe from the temporal lobe.

Each cerebral hemisphere encloses a cavity called

lateral ventricles or 1st
and 2nd
ventricles. They open into the 3rd ventricle by a common
aperture called foramen of monro.
Functions:

Specific types of sensory, motor and integrative signals are processed in certain regions of
cerebral cortex.

The sensory areas receive sensory information and are involved in perception. Motor areas
control voluntary movements. Association areas deal with complex integrative functions;
such as memory, emotions, judgement, personality etc.

1. Sensory area:
Sensory impulses arrive mainly in the posterior part of the brain, in both the
cerebral hemispheres. The following are some important sensory areas:

 Primary somato sensory area:

This area receives nerve impulses for touch, pressure, vibration, itch, temperature,
pain and proprioception, This area is located in the parietal lobe. This area allows
as to pinpoint where somatic sensation originate.
 Primary visual area:
This area is located in the posterior part of the occipital lobe. It receives visual
sensation.
 Primary auditory area:
Located in the superior part of the temporal lobe. Receives information for sound
and involved in auditory perception.
 Primary gustatory area:
This is located in the parietal cortex. It receives impulses for taste, & is involved in
taste discrimination.
 Primary olfactory area:
Located in the temporal lobe on the medial aspect. It receives impulses for smell.

2. Motor area:
The motor output from the cerebral cortex flows mainly from the anterior part of
each hemisphere.
 Primary motor area:
It is located in the frontal lobe. Each region of this area controls voluntary
contraction of specific muscles or group of muscles.
 Broca’s speech area:
It is located in the frontal lobe. Speaking and understanding language are complex
activities. In about 97% of population this language are localized in the left
hemisphere. From broca’s area nerve impulse control the muscles of larynx,
 pharynx & mouth. It also control the breathing muscle to control the air flow in the
vocal cord.

3. Association area:
The following are some important association areas:
 Somato sensory association area:
It receives sensation from primary somatosensory area as well as from thalamus &
other parts of brain . This area permits us to determine the exact shape and texture
of an object by feeling it.
 Visual association area:
It is located in the occipital lobe. It relates present and past visual experiences & is
essential for evaluating what is seen.
 Facial recognition area:
This area stores information about faces and helps to recognize people by their
faces.
 Auditory association area:
It allows us to recognize a particular sound as music, noise or speech.
 Orbito frontal cortex:
This area enables us to identify and discriminate among different odors.
 Wermiski area:
This area interprets the meaning of speech by recognizing spoken words. It also
contribute to verbal communication by adding emotional content such as anger or
joy to spoken words.
 Communication integrative area:
This area integrates sensory interpretations from association areas & other areas
allowing the formation of thoughts based on the variety of sensory inputs.
 Prefrontal cortex (frontal association):
This is an extensive area in the anterior part of the frontal lobe. This is concerned
with a person’s personality, intellect, complex learning abilities etc.
 Premotor area:
This area is concerned with learned motor activities. This area also include frontal
eye field area which include voluntary scanning movements of the eyes.

Cerebellum:

The cerebellum accepts the

inferior and posterior part of the
cranial cavity. It is only second to
the cerebrum in size. Its surface is
highly folded and contains
greater numbers of neurons. The cerebellum accounts for 1/10 of brain mass, yet it
contains nearly ½ of neurons in brain. A deep groove known as the transverse fissure
seperates the cerebellum from the cerebrum.

The shape of the cerebellum resembles a butterfly. The central

constructed portion is called the vermis and the lateral wings or lobes are called
cerebellar hemisphere. Each hemisphere is further divided into anterior and posterior
lobes which govern the subconscious aspect of skeletal muscle movement. The inferior
surface (flocculo nodular lobe) contributes to equilibrium & balance.

The superficial layer of cerebellum is known as cerebellar cortex

which contains grey matter arranged in folds called facia. Within the grey matter are tracts
of white matter & cerebellar nuclei.

Three paired cerebellar peduncles attach the cerebellum to the brain

stem – these are superior, middle and inferior cerebellar peduncles.

Function:

The primary function of cerebellum is to evaluate how well movements initiated by motor
area in the cerebrum are actually being carried out. It makes possible all skilled muscular
activities from catching a basket ball to speaking. It also serves some non-motor functions
such as cognitions and language processing.

Hypothalamus:

The diencephalon forms a central core of brain tissue just superior to the mid brain. It is
almost completely surrounded by the cerebral hemispheres. It contains numerous nuclei.
Hypothalamus is a small part in diencephalon. It has
the following parts:

a) Mammary region:
It is adjacent to the mid-brain.
a) Tuberal region:
It is the widest part of hypothalamus. Besides,
various nuclei it contains the stalk like
infundibulum which connects it to the
pituitary.
b) Supra optic region:
Lies superior to the optic chiasm (point of crossing of optic nerves)
c) Preoptic region:
It lies anterior to the supra optic region.
Functions:

The hypothalamus controls many body activities and is one of the major regulators
of haemostasis. Sensory impulses related to both somatic and visceral senses arrive
at the hypothalamus. Impulses from receptors for vision, taste and smell also arrives
here. Hypothalamus itself monitor osmotic pressure, blood glucose level,
concentration of some hormone and body temperature. It has got important
connection with the pituitary gland. Important functions of hypothalamus are as
follows:
a) Control of ANS:
The hypothalamus controls the activities of ANS and thus regulates smooth
muscle contraction, contraction of heart & secretion of some glands. The
movement of food through the GI tract and contraction of urinary bladder are
also controlled by hypothalamus.

b) Production of hormones:
Hypothalamus produces releasing and inhibiting hormones which stimulate or
inhibit secretion of anterior pituitary hormones. ( Axons extend from
hypothalamus into the posterior lobe of pituitary. These axons produce oxytocin
which is stored and released from posterior pituitary.

c) Regulation of behavioural pattern:

The hypothalamus participates in expression of aggression, pain and pleasure.

d) Regulation of eating and drinking:

The feeding centre in hypothalamus promotes eating and its satiety centre
causes a sensation of fullness. It contacts as thirst centre which controls the
water intake of an individual by monitoring the osmotic pressure of body fluid.

e) Regulates body temperature:

The hypothalamus also function as the body’s thermostat. It monitor the
temperature of blood flowing through it & promotes heat generation & heat loss
depending upon the temperature.

f) Regulation of circadian Rhythm:

The hypothalamus serves as the body’s internal biological clock.
Reticular formation:

There is a broad region in the brain

stem where white matter and grey
matter exhibit a net like
arrangement. It is known as the
Reticular formation. It extends
from the superior part of spinal cord,
through out the brain stem and into
the interior part of the diencephalon.

Function:

a) The ascending part of the

reticular formation is called
the Reticular Activating
System (RAS). Many sensory
stimuli can activate this part
of RAS. Visual, auditory
stimuli, mental activities,
stimuli from pain, touch &
pressure receptors keep us
aware of the position of our
body.
b) The most important function of RAS is consciousness. Visual, auditory, and mental
activities can stimulate RAS to maintain the state of consciousness.
c) The RAS is also active during arousal or awakening from sleep.
d) Another important function of RAS is to help maintain alertness and attention.
e) The RAS also prevents sensory overload by filtrating out insigficant information.
f) Inactivation of RAS produces sleep, a state of partial consciousness from which an
individual can be aroused. But damage to RAS leads to coma, a state of irreversible
unconsciousness.
g) RAS also regulates muscle tone.