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Wireless Networks

Zhou Su · Yilong Hui · Tom H. Luan

Qiaorong Liu · Rui Xing

The Next Generation

Vehicular Networks,
Modeling,
Algorithm, and
Applications
Wireless Networks

Series Editor
Xuemin Sherman Shen
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
The purpose of Springer’s Wireless Networks book series is to establish the state
of the art and set the course for future research and development in wireless
communication networks. The scope of this series includes not only all aspects
of wireless networks (including cellular networks, WiFi, sensor networks, and
vehicular networks), but related areas such as cloud computing and big data.
The series serves as a central source of references for wireless networks research
and development. It aims to publish thorough and cohesive overviews on specific
topics in wireless networks, as well as works that are larger in scope than survey
articles and that contain more detailed background information. The series also
provides coverage of advanced and timely topics worthy of monographs, contributed
volumes, textbooks and handbooks.
** Indexing: Wireless Networks is indexed in EBSCO databases and DPLB **

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/14180

Zhou Su • Yilong Hui • Tom H. Luan • Qiaorong Liu
Rui Xing

The Next Generation

Vehicular Networks,
Modeling, Algorithm, and
Applications
Zhou Su Yilong Hui
Shanghai University Xidian University
Shanghai, China Xi’an, Shaanxi, China

Tom H. Luan Qiaorong Liu

Xidian University Shanghai University
Xi’an, Shaanxi, China Shanghai, China

Rui Xing
Shanghai University
Shanghai, China

ISSN 2366-1186 ISSN 2366-1445 (electronic)

Wireless Networks
ISBN 978-3-030-56826-9 ISBN 978-3-030-56827-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56827-6

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

The next generation vehicular networks are expected to provide services with highly
improved network performance in terms of low cost and latency as well as high
network efficiency and quality of experience (QoE) to vehicles. Towards better
network maintainability and sustainability, this book proposes the novel network
envisions and framework design principles to realize the goals of the next generation
vehicular networks. As it is widely recognized, enabling technologies such as
information centric networks (ICN), edge caching, computation offloading, artificial
intelligence (AI), and autonomous driving play important roles in the wireless
technology developments along with the research on intelligent transportation
systems (ITS) and smart cities. The investigation and development on the integration
of vehicular networks and the new enabling technologies thus provide important
references for designing and developing the next generation vehicular networks.
However, with the advance of vehicular applications and the diverse service
requirements of vehicles, to develop the next generation vehicular networks by
investigating the integration of vehicular networks and the enabling technologies
becomes a new challenge. The reasons that contribute to this are detailed as follows:
(1) There is a huge amount of content to be delivered and vehicle users typically
have different behaviors in the vehicular networks. With the integration of ICN
and vehicular networks, an analytical scheme to facilitate the content delivery in
information centric vehicular networks is thus needed, where the behaviors of
vehicle users in the content delivery process should be taken into account. (2)
With the massive demands of various kinds of content services and different social
relationships among vehicles, the edge caching in vehicular networks faces the
challenges to decrease the latency, increase the efficiency of the networks, and
improve the QoE of vehicles. To this end, a novel edge caching framework by
considering the service requirements and the social ties of vehicles is necessary
to be developed. (3) In the vehicular networks, vehicles typically need to execute
various computing tasks during driving, such as video processing, online social
network services, and virtual reality. Caused by the limited computation power,
vehicles need to offload a part of their tasks to edge devices. Since the emerging
network applications may have different requirements of computing resources, the

v
vi Preface

model of optimal computation resource allocation becomes a challenge to provide

vehicles with satisfactory computing services. (4) In the vehicular networks, a
vehicle which intends to offload its computing task may connect to more than
one edge servers, where some edge servers may declare unreasonable prices to
execute the computing task. In addition, the edge servers may maliciously declare
a low price to complete the task with low quality. Therefore, a secure computation
offloading scheme needs to be designed to constrain the bids of edge servers and
guarantee the computing service with high quality. (5) With the popularization of
the vehicular networks, malicious nodes may attack the vehicles and RSUs in the
content delivery process. Therefore, secure content delivery to protect the vehicles
against threats (i.e., outside attacks and inside attacks) and provide a secure content
delivery environment becomes a challenge. (6) Due to the huge data perceived from
complicated traffic environment and the limited computing power of vehicles, it is
quite challenging to achieve vehicular networks enabled autonomous driving, which
is one of the most attractive applications in the next generation vehicular networks.
To this end, an autonomous driving scheme in which AVs can learn and drive with
groups needs to be designed.
As an effort to address these issues, this book focuses on the key enabling
technologies to design the framework for the next generation vehicular networks to
satisfy various vehicular services requested by vehicles. The network architectures
and the framework design principles are discussed in depth including the analysis of
reputation based content delivery in information centric vehicular networks, contract
based edge caching in vehicular networks, Stackelberg game based computation
offloading in vehicular networks, auction game based secure computation offloading
in vehicular networks, bargain game based secure content delivery in vehicular
networks, and deep learning based autonomous driving in vehicular networks.
Specifically, in this book, we focus on the modeling, algorithms, and applications
in the next generation vehicular networks, in order to improve the performance
of vehicular services and facilitate the future smart city transportation system.
In Chap. 1, we introduce the overview of vehicular networks and the enabling
technologies that can be integrated with vehicular networks to pave the way for the
integration of the vehicular networks and different technologies. In Chap. 2, with the
analysis of the various behaviors of vehicles, we discuss the reputation based content
delivery in information centric vehicular networks. In Chap. 3, by considering the
social relationships among vehicles, we develop a contract based edge caching
scheme in vehicular networks to enhance the content delivery performance. In
Chap. 4, we study an incentive mechanism by designing the Stackelberg game
model to analyze the computation offloading problem in vehicular networks. With
this mechanism, both the vehicle and mobile edge computing (MEC) server are
motivated to obtain the optimal game strategy. In Chap. 5, by integrating edge
computing and cloud computing, we propose a secure computation offloading
scheme to help the vehicle select the optimal edge server to offload its task. By
using the proposed scheme, the bid prices of edge servers can be constrained and
the service quality of the computing task can be guaranteed. In Chap. 6, we propose
a security aware content delivery scheme in vehicular networks. Specifically, we first
Preface vii

establish a trust evaluation scheme by introducing authority units (AUs) to monitor

the actions of both vehicles and RSUs during the process of content delivery. Then,
a price competitive scheme between vehicles and RSU is proposed by using the
bargain game to encourage them to improve their trust values and utilities. In
Chap. 7, we talk about the vehicular networks enabled autonomous driving and
investigate the framework of deep learning for collaborative autonomous driving.
Finally, in Chap. 8, we conclude this book and summarize some future research
directions in the next generation vehicular networks.
This book validates the network architectures and the framework design princi-
ples for reputation based content delivery in information centric vehicular networks,
contract based edge caching in vehicular networks, Stackelberg game based com-
putation offloading in vehicular networks, auction game based secure computation
offloading in vehicular networks, bargain game based secure content delivery in
vehicular networks, and deep learning based collaborative autonomous driving in
vehicular networks, where the performances of the above studies are evaluated by
simulations. Therefore, this book can provide valuable insights on the integration of
conventional vehicular networks and the enabling technologies in depth to satisfy
the goals of the next generation vehicular networks.
We would like to thank Prof. Dongfeng Fang at the Department of Computer
Science and Software Engineering, Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo, USA, for her
valuable discussions and insightful comments. We would like to thank Dr. Yuntao
Wang at the School of Cyber Science and Engineering of Xi’an Jiaotong University,
Xi’an, China, for his constructive comments and helpful discussions. We would like
to thank Prof. Qichao Xu, Dr. Minghui Dai, Dr. Weiwei Li, and Dr. Hui Zeng at
the School of Mechatronic Engineering and Automation of Shanghai University,
Shanghai, China, for their valuable discussions and helpful comments. We would
also like to show our special thanks to the staff at Springer Science+Business Media:
Ms. Susan Lagerstrom-Fife and Ms. Jennifer Malat, for their kind help throughout
the publication and preparation processes.

Shanghai, China Zhou Su

Xi’an, China Yilong Hui

Xi’an, China Tom H. Luan

Shanghai, China Qiaorong Liu

Shanghai, China Rui Xing

Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Overview of Vehicular Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Architecture of Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Applications in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Overview of Enabling Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Advanced Communication-5G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Mobile Edge Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3 Network Function Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.4 Software Defined Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.5 Computation Offloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.6 Blockchain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.7 Information Centric Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.8 Edge Caching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.9 Autonomous Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.10 Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3 Aim of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2 Reputation Based Content Delivery in Information Centric
Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Overview of Information Centric Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.1 Content Delivery in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.2 ICN Based Content Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.3 Challenges of Content Delivery in Information
Centric Vehicular Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3 Reputation Based Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4 Framework of Reputation Based Content Delivery
in Information Centric Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4.1 Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

ix
x Contents

2.4.2 Framework of Reputation Based Content Delivery

in Information Centric Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5.1 Setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5.2 Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3 Contract Based Edge Caching in Vehicular Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2 Edge Caching in Vehicular Social Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.1 Vehicular Social Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.2 Edge Caching in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.3 Challenges of Edge Caching in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . 53
3.3 Contract Based Edge Caching in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4 Framework of Contract Based Edge Caching in Vehicular
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.4.1 Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4.2 Framework of Contract Based Edge Caching
in Vehicular Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.5 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.5.1 Setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.5.2 Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4 Stackelberg Game Based Computation Offloading in Vehicular
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.2 System Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2.1 Network Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2.2 Communication Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.2.3 Task Execution Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.3 Stackelberg Game Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.3.1 Benefits of Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.3.2 Benefits of MEC Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.3.3 Stackelberg Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.4 The Equilibrium Solution of Stackelberg Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4.1 Stage 2: Offloading Strategy of Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4.2 Stage 1: Pricing Strategy of MEC Servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.4.3 Stackelberg Game Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.5 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.5.1 Setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.5.2 Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
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Contents xi

5 Auction Based Secure Computation Offloading in Vehicular

Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.2 System Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.2.1 Network Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.2.2 Task Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.3 Analysis of Secure Offloading Strategy in Edge-Cloud Networks . . . 95
5.3.1 Task Offloading Scheme Based on First Price Sealed
Auction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.3.2 TSVM-Based Detection Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.4 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.4.1 Setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.4.2 Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6 Bargain Game Based Secure Content Delivery in Vehicular
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.2 Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.2.1 Deployment of RSUs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.2.2 Attack and Defence in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.2.3 Trust Evaluation of Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.2.4 Trust Value of RSUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.2.5 Deployment of AU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.2.6 Bargain Game Between RSUs and Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.3 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.3.1 Setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.3.2 Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7 Deep Learning Based Autonomous Driving in Vehicular Networks . . . 131
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.2 Overview of Deep Learning Based Autonomous Driving
in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.2.1 Autonomous Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.2.2 Autonomous Driving with Vehicular Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.2.3 Deep Learning Based Autonomous Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.3 Architecture of Deep Learning Based Autonomous Driving
in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.3.1 Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.3.2 Composition of Learning Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
xii Contents

7.4 Learning with Groups: Deep Learning Based Autonomous

Driving in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.4.1 Topology of Learning Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.4.2 Cooperative Learning Within a Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.4.3 Allocation of Profits/Costs Within a Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.5 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.5.1 Setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.5.2 Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
7.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
8 Conclusions and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
8.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
8.2 Future Research Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.2.1 Trading Mechanism in Vehicular Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.2.2 Security and Privacy in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.2.3 Big Data in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.2.4 QoE Aware Services in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
8.2.5 Smart Transportation Systems with Vehicular Networks . . . . 155
8.2.6 Resource Integration and Allocation in Vehicular
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Acronyms

5G 5th generation mobile networks

AI Artificial intelligence
AUs Authority units
AVs Autonomous vehicles
BS Base station
CCNs Content centric networks
CPS Cyber physical system
CPU Central processor unit
CS Content store
DPoS Delegated proof of stake
DSRC Dedicated short range communication
EMS Element management system
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute
FBSs Femto base stations
FIB Forwarding information base
GPS Global positioning system
ICNs Information centric networks
IoTs Internet of Things
ITS Intelligent transportation system
LCU Logic control unit
LTE Long term evolution
MBSs Micro base stations
MCC Mobile cloud computing
MEC Mobile edge computing
NBI Northbound interface
NFV MANO NFV management and orchestrator
NFV Network function virtualization
NFVI NFV infrastructure
NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
OBU On board unit
PBFT Practical Byzantine fault tolerance

xiii
xiv Acronyms

PIT Pending interest table

PoS Proof of stake
PoW Proof of work
QoE Quality of experience
RSU Roadside unit
SBI Southbound interface
SDN Software defined network
V2I Vehicle to infrastructure
V2V Vehicle to vehicle
VMs Virtual machines
VNFs Virtual network functions
VSNs Vehicular social networks
Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Overview of Vehicular Networks

1.1.1 Architecture of Vehicular Networks

As one of the most important enabling technologies to realize the next generation
intelligent transportation system (ITS), vehicular networks are considered as a set
of vehicles embedded with on-board units (OBUs) and road infrastructures (i.e.,
roadside units (RSUs) and base stations (BSs)) [1–5]. With a radio interface, each
OBU can make the connection with other OBUs, RSUs, BSs and other smart
devices, by which they can communicate with each other to share useful information
with the goal of facilitating the driving and transportation system. Generally, as
the typical scenario which is shown in Fig. 1.1, vehicular networks mainly consist
of two types: (1) vehicle to vehicle communications, i.e., V2V, and (2) vehicle to
roadside infrastructure communications, i.e., V2I [6–10].
For V2V communications, a vehicle can communicate with the vehicles within
its communication coverage directly via a single hop connection [11–15]. In addi-
tion, a group can be formed by vehicles to achieve the long distance communication
via opportunistic routing through a multiple hop connection. In this way, a vehicle
can connect with other vehicles which are outside of its communication coverage.
For V2I communications, both the RSUs and BSs have the communication coverage
so that they can communicate with the vehicles when the vehicles drive in the
coverage [16–20]. Vehicular networks integrate the V2V and V2I by which the
information can be smoothly shared in the networks. For example, if a vehicle
is suffering a traffic accident, with the help of V2V communications, all vehicles
connected with it can obtain this accident information. In addition, the accident
information can be further relayed to other vehicles and RSUs or BSs to re-plan the
driving routes. With the real time information sharing, the traffic accidents can be
reduced and the traffic efficiency can be improved.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

Z. Su et al., The Next Generation Vehicular Networks, Modeling, Algorithm, and
Applications, Wireless Networks, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56827-6_1
2 1 Introduction

RSU BS V2V V2I

Vehicular Service Coverage of RSU

Fig. 1.1 An illustration of vehicular networks

Next, we introduce the two typical kinds of communication modes in vehicular

networks in detail.
• V2V communications: This communication paradigm enables vehicles to con-
nect and exchange information with each other directly without sending data to
RSUs, BSs or the core networks [21–25]. Due to the opportunistic links among
vehicles, V2V communications are considered as an important technology espe-
cially when the RSUs or BSs are not available. Besides, V2V communications
are more economical than V2I communications in terms of the construction cost.
With V2V, vehicles can not only share information with small data size such
as accident warnings and lane change warnings, but also can share content with
large data size such as popular movie trailer and video stream with the adoption
of carry-and-forward strategy [26–28]. Specifically, when a vehicle moves to the
1.1 Overview of Vehicular Networks 3

communication coverage areas of other vehicles, the information and contents

can be exchanged. Otherwise, the vehicle carries the information and waits for
the next connection [29].
• V2I communications: This type of communication mainly provides a connec-
tion between OBUs placed at vehicles and infrastructures located along the roads.
The infrastructures typically refer to the cellular networks (4G/5G and long
term evolution (LTE)) e.g., BSs, and WiFi-like access units e.g., RSUs [30–
33]. Both the RSUs and BSs are connected to the remote server using wired
links. Compared with the RSUs, the BSs have larger communication coverage.
In addition, the BSs can provide vehicles with a stable download rate while the
RSUs only provide occasional connections due to the chaos contentions among
vehicles. Through the V2I connection, vehicles are allowed to request various
vehicular services by connecting to the RSUs or BSs.
With the integration of V2V and V2I, on one hand, notifications such as traffic
and weather conditions or some specific road messages (e.g., maximum speed
limit and overtaking warning) can be broadcasted to inform the nearby vehicles
in vehicular networks to facilitate the transportation system. On the other hand,
vehicular networks have the ability to provide entertainment services containing
huge data for vehicle users to enhance their quality of experience (QoE) [34–
38]. In what follows, we will detail the applications that can be provided with the
deployment of vehicular networks.

1.1.2 Applications in Vehicular Networks

The applications supported in vehicular networks mainly include vehicle safety

applications (e.g., automatic collision warning, remote vehicle diagnostics, emer-
gency treatment and assistance for safety driving), vehicle traffic applications
(e.g., event notification, traffic scheduling and path planning), and infotainment
applications (e.g., high-speed Internet access and multimedia content sharing)
[39].
• Safety applications: Safety applications are supported by the vehicular networks
to reduce the risk of road accidents and the number of the people injured
and killed on the roads [40]. According to the statistic information, there are
approximately 2.5 million accidents every year and the second largest category
of accidents is caused by rear end collisions [41]. By providing related road and
vehicle information and assistance to drivers, road safety applications can help
vehicles avoid accidents and collisions. Safety applications contain many aspects
such as intersection collision warning, head on collision warning and rear end
collision warning. All of these warnings can be detected by vehicles or infras-
tructures and the information can be further shared in the networks. In addition
to collision warnings, safety applications can also support other warnings and
assistances, such as overtaking warning, emergency vehicle warning, pre-crash
4 1 Introduction

sensing, wrong way driving warning, signal violating warning and lane change
assistance [42]. For example, a vehicle can integrate the information from other
vehicles in the same lane to avoid collisions. If the vehicle intends to change its
driving lane, by using the messages from the adjacent vehicles in the neighboring
lane, it can complete the lane change in safety.
• Traffic applications: This type of application aims at improving the driving
experience by optimizing the traffic flow and providing vehicle position infor-
mation and maps [43]. Compared with safety applications, traffic applications
have no strict latency and reliability requirements. These applications may need
to be supported by a large number of alert messages. For instance, most of the
accidents are caused by the over speed of vehicles. Therefore, the vehicle speed
management becomes particularly important. In this case, the alert messages
(e.g., the regular speed limit notification) can help vehicle drivers pay attention to
their driving speeds. In addition, this type of application can greatly enhance the
traffic efficiency. One of the cases is that the cooperation detection and navigation
of vehicles and roadside infrastructures can help a driver obtain the optimal path
to the destination by collecting the traffic information in the vehicular networks.
In addition, by regulating and scheduling traffic flow, the traffic efficiency can be
significantly improved.
• Infotainment applications: The applications belong to this category is to pro-
vide on-demand entertainment services to the driving vehicles, which includes
custom information services, Internet access, multimedia content sharing, video
streaming, and so on. In recent years, video contents and video applications have
become the increasing infotainment services, such as remote video conferences,
live news and films. In fact, with the deployment of vehicular networks, vehicles
are no longer a simple means of transportation for people, but a private place to
support entertainment services. In this way, the time of attendance can be fully
used to improve the driving experience.

1.2 Overview of Enabling Technologies

1.2.1 Advanced Communication-5G

The fifth generation (5G) mobile communication technology is the latest generation
of cellular mobile communication technology. As the next telecommunication
standard, the 5G wireless system has attracted more and more attention from
academia, industry and government [44–47]. The development of 5G comes from
the growing demand for mobile data. Specifically, with the development of mobile
Internet, the networks exhibit two notable features. One feature is the growing
number of connected devices. Another feature is the emergence of new services
and applications requested by the connected devices. Meanwhile, the skyrocketing
mobile data traffic poses serious challenges to the network:
1.2 Overview of Enabling Technologies 5

• According to the current development of mobile communication networks, on

one hand, it is difficult to support the growth of data traffic. On the other hand,
the network energy consumption is unable to efficiently support the new services
and applications.
• The traffic growth will inevitably lead to further demand for the spectrum.
However, the available mobile communication spectrum is scarce. In addition,
the fragmented distribution makes it difficult to achieve efficient use of the
spectrum.
• The future network is a heterogeneous mobile network. To improve network
capacity, it is necessary to solve the problem of integrating heterogeneous
networks, simplifying interoperability and enhancing user experience.
The 5G mobile communication networks, which are composed of several
heterogeneous base stations, such as micro base stations (MBSs) and femto base
stations (FBSs), are expected to solve the above challenges and meet the growing
demand for mobile traffic. Compared with 4G mobile communication technology,
5G has the following new features:
• The peak data transmission rate reaches Gbit/s which is faster than the current
wired Internet and 100 times faster than the previous 4G cellular network.
• By taking various Internet of things (IoTs) devices into account, 5G has a large
network capacity, which can provide the connection capacity of 100 billion
devices to support IoT communication.
• With the heterogeneous base stations, 5G can provide a wide-area communica-
tion coverage, where the user experience rate in 5G is expected to reach 100
Mbit/s.
Based on the features of 5G, we can know that the 5G networks can solve
the above challenges efficiently. In addition, with a wide coverage of networks,
the information sharing between vehicles and infrastructures becomes easier and
faster. Consequently, the efficiency of data transmission in the vehicular networks
can be significantly improved. Furthermore, with the support of high-speed data
transmission, some new applications in the vehicular networks can be realized and
deployed, such as on-line gaming, virtual reality and autonomous driving.

1.2.2 Mobile Edge Computing

Currently, mobile edge computing (MEC) technology is emerged as a new paradigm

to overcome the challenges brought by conventional mobile cloud computing
(MCC) technology [48–52]. The concept of MEC was firstly proposed by the
European Telecommunications Standard Institute (ETSI) in 2014 and it can be
deployed at RSUs and BSs to provide computing services in close proximity to
mobile subscribers. Due to the physical proximity, a large number of vehicles can
offload their computation tasks to the MEC servers instead of accessing the remote
6 1 Introduction

Table 1.1 Comparison of Characteristics MCC MEC

MCC and MEC
Deployment Network core Network edge
Computing Remote Local
Service support Virtualization Virtualization
Architecture Centralized Distributed
Mobility No/Medium Yes
Location awareness No/Medium Yes
Scalability Medium High
Availability High High
Construction cost High Low

Cloud layer Cloud

MEC layer

User layer

Smartphones Desktops Tablets Laptops Watches Vehicles

Fig. 1.2 Typical three-layer service model of MEC

cloud. In this way, the traffic congestion on the backbone networks thus can be
alleviated [53–55]. Furthermore, the latency of the computation tasks can be greatly
reduced compared with that executed by the remote cloud servers so that the QoE
of the vehicles can be guaranteed. Besides, with the distributed deployment of the
MEC servers, a large number of computation demands generated by vehicles can
be responded simultaneously [56], where the efficiency of the networks can be
improved. The detailed comparison of MCC and MEC is shown in Table 1.1.
A three-layer service model of MEC is depicted in Fig. 1.2. From this figure, we
can see that the framework consists of three layers, which are user layer, i.e., various
types of mobile devices (e.g., smart phones, desktops, laptops, tablets, watches
and vehicles), MEC layer and cloud layer. In vehicular networks, vehicle users
typically have different task computing demands. Due to the physical proximity
between MEC servers and vehicles, each task computing service can be responded
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and supported by MEC server immediately. After the execution of the task has been
accomplished, the MEC server then returns the result to the vehicle. In this way,
the energy consumption related to radio access and dissemination latency can be
greatly decreased compared with relying on the cloud server. However, with the low
computing and executing power of MEC servers, they can not always meet all of the
service demands generated from vehicles. In this case, the MEC servers can relay
these computing demands to the cloud server. After the task is completed, the cloud
server delivers the result of the computing task to the MEC server which will further
deliver the result to the vehicle. In this way, for the urgent computing tasks, they can
be executed by the MEC servers to reduce the latency time. For the tasks without
the strict delay requirements, they can be completed by the cloud server to improve
the resource utilization and task completion efficiency.

1.2.3 Network Function Virtualization

The network services are generally running on proprietary and dedicated hardware.
Network function virtualization (NFV) [57–61] is a network architecture that
aims to virtualize various types of network services. By consolidating different
network equipment on standard high-volume servers and leveraging virtualization
technologies, NFV has emerged as an initiative to transform the way of network
functions in software [62]. In particular, it can easily be migrated from one network
equipment to another without the need of having custom hardware appliances for
each network function. In this way, the flexibility of network service deployment can
be improved. In addition, compared with hardware installing, the investment cost of
the network provider can be reduced [63]. For example, a virtual session boundary
controller can be deployed to protect the networks without the construction cost and
complexity for installing a physical network protection unit.
The NFV architectural framework [64], as shown in Fig. 1.3, generally consists of
three parts which are virtual network functions (VNFs), NFV infrastructure (NFVI)
and NFV management and orchestrator (NFV MANO), respectively.
• VNFs are software implementation versions of network function components
running on multiple virtual machines (VMs). Each VNF is controlled by an
element management system (EMS).
• NFVI provides the network environment, where VNFs are deployed and exe-
cuted [65]. The virtual resources on NFVI are abstracted and logically partitioned
from the underlying hardware resources through a virtualization layer, where the
hardware resources can be computing, storage and network resources.
• NFV MANO provides organization and management of VNFs, which is con-
trolled by a set of VNF managers. The physical and virtual resources of NFVI
are also controlled through a virtualized infrastructure manager. In addition, NFV
orchestrator is in charge of VNF and other network services so that they can
achieve reasonable orchestration.
8 1 Introduction

NFV MANO VNF

VNF Virtual Network Control

Element
Manager Functions Management Systems

NFV
Orchestrator
NFVI
Virtualized
Hardware Virtualization Virtual Software
Infrastructure
Resource Resource
Manager

Fig. 1.3 NFV architectural framework

According to the analysis of the features of NFV, we then summarize the

advantages of NFV-based vehicular networks as follows [66].
• With the adoption of NFV, the services in vehicular networks are virtualized as
software and separated from hardware. As a result, the function update can be
completed by only updating the software so that the updating process becomes
easy and efficient.
• VNFs can be deployed dynamically and can support different networking types
to provide services based on different network situations, which leads to a flexible
deployment of network servers.
• With the NFV-based vehicular networks, the third parties also can join in the
networks to develop and design new services, where the innovation of the service
system will be accelerated. Furthermore, the reuse of virtualized functions in
the system can reduce the time and investment of developing new services and
applications.

1.2.4 Software Defined Network

Traditional networks are based on hardware and possess distributed or decentralized

architecture [67–69], where the forwarding devices in the networks, e.g., routers,
switches, etc., are used to forward the data or packets from the source to the
destination. Software defined network (SDN) [70–74] is an emerging technology to
provide high flexibility and scalability of networks, where the network is recognized
as an operating system and the resources are managed by the SDN controller. On
one hand, due to the separation of control plane and data plane, SDN can greatly
improve the efficiency of vehicular networks and easily obtain logical centralization
1.2 Overview of Enabling Technologies 9

Efficiency Security infotainment

Application Application Application

Northbound Northbound
Interface (NBI) Interface (NBI)

SDN Controller
Southbound OpenFlow
Interface (SBI)

RSUs Vehicles BSs

Fig. 1.4 Architecture of SDN-based vehicular networks

of network control [75]. In the SDN based vehicular networks, the RSUs and BSs are
only in charge of providing services for vehicles. The control decisions are made by
the SDN controller which has the global view of the networks. On the other hand,
the programmability of the control makes it easier to create new abstractions in
vehicular networks, simplify network management and promote network evolution
[76–79]. Particularly, in the case of the SDN-based vehicular networks, the vehicles
and the road infrastructures in the data plane are served as the forwarding devices
[69].
As shown in Fig. 1.4, the network space can be decoupled into three planes,
which are the data plane, control plane and application plane, respectively
[80–83].
• Data plane: The data plane abstracts the underlying resources (e.g., vehicles)
as SDN switches. These switches conform to the unified scheduling, follow
the OpenFlow protocol and route traffic along the path towards the selected
destination network [80]. In other words, the data plane does not concern about
the control policy. It only needs to address the incoming and outgoing data
packets according to the control instruction published by the control plane.
• Control plane: The control instruction is forwarded from each switch to the
centralized controller, i.e., SDN controller. It executes direct control for the data
plane elements through the well-defined southbound interface (SBI) [83]. The
separation of the data plane and the control plane also benefits from the well-
10 1 Introduction

defined programming interface between the switches and the SDN controller
[71]. In the development of SBI technology, OpenFlow is the most notable
example [84]. Its goal is to provide a platform that enables researchers to
run experiments in networks [82]. Through OpenFlow, it is possible to control
multiple switches by a single controller.
• Application plane: The application plane consists of many types of applications,
such as efficiency applications, security applications and infotainment appli-
cations in vehicular networks [85]. Each application represents a client entity
and may request services from the SDN controller, where the communication
between the clients and the SDN controller is routed by the northbound interface
(NBI).

1.2.5 Computation Offloading

With the help of MEC technology, the computation resources can be brought to the
edge of the networks. In MEC, computation offloading is considered as one type
of consumer-oriented service. This is because the vehicle users can benefit from
MEC by computation offloading [86–89], e.g., speed up the process of computation,
save computation resources, alleviate energy consumption and prolong battery life.
For the integrated networks, the computation offloading aims to migrate some
computation tasks or functions from vehicles to MEC servers. The computation
offloading process contains three parts, which are offloading decision, offloading
execution and results return, respectively.
In the vehicular networks, each vehicle typically has computing resources to
execute its task by itself. In fact, vehicles on the road can form a group, which is
called as vehicular cloud, to share their computing resources [90–93]. The resources
owned by vehicles are however less than those of MEC server. For a vehicle which
intends to compute its task, the first step is to make the task offloading decision. The
decision indicates that the vehicle decides whether to offload its computing task
to one of the MEC servers in the networks or not. Then, if the vehicle decides to
offload its task, the task will be executed by its connected MEC server. After the
task execution has been accomplished, the task result will be returned to the vehicle
using the V2I communications.
Apart from the computation offloading decision, the vehicle also needs to
determine the number of computation tasks that can be offloaded to its connected
MEC server. Basically, a decision on computation offloading can result in two cases.
One case is binary offloading, where the vehicle will offload all computation tasks
or offload nothing. Another decision is to select a part of the computation tasks to
offload, while the rest is processed by the vehicle itself. In addition, a task can be
divided into several mutually independent subtasks or submodules, by which a part
of the subtasks can be offloaded to the MEC server to speed up the task computing
process. On the other hand, some subtasks can not be executed in a parallel way. For
1.2 Overview of Enabling Technologies 11

MEC server

Base
Station
Binary
offloading

Local
computing

Partial
offloading
Computation tasks
to be executed

Fig. 1.5 Different computation offloading decisions

example, the input of task B may be based on the output of task A. If a user intends
to execute task B, it should obtain the result of task A at first.
To summarize, the offloading decisions can be divided into three categories
which are local computing, binary offloading and partial offloading, respectively.
The details of different computation offloading decisions are shown in Fig. 1.5.
• Local computing: In the integrated networks, both end-user devices (e.g., smart
phones, laptops and tablets) and IoT devices (e.g., vehicles equipped with OBUs)
have computation capacities. Thus, the computation tasks of vehicles can be
executed locally based on their own computation resources when the MEC
servers are not available or the vehicles have enough time and computation
resources to execute the computation tasks. Furthermore, if a vehicle does not
want to give payment for executing offloading services, it can select local
computing to execute the task.
• Binary offloading: The binary offloading means that all computation tasks
cannot be partitioned and are offloaded and executed as a whole at the MEC
server, where each computation task is required to be executed within the
deadline. If the computation resources of the MEC server are not available, it
can deliver the computation tasks to the cloud server for computing. After the
offloaded tasks are completed, the results will be returned to the corresponding
vehicles. The flow-process diagram of computation offloading is depicted in
Fig. 1.6.
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