Contents

For ewor d iii

Pr eface v

Chapter 1 Integers 1

Chapter 2 Fractions and Decimals 29

Chapter 3 Data Handling 57

Chapter 4 Simple Equations 77

Chapter 5 Lines and Angles 93

Chapter 6 The Triangle and its Properties 113

Chapter 7 Congruence of Triangles 133

Chapter 8 Comparing Quantities 153

Chapter 9 Rational Numbers 173

Chapter 10 Practical Geometry 193

Chapter 11 Perimeter and Area 205

Chapter 12 Algebraic Expressions 229

Chapter 13 Exponents and Powers 249

Chapter 14 Symmetry 265

Chapter 15 Visualising Solid Shapes 277

Answers 293

Brain-Teasers 311
 INTEGERS 27

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. Integers are a bigger collection of numbers which is formed by whole numbers and
their negatives. These were introduced in Class VI.
2. You have studied in the earlier class, about the representation of integers on the
number line and their addition and subtraction.
3. We now study the properties satisfied by addition and subtraction.
(a) Integers are closed for addition and subtraction both. That is, a + b and
a – b are again integers, where a and b are any integers.
(b) Addition is commutative for integers, i.e., a + b = b + a for all integers
a and b.
(c) Addition is associative for integers, i.e., (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) for all integers
a, b and c.
(d) Integer 0 is the identity under addition. That is, a + 0 = 0 + a = a for every
integer a.
4. We studied, how integers could be multiplied, and found that product of a positive
and a negative integer is a negative integer, whereas the product of two negative
integers is a positive integer. For example, – 2 × 7 = – 14 and – 3 × – 8 = 24.
5. Product of even number of negative integers is positive, whereas the product of odd
number of negative integers is negative.
6. Integers show some properties under multiplication.
(a) Integers are closed under multiplication. That is, a × b is an integer for any two
integers a and b.
(b) Multiplication is commutative for integers. That is, a × b = b × a for any integers
a and b.
(c) The integer 1 is the identity under multiplication, i.e., 1 × a = a × 1 = a for any
integer a.
(d) Multiplication is associative for integers, i.e., (a × b) × c = a × (b × c) for any
three integers a, b and c.
7. Under addition and multiplication, integers show a property called distributive prop-
erty. That is, a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c for any three integers a, b and c.
28 MATHEMATICS

8. The properties of commutativity, associativity under addition and multiplication, and

the distributive property help us to make our calculations easier.
9. We also learnt how to divide integers. We found that,
(a) When a positive integer is divided by a negative integer, the quotient obtained is
a negative integer and vice-versa.
(b) Division of a negative integer by another negative integer gives a positive integer
as quotient.
10. For any integer a, we have
(a) a ÷ 0 is not defined
(b) a ÷ 1 = a
 FRACTIONS AND DECIMALS ##

EXAMPLE 11 A car covers a distance of 89.1 km in 2.2 hours. What is the average
distance covered by it in 1 hour?
SOLUTION Distance covered by the car = 89.1 km.
Time required to cover this distance = 2.2 hours.
89.1 891
So distance covered by it in 1 hour = = = 40.5 km.
2.2 22

EXERCISE 2.7
1. Find:
(i) 0.4 y 2 (ii) 0.35 y 5 (iii) 2.48 y 4 (iv) 65.4 y 6
(v) 651.2 y 4 (vi) 14.49 y 7 (vii) 3.96 y 4 (viii) 0.80 y 5
2. Find:
(i) 4.8 y 10 (ii) 52.5 y 10 (iii) 0.7 y 10 (iv) 33.1 y 10
(v) 272.23 y 10 (vi) 0.56 y 10 (vii) 3.97 y10
3. Find:
(i) 2.7 y 100 (ii) 0.3 y 100 (iii) 0.78 y 100
(iv) 432.6 y 100 (v) 23.6 y100 (vi) 98.53 y 100
4. Find:
(i) 7.9 ÷ 1000 (ii) 26.3 ÷ 1000 (iii) 38.53 ÷ 1000
(iv) 128.9 ÷ 1000 (v) 0.5 ÷ 1000
5. Find:
(i) 7 y 3.5 (ii) 36 y 0.2 (iii) 3.25 y 0.5 (iv) 30.94 y 0.7
(v) 0.5 y 0.25 (vi) 7.75 y 0.25 (vii) 76.5 y 0.15 (viii) 37.8 y 1.4
(ix) 2.73 y 1.3
6. A vehicle covers a distance of 43.2 km in 2.4 litres of petrol. How much distance will
it cover in one litre of petrol?

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. We have learnt about fractions and decimals alongwith the operations of addition and
subtraction on them, in the earlier class.
2. We now study the operations of multiplication and division on fractions as well as on
decimals.
3. We have learnt how to multiply fractions. Two fractions are multiplied by multiplying
their numerators and denominators seperately and writing the product as
product of numerators 2 5 2×5 10
. For example, × .
product of denominators 3 7 3× 7 21
1 1
4. A fraction acts as an operator ‘of ’. For example, of 2 is × 2 = 1.
2 2
#$ MATHEMATICS

5. (a) The product of two proper fractions is less than each of the fractions that are
multiplied.
(b) The product of a proper and an improper fraction is less than the improper
fraction and greater than the proper fraction.
(c) The product of two imporper fractions is greater than the two fractions.
6. A reciprocal of a fraction is obtained by inverting it upside down.
7. We have seen how to divide two fractions.
(a) While dividing a whole number by a fraction, we multiply the whole number
with the reciprocal of that fraction.
3 5 10
For example, 2 y 2u
5 3 3
(b) While dividing a fraction by a whole number we multiply the fraction by the
reciprocal of the whole number.
2 2 1 2
For example, y7 ×
3 3 7 21
(c) While dividing one fraction by another fraction, we multuiply the first fraction by
2 5 2 7 14
the reciprocal of the other. So, y × .
3 7 3 5 15
8. We also learnt how to multiply two decimal numbers. While multiplying two decimal
numbers, first multiply them as whole numbers. Count the number of digits to the right
of the decimal point in both the decimal numbers. Add the number of digits counted.
Put the decimal point in the product by counting the digits from its rightmost place.
The count should be the sum obtained earlier.
For example, 0.5 × 0.7 = 0.35
9. To multiply a decimal number by 10, 100 or 1000, we move the decimal point in the
number to the right by as many places as there are zeros over 1.
Thus 0.53 × 10 = 5.3, 0.53 × 100 = 53, 0.53 × 1000 = 530
10. We have seen how to divide decimal numbers.
(a) To divide a decimal number by a whole number, we first divide them as whole
numbers. Then place the decimal point in the quotient as in the decimal number.
For example, 8.4 y 4 = 2.1
Note that here we consider only those divisions in which the remainder is zero.
(b) To divide a decimal number by 10, 100 or 1000, shift the digits in the decimal
number to the left by as many places as there are zeros over 1, to get the
quotient.
So, 23.9 y 10 = 2.39,23.9 y 100 = 0 .239, 23.9 y 1000 = 0.0239
(c) While dividing two decimal numbers, first shift the decimal point to the right by
equal number of places in both, to convert the divisor to a whole number. Then
divide. Thus, 2.4 y 0.2 = 24 y 2 = 12.
 %$ MATHEMATICS

between 0 and 1. Those which have no chance of happening have probability 0 and
TRY THESE those that are bound to happen have probability 1.
Construct or Given any situation we need to understand the different possible outcomes
think of five and study the possible chances for each outcome. It may be possible that the
situations where outcomes may not have equal chance of occuring unlike the cases of the coin and
outcomes do not die. For example if a container has 5 red balls and 9 white balls and if a ball is
have equal pulled out without seeing, the chances of getting a red ball are much more. Can
chances. you see why? How many times are the chances of getting a red ball than getting
a white ball, probabilities for both being between 0 and 1.

EXERCISE 3.4
1. Tell whether the following is certain to happen, impossible, can happen but not certain.
(i) You are older today than yesterday. (ii) A tossed coin will land heads up.
(iii) A die when tossed shall land up with 8 on top.
(iv) The next traffic light seen will be green. (v) Tomorrow will be a cloudy day.
2. There are 6 marbles in a box with numbers from 1 to 6 marked on each of them.
(i) What is the probability of drawing a marble with number 2?
(ii) What is the probability of drawing a marble with number 5?
3. A coin is flipped to decide which team starts the game. What is the probability that
your team will start?
4. A box contains pairs of socks of two colours (black and white). I have picked out a
white sock. I pick out one more with my eyes closed. What is the probability that it
will make a pair?

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. The collection, recording and presentation of data help us organise our experiences
and draw inferences from them.
2. Before collecting data we need to know what we would use it for.
3. The data that is collected needs to be organised in a proper table, so that it becomes
easy to understand and interpret.
4. Average is a number that represents or shows the central tendency of a group of
observations or data.
5. Arithmetic mean is one of the representative values of data.
6. Mode is another form of central tendency or representative value. The mode of a set
of observations is the observation that occurs most often.
7. Median is also a form of representative value. It refers to the value which lies in the
middle of the data with half of the observations above it and the other half below it.
8. A bar graph is a representation of numbers using bars of uniform widths.
9. Double bar graphs help to compare two collections of data at a glance.
10. There are situations in our life, that are certain to happen, some that are impossible
and some that may or may not happen. The situation that may or may not happen has
a chance of happening.
' MATHEMATICS

4. Solve the following riddle:

I am a number,
Tell my identity!
Take me seven times over
And add a fifty!
To reach a triple century
You still need forty!

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. An equation is a condition on a variable such that two expressions in the variable
should have equal value.
2. The value of the variable for which the equation is satisfied is called the solution of the
equation.
3. An equation remains the same if the L.H.S. and the R.H.S. are interchanged.
4. In case of the balanced equation, if we
(i) add the same number to both the sides, or (ii) subtract the same number from
both the sides, or (iii) multiply both sides by the same number, or (iv) divide both
sides by the same number, the balance remains undisturbed, i.e., the value of the
L.H.S. remains equal to the value of the R.H.S.
5. The above property gives a systematic method of solving an equation. We carry out
a series of identical mathematical operations on the two sides of the equation in such
a way that on one of the sides we get just the variable. The last step is the solution of
the equation.
6. Transposing means moving to the other side. Transposition of a number has the same
effect as adding same number to (or subtracting the same number from) both sides of
the equation. When you transpose a number from one side of the equation to the
other side, you change its sign. For example, transposing +3 from the L.H.S. to the
R.H.S. in equation x + 3 = 8 gives x = 8 – 3 (= 5). We can carry out the transposition
of an expression in the same way as the transposition of a number.
7. We have learnt how to construct simple algebraic expressions corresponding to
practical situations.
8. We also learnt how, using the technique of doing the same mathematical operation
(for example adding the same number) on both sides, we could build an equation
starting from its solution. Further, we also learnt that we could relate a given equation
to some appropriate practical situation and build a practical word problem/puzzle
from the equation.
 LINES AND ANGLES 111

4. Find the value of x in each of the following figures if l || m.

l m

(i) (ii) (iii)

5. In the given figure, the arms of two angles are parallel.
If ∠ABC = 70º, then find
(i) ∠DGC
(ii) ∠DEF
6. In the given figures below, decide whether l is parallel to m.

(i) (iii) (iv)

(ii)

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. We recall that (i) A line-segment has two end points.
(ii) A ray has only one end point (its vertex); and
(iii) A line has no end points on either side.
2. An angle is formed when two lines (or rays or line-segments) meet.
Pairs of Angles Condition
Two complementary angles Measures add up to 90°
Two supplementary angles Measures add up to 180°
Two adjacent angles Have a common vertex and a common
arm but no common interior.
Linear pair Adjacent and supplementary
3. When two lines l and m meet, we say they intersect; the meeting point is called the
point of intersection.
When lines drawn on a sheet of paper do not meet, however far produced, we call
them to be parallel lines.
112 MATHEMATICS

4. (i) When two lines intersect (looking like the letter X) we have two pairs of opposite
angles. They are called vertically opposite angles. They are equal in measure.
(ii) A transversal is a line that intersects two or more lines at distinct points.
(iii) A transversal gives rise to several types of angles.
(iv) In the figure, we have
Types of Angles Angles Shown
Interior ∠3, ∠4, ∠5, ∠6
Exterior ∠1, ∠2, ∠7, ∠8
Corresponding ∠1 and ∠5, ∠2 and ∠6,
∠3 and ∠7, ∠4 and ∠8
Alternate interior ∠3 and ∠6, ∠4 and ∠5
Alternate exterior ∠1 and ∠8, ∠2 and ∠7
Interior, on the same ∠3 and ∠5, ∠4 and ∠6
side of transversal
(v) When a transversal cuts two parallel lines, we have the following interesting
relationships:
Each pair of corresponding angles are equal.
∠1 = ∠5, ∠3 = ∠7, ∠2 = ∠6, ∠4 = ∠8
Each pair of alternate interior angles are equal.
∠3 = ∠6, ∠4 = ∠5
Each pair of interior angles on the same side of transversal are supplementary.
∠3 + ∠5 = 180°, ∠4 + ∠6 = 180°
 THE TRIANGLE AND ITS PROPERTIES 131

THINK, DISCUSS AND WRITE

1. Which is the longest side in the triangle PQR right angled at P?
2. Which is the longest side in the triangle ABC right angled at B?
3. Which is the longest side of a right triangle?
4. “The diagonal of a rectangle produce by itself the same area as produced by its
length and breadth” This is Baudhayan Theorem. Compare it with the Pythagoras
property.

DO THIS
Enrichment activity
There are many proofs for Pythagoras theorem, using ‘dissection’ and ‘rearrangement’
procedure. Try to collect a few of them and draw charts explaining them.

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. The six elements of a triangle are its three angles and the three sides.
2. The line segment joining a vertex of a triangle to the mid point of its opposite side is
called a median of the triangle. A triangle has 3 medians.
3. The perpendicular line segment from a vertex of a triangle to its opposite side is
called an altitude of the triangle. A triangle has 3 altitudes.
4. An exterior angle of a triangle is formed when a side of a triangle is produced. At
each vertex, you have two ways of forming an exterior angle.
5. A property of exterior angles:
The measure of any exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the measures of
its interior opposite angles.
6. The angle sum property of a triangle:
The total measure of the three angles of a triangle is 180°.
7. A triangle is said to be equilateral if each one of its sides has the same length.
In an equilateral triangle, each angle has measure 60°.
8. A triangle is said to be isosceles if atleast any two of its sides are of same length.
The non-equal side of an isosceles triangle is called its base; the base angles of an
isosceles triangle have equal measure.
9. Property of the lengths of sides of a triangle:
The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the length of the
third side.
The difference between the lengths of any two sides is smaller than the length of the
third side.
132 MATHEMATICS

This property is useful to know if it is possible to draw a triangle when the lengths of
the three sides are known.
10. In a right angled triangle, the side opposite to the right angle is called the hypotenuse
and the other two sides are called its legs.
11. Pythagoras Property:
In a right-angled triangle,
the square on the hypotenuse the sum of the squares on its legs.
If a triangle is not right angled this property does not hold good. This property is
useful to decide whether a given triangle is right angled or not.
 CONGRUENCE OF TRIANGLES 151

10. Explain, why A D E

ΔABC ≅ ΔFED.

Enrichment activity B C F
We saw that superposition is a useful method to test congruence of plane figures. We
discussed conditions for congruence of line segments, angles and triangles. You can now
try to extend this idea to other plane figures as well.
1. Consider cut-outs of different sizes of squares. Use the method of superposition to
find out the condition for congruence of squares. How does the idea of
‘corresponding parts’ under congruence apply? Are there corresponding sides? Are
there corresponding diagonals?
2. What happens if you take circles? What is the condition for congruence of two
circles? Again, you can use the method of superposition. Investigate.
3. Try to extend this idea to other plane figures like regular hexagons, etc.
4. Take two congruent copies of a triangle. By paper folding, investigate if they have
equal altitudes. Do they have equal medians? What can you say about their perimeters
and areas?

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. Congruent objects are exact copies of one another.
2. The method of superposition examines the congruence of plane figures.
3. Two plane figures, say, F1 and F2 are congruent if the trace-copy of F1 fits exactly on
that of F2. We write this as F1 ≅ F2.

4. Two line segments, say, AB and CD , are congruent if they have equal lengths. We
write this as AB CD . However, it is common to write it as AB = CD .
5. Two angles, say, ∠ABC and ∠PQR, are congruent if their measures are equal. We
write this as ∠ABC ≅ ∠PQR or as m∠ABC = m∠PQR. However, in practice, it is
common to write it as ∠ABC = ∠PQR.
6. SSS Congruence of two triangles:
Under a given correspondence, two triangles are congruent if the three sides of the
one are equal to the three corresponding sides of the other.
7. SAS Congruence of two triangles:
Under a given correspondence, two triangles are congruent if two sides and the angle
included between them in one of the triangles are equal to the corresponding sides and
the angle included between them of the other triangle.
152 MATHEMATICS

8. ASA Congruence of two triangles:

Under a given correspondence, two triangles are congruent if two angles and the side
included between them in one of the triangles are equal to the corresponding angles
and the side included between them of the other triangle.
9. RHS Congruence of two right-angled triangles:
Under a given correspondence, two right-angled triangles are congruent if the hypotenuse
and a leg of one of the triangles are equal to the hypotenuse and the corresponding leg
of the other triangle.
10. There is no such thing as AAA Congruence of two triangles:
Two triangles with equal corresponding angles need not be congruent. In such a
correspondence, one of them can be an enlarged copy of the other. (They would be
congruent only if they are exact copies of one another).
172 MATHEMATICS

8. Amina buys a book for Rs 275 and sells it at a loss of 15%. How much does she sell
it for?
9. Find the amount to be paid at the end of 3 years in each case:
(a) Principal = Rs 1,200 at 12% p.a. (b) Principal = Rs 7,500 at 5% p.a.
10. What rate gives Rs 280 as interest on a sum of Rs 56,000 in 2 years?
11. If Meena gives an interest of Rs 45 for one year at 9% rate p.a.. What is the sum she
has borrowed?

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. We are often required to compare two quantities in our daily life. They may be heights,
weights, salaries, marks etc.
2. While comparing heights of two persons with heights150 cm and 75 cm, we write it
as the ratio 150 : 75 or 2 : 1.
3. Two ratios can be compared by converting them to like fractions. If the two fractions
are equal, we say the two given ratios are equivalent.
4. If two ratios are equivalent then the four quantities are said to be in proportion. For
example, the ratios 8 : 2 and 16 : 4 are equivalent therefore 8, 2, 16 and 4 are in
proportion.
5. A way of comparing quantities is percentage. Percentages are numerators of fractions
with denominator 100. Per cent means per hundred.
For example 82% marks means 82 marks out of hundred.
6. Fractions can be converted to percentages and vice-versa.
1 1 75 3
For example, 100 % whereas, 75% =
4 4 100 4
7. Decimals too can be converted to percentages and vice-versa.
For example, 0.25 = 0.25 × 100% = = 25%
8. Percentages are widely used in our daily life,
(a) We have learnt to find exact number when a certain per cent of the total quantity
is given.
(b) When parts of a quantity are given to us as ratios, we have seen how to convert
them to percentages.
(c) The increase or decrease in a certain quantity can also be expressed as percentage.
(d) The profit or loss incurred in a certain transaction can be expressed in terms of
percentages.
(e) While computing interest on an amount borrowed, the rate of interest is given in
terms of per cents. For example, Rs 800 borrowed for 3 years at 12% per
annum.
 RATIONAL NUMBERS 19 1

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

p
1. A number that can be expressed in the form q , where p and q are integers and

2 3
q ≠ 0, is called a rational number. The numbers , ,3 etc. are rational numbers.
7 8
2. All integers and fractions are rational numbers.
3. If the numerator and denominator of a rational number are multiplied or divided by a
non-zero integer, we get a rational number which is said to be equivalent to the given
3 3× 2 6 6
rational number. For example . So, we say is the equivalent
7 7×2 14 14
3 6 6÷ 2 3
form of . Also note that .
7 14 14 ÷ 2 7
4. Rational numbers are classified as Positive and Negative rational numbers. When the
numerator and denominator, both, are positive integers, it is a positive rational number.
When either the numerator or the denominator is a negative integer, it is a negative
3 8
rational number. For example, is a positive rational number whereas is a
8 9
negative rational number.
5. The number 0 is neither a positive nor a negative rational number.
6. A rational number is said to be in the standard form if its denominator is a positive
integer and the numerator and denominator have no common factor other than 1.
1 2
The numbers , etc. are in standard form.
3 7
7. There are unlimited number of rational numbers between two rational numbers.
8. Two rational numbers with the same denominator can be added by adding their
numerators, keeping the denominator same. Two rational numbers with different
denominators are added by first taking the LCM of the two denominators and
then converting both the rational numbers to their equivalent forms having the
2 3 16 9 16 + 9 7
LCM as the denominator. For example, + + . Here,
3 8 24 24 24 24
LCM of 3 and 8 is 24.
9. While subtracting two rational numbers, we add the additive inverse of the rational
number to be subtracted to the other rational number.
7 2 7 2 7 ( 2) 21+ ( 16) 5
Thus, + additive inverse of = + .
8 3 8 3 8 3 24 24
19 2 MATH EMATICS

10. To multiply two rational numbers, we multiply their numerators and denominators
product of numerators .
separately, and write the product as
product of denominators
11. To divide one rational number by the other non-zero rational number, we multiply the
rational number by the reciprocal of the other. Thus,
7 4 7 4 7 3 21
÷ × (reciprocal of ) × .
2 3 2 3 2 4 8
204 MATHEMATICS

Miscellaneous questions
Below are given the measures of certain sides and angles of triangles. Identify those
which cannot be constructed and, say why you cannot construct them. Construct rest of
the triangles.
Triangle Given measurements
1. ΔABC m∠A = 85°; m∠B = 115°; AB = 5 cm.
2. ΔPQR m∠Q = 30°; m∠R = 60°; QR = 4.7 cm.
3. ΔABC m∠A = 70°; m∠B = 50°; AC = 3 cm.
4. ΔLMN m∠L = 60°; m∠N = 120°; LM = 5 cm.
5. ΔABC BC = 2 cm; AB = 4 cm; AC = 2 cm.
6. ΔPQR PQ = 3.5 cm.; QR = 4 cm.; PR = 3.5 cm.
7. ΔXYZ XY = 3 cm; YZ = 4 cm; XZ = 5 cm
8. ΔDEF DE = 4.5cm; EF = 5.5cm; DF = 4 cm.

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

In this Chapter, we looked into the methods of some ruler and compasses constructions.
1. Given a line l and a point not on it, we used the idea of ‘equal alternate angles’ in a
transversal diagram to draw a line parallel to l.
We could also have used the idea of ‘equal corresponding angles’ to do the
construction.
2. We studied the method of drawing a triangle, using indirectly the concept of congruence
of triangles.
The following cases were discussed:
(i) SSS: Given the three side lengths of a triangle.
(ii) SAS: Given the lengths of any two sides and the measure of the
angle between these sides.
(iii) ASA: Given the measures of two angles and the length of side
included between them.
(iv) RHS: Given the length of hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle and
the length of one of its legs.
228 MATHEMATICS

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. Perimeter is the distance around a closed figure whereas area is the part of plane
occupied by the closed figure.
2. We have learnt how to find perimeter and area of a square and rectangle in the earlier
class. They are:
(a) Perimeter of a square = 4 × side
(b) Perimeter of a rectangle = 2 × (length + breadth)
(c) Area of a square = side × side
(d) Area of a rectangle = length × breadth
3. Area of a parallelogram = base × height
1
4. Area of a triangle = (area of the parallelogram generated from it)
2

1
= × base × height
2
5. The distance around a circular region is known as its circumference.
22
Circumference of a circle = πd, where d is the diameter of a circle and ʌ
7
or 3.14 (approximately).
6. Area of a circle = πr2, where r is the radius of the circle.
7. Based on the conversion of units for lengths, studied earlier, the units of areas can
also be converted:
1 cm2 = 100 mm2, 1 m2 = 10000 cm2 , 1 hectare = 10000 m2.
 ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS 247

2. Use the given algebraic expression to complete the table of number patterns.
S. Expression Terms
st nd rd th th
No. 1 2 3 4 5 ... 10th … 100th …
(i) 2n – 1 1 3 5 7 9 - 19 - - -
(ii) 3n + 2 2 5 8 11 - - - - - -
(iii) 4n + 1 5 9 13 17 - - - - - -
(iv) 7n + 20 27 34 41 48 - - - - - -
(v) n2 + 1 2 5 10 17 - - - - 10,001 -

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. Algebraic expressions are formed from variables and constants. We use the
operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division on the variables
and constants to form expressions. For example, the expression 4xy + 7 is formed
from the variables x and y and constants 4 and 7. The constant 4 and the variables
x and y are multiplied to give the product 4xy and the constant 7 is added to this
product to give the expression.
2. Expressions are made up of terms. Terms are added to make an expression. For
example, the addition of the terms 4xy and 7 gives the expression 4xy + 7.
3. A term is a product of factors. The term 4xy in the expression 4xy + 7 is a product
of factors x, y and 4. Factors containing variables are said to be algebraic factors.
4. The coefficient is the numerical factor in the term. Sometimes anyone factor in a
term is called the coefficient of the remaining part of the term.
5. Any expression with one or more terms is called a polynomial. Specifically a one
term expression is called a monomial; a two-term expression is called a binomial;
and a three-term expression is called a trinomial.
6. Terms which have the same algebraic factors are like terms. Terms which have different
algebraic factors are unlike terms. Thus, terms 4xy and – 3xy are like terms; but
terms 4xy and – 3x are not like terms.
7. The sum (or difference) of two like terms is a like term with coefficient equal to
the sum (or difference) of the coefficients of the two like terms. Thus,
8xy – 3xy = (8 – 3 )xy, i.e., 5xy.
8. When we add two algebraic expressions, the like terms are added as given
above; the unlike terms are left as they are. Thus, the sum of 4x2 + 5x
and 2x + 3 is 4x2 + 7x + 3; the like terms 5x and 2x add to 7x; the unlike
terms 4x2 and 3 are left as they are.
248 MATHEMATICS

9. In situations such as solving an equation and using a formula, we have to find the
value of an expression. The value of the expression depends on the value of the
variable from which the expression is formed. Thus, the value of 7x – 3 for x = 5 is
32, since 7(5) – 3 = 35 – 3 = 32.
10. Rules and formulas in mathematics are written in a concise and general form using
algebraic expressions:
Thus, the area of rectangle = lb, where l is the length and b is the breadth of the
rectangle.
The general (nth) term of a number pattern (or a sequence) is an expression in n.
Thus, the nth term of the number pattern 11, 21, 31, 41, . . . is (10n + 1).
264 MATHEMATICS

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. Very large numbers are difficult to read, understand, compare and operate upon. To
make all these easier, we use exponents, converting many of the large numbers in a
shorter form.
2. The following are exponential forms of some numbers?
10,000 = 104 (read as 10 raised to 4)
243 = 35, 128 = 27.
Here, 10, 3 and 2 are the bases, whereas 4, 5 and 7 are their respective exponents.
We also say, 10,000 is the 4th power of 10, 243 is the 5th power of 3, etc.
3. Numbers in exponential form obey certain laws, which are:
For any non-zero integers a and b and whole numbers m and n,
(a) am × an = am + n
(b) am ÷ an = am – n, m>n
(c) (am)n = amn
(d) am × bm = (ab)m
m
a
(e) a ÷ b =
m n
b
(f) a0 = 1
(g) (–1)even number = 1
(–1)odd number = – 1
276 MATHEMATICS

5. Name the quadrilaterals which have both line and rotational symmetry of order more
than 1.
6. After rotating by 60° about a centre, a figure looks exactly the same as its original
position. At what other angles will this happen for the figure?
7. Can we have a rotational symmetry of order more than 1 whose angle of rotation is
(i) 45°? (ii) 17°?

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. A figure has line symmetry, if there is a line about which the figure may be folded so
that the two parts of the figure will coincide.
2. Regular polygons have equal sides and equal angles. They have multiple (i.e., more
than one) lines of symmetry.
3. Each regular polygon has as many lines of symmetry as it has sides.
Regular Regular Regular Square Equilateral
Polygon hexagon pentagon triangle
Number of lines 6 5 4 3
of symmetry
4. Mirror reflection leads to symmetry, under which the left-right orientation have to be
taken care of.
5. Rotation turns an object about a fixed point.
This fixed point is the centre of rotation.
The angle by which the object rotates is the angle of rotation.
A half-turn means rotation by 180o; a quarter-turn means rotation by 90o. Rotation
may be clockwise or anticlockwise.
6. If, after a rotation, an object looks exactly the same, we say that it has a rotational
symmetry.
7. In a complete turn (of 360o), the number of times an object looks exactly the same is
called the order of rotational symmetry. The order of symmetry of a square, for
example, is 4 while, for an equilateral triangle, it is 3.
8. Some shapes have only one line of symmetry, like the letter E; some have only rotational
symmetry, like the letter S; and some have both symmetries like the letter H.
The study of symmetry is important because of its frequent use in day-to-day life and
more because of the beautiful designs it can provide us.
292 MATHEMATICS

WHAT HAVE WE DISCUSSED?

1. The circle, the square, the rectangle, the quadrilateral and the triangle are examples
of plane figures; the cube, the cuboid, the sphere, the cylinder, the cone and the
pyramid are examples of solid shapes.
2. Plane figures are of two-dimensions (2-D) and the solid shapes are of
three-dimensions (3-D).
3. The corners of a solid shape are called its vertices; the line segments of its skeleton
are its edges; and its flat surfaces are its faces.
4. A net is a skeleton-outline of a solid that can be folded to make it. The same solid
can have several types of nets.
5. Solid shapes can be drawn on a flat surface (like paper) realistically. We call this
2-D representation of a 3-D solid.
6. Two types of sketches of a solid are possible:
(a) An oblique sketch does not have proportional lengths. Still it conveys all important
aspects of the appearance of the solid.
(b) An isometric sketch is drawn on an isometric dot paper, a sample of which is
given at the end of this book. In an isometric sketch of the solid the measurements
kept proportional.
7. Visualising solid shapes is a very useful skill. You should be able to see ‘hidden’
parts of the solid shape.
8. Different sections of a solid can be viewed in many ways:
(a) One way is to view by cutting or slicing the shape, which would result in the
cross-section of the solid.
(b) Another way is by observing a 2-D shadow of a 3-D shape.
(c) A third way is to look at the shape from different angles; the front-view, the
side-view and the top-view can provide a lot of information about the shape
observed.