Alternating voltages and currents

Alternating Current (AC): An electric current that reverses direction

periodically, unlike Direct Current (DC), which flows in a single direction.

Importance of AC:
 AC is the form of electricity delivered to homes and businesses. It is
easier to generate and transmit over long distances compared to DC.
 Commonly used in power distribution because it allows for easy
voltage transformation using transformers.
Characteristics of AC Signals

Waveform Representation:
 Sinusoidal Waveform: The most common form of AC is sinusoidal, which can be
mathematically expressed as:
v(t)=Vm​sin(ωt+ϕ)

i(t)=Im​sin(ωt+ϕ)

where:
Vm​ = Peak voltage
Im​ = Peak current
ω = Angular frequency (ω=2πf)
t = Time
ϕ = Phase angle

Key Parameters:
 Amplitude (Peak Value)​: The maximum value of voltage or current.
 Time Period (T): The time period for one complete cycle of the waveform.
 Frequency (f): The number of cycles per second (in Hertz, Hz).
 Angular Frequency (ω): Relates the frequency to the waveform
 Sinusoid is a periodic function that satisfies
v(t + T ) = v(t)
Let us examine the two sinusoids

v1(t)=Vm​sin(ωt) v2(t)=Vm​sin(ωt+ϕ)

Starting point of v2
occurs first in time

v2 leads v1 by φ

v1 lags v2 by φ.

If φ ≠ 0, v1 and v2
are said to be out of
phase.

If φ = 0, then v1 and
v2 are said to be in
phase;
AC Values

 Peak Value (V_m or I_m): The maximum instantaneous value of

voltage or current.

 Average Value The arithmetic mean of all the instantaneous

values over a half cycle:
Vavg=2Vm/π

 RMS (Root Mean Square) Value: The RMS value of AC is the equivalent DC
value that would produce the same power in a resistive load.

Vm
Vrms =
2
Im
I rms =
2
Significance: RMS values are used to calculate power in AC circuits, making
them critical in practical applications.
 Form Factor: The ratio of the RMS value to the average value:
Form Factor=Vavg/Vrms=≈1.11

Significance:
• Power Calculation: Since the RMS value directly relates to the effective
power delivered to a resistive load, the form factor helps relate the
average value (which is easier to measure in some cases) to the RMS
value.

• Waveform Shape: The form factor gives insights into the shape of the
AC waveform. While for sinusoidal waveforms, the form factor is 1.11, for
non-sinusoidal waveforms (e.g., square waves, triangular waves), it
varies. A higher form factor suggests a more peaky waveform, meaning a
larger deviation between peak and average values.

• Practical Usage in Instrumentation: In practical applications,

instruments like ammeters and voltmeters that measure average values
of AC signals can use the form factor to estimate the RMS value. It is
especially useful when the waveform is not purely sinusoidal.
 Peak Factor: The ratio of peak value to RMS value:
Peak Factor=Vrms/Vm=1.414

Significance:
• Indication of Surges/Spikes: A higher peak factor indicates that the waveform has
a higher peak relative to its RMS value. This is important when assessing how
sensitive equipment might respond to surges, spikes, or peaks in AC signals.

• Safety Considerations: Knowing the peak factor is crucial in designing electrical

components (such as fuses, insulation, and protective devices), which must be able to
withstand peak values. For instance, an electric motor or transformer rated for a
specific RMS voltage may fail if subjected to a waveform with a high peak factor.

• Power Handling in Components: Many electrical devices are rated based on RMS
values, but their peak handling capability depends on the peak factor. For instance, in
audio and communication systems, the peak factor is critical in determining the
maximum undistorted signal level that the system can handle.

• Non-Sinusoidal Waveforms: For waveforms other than sine waves (e.g., pulses,
square waves), the peak factor gives insight into their characteristics. A higher peak
factor can indicate a waveform that spends much of its time at low values but
occasionally has large peaks.
Phasor Representation
 A phasor is a complex number representing the magnitude and phase
of a sinusoidal function.
 It simplifies AC analysis by converting differential equations into
algebraic equations.

Conversion:
 The idea of phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity

where Re and Im stand for the real part of and the imaginary part of

V is thus the phasor representation of the sinusoid

Phasor Diagram
A graphical representation of phasors, showing the relationship
between multiple AC quantities (voltage, current) in terms of their
magnitudes and phases.
 The differences between v(t) and V should be emphasized:

1. v(t) is the instantaneous or time-domain representation, while V is

the frequency or phasor-domain representation.

2. v(t) is time dependent, while V is not.

3. v(t) is always real with no complex term, while V is generally complex.

 Phasor analysis applies only when frequency is constant.

 It applies in manipulating two or more sinusoidal signals only if they

are of the same frequency.
Impedance and Admittance
 The impedance represents the opposition which the circuit exhibits to
the flow of sinusoidal current.
 Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance.

Element Unit Symbol Impedance Admittance

Resistance (R) Ohm Z=R Y = 1/R

Inductor (L) Henry Z = jωL Y = 1/jωL

Capacitance (C) Farad Z = 1/jωC Y = jωC

Single-Phase AC Circuits
 These circuits have one alternating voltage source and a combination of
passive elements such as resistors, inductors, and capacitors.

 Resistive Circuit (R): In a purely resistive circuit, the voltage and

current are in phase.
V(t)=I(t)R

 Inductive Circuit (L): In a purely inductive circuit, the current lags the
voltage by 90° (π/2 radians). The impedance is:

V(t)=I(t)Z

Z = jωL

 Capacitive Circuit (C): In a purely capacitive circuit, the current leads

the voltage by 90°. The impedance is:
V(t)=I(t)R

Z = 1/jωC
RL, RC, and RLC Series Circuits

 RL Series Circuit: A circuit with a resistor (R) and inductor

(L) in series.
 Impedance
 Phase angle

 RC Series Circuit: A circuit with a resistor (R) and

capacitor (C) in series.
 Impedance
 Phase angle

 RLC Series Circuit:A circuit with a resistor (R), inductor

(L), and capacitor (C) in series.
 Impedance
 Resonance: Impedance is purely resistive
Power in AC Circuits
In AC circuits, power is more complex than in DC circuits due to phase differences
between voltage and current.

 Instantaneous Power: The product of instantaneous voltage and current:

p(t)=v(t)⋅i(t)

 The instantaneous power is the power at any instant of time. It is the rate at which an
element absorbs energy.
 The instantaneous power changes with time and is therefore difficult to measure. The
average power is more convenient to measure.
 In fact, the wattmeter, the instrument for measuring power, responds to average power.
 Average Power (P): The average power is the average of the instantaneous power
over one period.
P=VrmsIrmscosϕ
where cosϕ is the power factor

 A resistive load (R) absorbs power at all times, while a reactive load (L or C)
absorbs zero average power

 Measured in watts (W), the actual power consumed by electrical devices to perform
useful work.

 Reactive Power (Q): The power stored and returned by reactive components (L or C),
measured in volt-ampere reactive (VAR):
Q=VrmsIrmssinϕ

 Measured in volt-amperes reactive (VAR), the power that oscillates between the source
and load, which does not do useful work but is necessary for maintaining the voltage
levels.

 Apparent Power (S): The product of RMS voltage and current, measured in volt-
amperes (VA):
S=VrmsIrms

 The apparent power is so called because it seems apparent that the power should be the voltage-current product,
by analogy with dc resistive circuits.
 It is measured in volt-amperes or VA to distinguish it from the average or real power, which is measured in watts
 Apparent power is related to real and reactive power by:
S2=P2+Q2

 The power factor is dimensionless, since it is the ratio of the average power to the apparent
power.
Three-Phase Systems
 A single phase system consists of just two conductors (wires): one is called
the phase, through which the current flows and the other is called
neutral, which acts as a return path to complete the circuit.

 In a three – phase system, we have a minimum of three conductors or

wires carrying AC voltages.
 Three-phase systems are widely used in power distribution and industrial
applications due to their efficiency in transmitting power over long distances and
their ability to power heavy loads.

 In a three – phase system, we have a minimum of three conductors or wires

carrying AC voltages. It is more economical to transmit power using a 3 – phase
power supply when compared to a single phase power supply as a three – phase
supply can transmit three time the power with three conductors when compared
to a two – conductor single – phase power supply.

 Nearly all electric power is generated and distributed in three-phase, at the operating
frequency of 60 Hz (or ω = 377 rad/s) in the United States or 50 Hz (or ω = 314 rad/s) in some
other parts of the world. When one phase or two-phase inputs are required, they are taken from
the three phase system rather than generated independently.

 Most of the power generated and distributed is actually a 3 – phase power but
majority of households will receive a single phase supply
Star (Y) and Delta (Δ) Connections
 Star and Delta Connections are the two types of connections in a 3 – phase
circuits.
 A Star Connection is a 4 – wire system and a Delta Connection is a 3 – wire
system

 Star : One end of each phase winding is connected to form a common point called
the neutral, and the other ends are connected to the three-phase power source.

 Delta: The ends of each winding are connected in a loop, forming a closed circuit.
Three-Phase Power Measurement
 One Wattmeter Method:
 Used in special cases of balanced loads but not commonly used in general
practice. A single wattmeter can also measure the average power in a three-phase system that
is balanced, so that P1 = P2 = P3. The total power is three times the reading of that one
wattmetere.
 Two or three single-phase wattmeters are necessary to measure power if the system is
unbalanced.
 Two Wattmeter Method:
 Measures power in two phases, and the total power is the sum of the readings of
the two wattmeters.

 Total active power P=P1+P2

 Current coil of each wattmeter measures the line current, while the respective voltage coil
is connected between the line and the third line and measures the line voltage
 The power factor can be determined from the two wattmeter
readings using

 Three Wattmeter Method

 This method measures the power in each phase separately. It’s

mainly used in unbalanced systems to measure total power.

 The three-wattmeter method is well suited for power measurement in a three-phase system
where the power factor is constantly changing.

 The total average power is the algebraic sum of the three wattmeter readings.
PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS
QUESTIONS
PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS
PROBLEMS

Find v(t) and i(t) in the circuit shown in figure

PROBLEMS

Find v(t) and i(t) in the circuit shown in figure

PROBLEMS

Find the input impedance of the circuit in Figure. Assume that the circuit
operates at ω = 50 rad/s.
PROBLEMS

Determine the input impedance of the circuit in figure at ω =10 rad/s.

PROBLEMS
Calculate vo in the circuit in Figure
PROBLEMS

If Vs = 5 cos 2t V in the circuit of Figure, find vo.