Interaction and

Interdependence
Ecology
Ecology
 Ecological
Levels of
Organization
Organism
• It is the basic unit
of ecological
system.
• It pertains to the
individual
organism.
Population
• It is a group of the
same organisms
living together in
an area with the
ability to
interbreed and
interact with one
another.
Community
• It is a group of
different
population of
different organisms
interacting with
one another in one
area.
 Ecosystem
• It is composed of
communities interacting
with the physical
environment.
• Example: marine ecosystem
- it s composed of
communities of fish,
echinoderms, algae, and
mammals living in one area.
 Biosphere
• It is the largest scale of
ecological organization
where all ecosystems
in the world interact.
• It is the sum of all
ecosystems in the
planet.
Environment
• It refers to all the
nonliving and living
conditions
surrounding and
influencing a living
organisms.
 Major Components of Ecosystem

1.Nonliving Organisms (Abiotic)

• It includes all the physical factors
such as temperature, light
pressure, humidity, precipitation,
wind, minerals in soil, and other
nonliving elements.
 Major Components of Ecosystem

2. Living Organisms (Biotic)

• It refers to the plants,
animals, algae, fungi, and
microorganisms
 The ultimate source of
energy is the sun.

Natural Basic Energy flows in the

Principles of ecological system.
Ecology
Matter cycles
continually through
the web of life.
 Terrestrial
Two Major Ecosystems
Classifications
of Ecosystems
Aquatic
Ecosystems
Classifications of
Ecosystems:
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem
• It is found on land.
• Examples:
A. Forests
B. Grasslands
C. Deserts
Terrestrial
Ecosystems
A. Forest

• They are ecosystems

with abundant plants,
animals, fungi, and
microorganisms living
in relatively small
areas.
• They have high density
and diversity.
 Tropical Deciduous Forest

Tropical Evergreen Forest

Types of
Forests Temperate Evergreen Forest

Temperate Deciduous Forest

Types of Forests:
Tropical Deciduous

• It is characterized by its
bushes and shrubs with
some trees with broad
leaves that shed or fall
annually.
• The trees are not typically
close with each other to
allow light penetration in
the understory.
Types of Forests:
Tropical Evergreen
• It receives an average
rainfall of about 80 to
400 inches per year.
• It has dense vegetation
comprising of tall trees
at different levels.
Found in each level are
different kinds of
animals.
Types of Forests:
Tropical Evergreen
• The temperature
ranges between
68-to-77-degree
Celsius.
Types of Forests:
C. Temperate Deciduous

• It found in moist
temperate regions.
• In this regions, the
winters and
summers are well-
defined.
Types of Forests:
Temperate Deciduous

• Leaves of trees,
such as maple and
oaks, shed before
winter.
Types of Forests:
Temperate Evergreen

• It has few trees,

ferns, and mosses.
• It is usually located
in cold areas.
Types of Forests:
Temperate Evergreen

• Conifers are the

usual trees found in
this forest. Their
needle-like leaves
help them survive in
the environment.
Terrestrial
Ecosystems
B. Grasslands
• They are dominated by
grasses with few trees
and shrubs.
• Animals are usually
grazing animals and their
predators, insects, and
insectivores (animals
that eat plants).
 Savanna
Two
Common
Grasslands
Prairie
Savanna
Prairie
Terrestrial
Ecosystems
C. Desert
• They are found in regions
that have very minimal
amount of rainfall,
usually less than 25 cm
annually.
• Vegetation includes
bushes, shrubs, few
trees, and succulent
plants such as cacti.
Terrestrial
Ecosystems
Desert
• Animals are adapted
to its extreme
condition. Adaptation
in reptiles, birds,
arachnids, and camels
have enabled them to
thrive in deserts.
Classifications of
Ecosystems:
2. Aquatic Ecosystem
• It is found in a body of
water.
Classifications Marine Ecosystems
of Aquatic
Ecosystems Freshwater Ecosystems
Aquatic Ecosystems:
Marine Ecosystem

• It is considered the
largest ecosystem,
covering about 71% of
Earth’s surface.
• Water has high
amount of salts and
other minerals.
Aquatic Ecosystems:
Marine Ecosystem
• It includes:
üoceans
üestuaries
üsalt marshes
ücoral reefs
üintertidal zones
üdeep sea
üsea floor
Aquatic Ecosystems:
Freshwater Ecosystem

• It has minimal amount

of salt and covered
only about 0.8% of
Earth’s surface and
makes up only about
0.009% of Earth’s total
surface.
Aquatic Ecosystems:
Freshwater Ecosystem

• It includes:
ürivers
üponds
üsprings
üwetlands
Aquatic Ecosystems:
Freshwater Ecosystem

• Freshwater fishes,
reptiles, snails, crabs,
algae, and plants are
usually found in this
ecosystem.
 Lotic
Kinds of
Freshwater
Ecosystems
Lentic
Kinds of Freshwater
Ecosystems
1. Lotic (slow-moving
or still moving)
üponds
ülakes
Kinds of Freshwater
Ecosystems

2. Lentic (fast-
moving or
flowing water)
üstreams
ürivers
üwetlands
 Niche
It refers to the role
of an organisms or
species in its
ecosystem.
It includes the way the
species interacts with
biotic and abiotic
components of the
environment.
Two Important Aspects in a Species’ Niche
Food it eats and the way species obtain food.
• Each species eats eats different type of food and obtain them in different ways.

Habitat
• It pertains to the physical environment in which the species live and have
adapted.
• It provides food, shelter, and other resources that certain species need to
survive.
• The size depends on the size and the needs of each species.
üExample: An elephant requires larger habitat than a deer or lion.
Habitat
Any given habitat contains a different set of
species, and each species has a different
niche.
Two or more species cannot occupy the same
niche for a long period of time.
Competitive
Exclusion Principle
• If two or more
organisms were to
occupy the same space,
they would compete for
the same food, territory,
and resources they
need.
Competitive
Exclusion Principle
• Eventually, one would
likely out-compete the
other and replace it.
Energy Flow in
the Environment
•Earth is bombarded
with enough sunlight
every day to supply
the needs of all
organisms.
 Producer
Roles of
Organisms in
the Flow of Consumer
Energy in the
Environment
Decomposer
Producers
• They are
organisms that
can produce their
own food.
• They are also
referred to as
autotrophs.
 Chemosynthetic
Autotrophs
Types of
Autotrophs
Photosynthetic
Autotrophs
A. Chemosynthetic
Autotrophs
• These are organisms
that utilize chemicals
in their environment
to synthesize their
food instead of
sunlight.
üExamples: bacteria
and microorganisms
B. Photosynthetic
Autotrophs
• These are organisms that
produce their own food using
sunlight, water, and carbon
dioxide through the process
of photosynthesis.
B. Photosynthetic
Autotrophs
• They can utilize and transform
the energy from sunt into
usable forms for other
organisms. This energy is
stored in starch, which is the
product of photosynthesis.
• Examples:
üplants
üalgae
üsome unicellular organisms
Consumers
• These are organisms
that depend on
other organisms for
food.
• They are also called
heterotrophs.
Classification of heterotrophs according to
what they eat:

1. Herbivores
2. Carnivores
3. Omnivores
Herbivores
•They consume
producers such as
algae and plants.
Carnivores
• They consume other
animals.
• They are unable to digest
plants.
• Examples:
ülions
üpolar bears
üsharks
Omnivores
• These are organisms that can
consume both plants and
animals.
• They include human, brown
bear, some birds, and other
species of fish.
Decomposers
• They are responsible for
breaking down other
organisms’ remains and
other wastes.
• They release the simple
organic molecules to the
environment.
Decomposers
• These molecules can be
used again by plants to
make new organic
molecules.
 Scavengers
Types of
Decomposers Detritivores

Saprotrophs
Scavengers
• They consume soft tissues of
dead organisms.
üExamples: vultures, racoons
Detritivores
• They feed on detritus
composed of dead leaves,
animal feces, and other
organic debris in soil at the
bottom of the bodies of
water.
Detritivores
Examples:
üearthworms
üdung beetle
üsea cucumbers
üsome species of snails
Saprotrophs
• They mainly feed on
anything organic matter left
by other decomposers.
• Examples:
üfungi
ücertain species of
bacteria and protozoa
Food Links Among Producers and Consumers in
the Ecosystems

Food Chain

Food Web
Food Chains
• It represents a single
pathway of events in which
energy and matter flow in
an ecosystem.
• The first link in a food chain
is always the producer.
 Food Chain
The producer will be consumed by the primary consumer
(herbivore)

producer will be consumed by another producer (carnivore)

The last consumer will die

Decomposer will break down the remains of the last

consumer
The path of energy and matter from
the producers to the decomposers
show a linear food chain.

There are several alternative

pathways through which energy and
matter flow.
Food Web
• It is a set of overlapping food
chains.
• It is a complex network of
interconnected food chains that
represent the feeding
relationships among organisms
in an ecosystem.
Food Web
• It demonstrates that most
organisms eat and are eaten by
more than one organisms.
Trophic Levels
• It is the feeding
positions in the food
chain and food web.
Trophic Levels
• It represents the
hierarchical positions of
organisms in a food chain
or food web based on
how they obtain energy
and nutrients.
Trophic Levels
• Producers are in the first
trophic level.
• Herbivores are in the second
trophic level.
• Carnivores are in the third
trophic level.
• Energy is passed on from each
trophic level to the next.
Trophic Levels
• The energy that the
organisms obtain from their
food is used to carry out life
processes such as digestion,
respiration, and movement.
• Some of these energy are
lost to the environment.
Although the biosphere receives a constant supply of energy
from the sun, the chemicals and nutrients must be recycled.

These chemicals are essential to living things to survive and

supply must be continuous.

The recycling of matter involves specific interactions between

biotic and abiotic factors in the ecosystem.

These cycles are collectively known as biochemical cycles.

 Biochemical Cycles
Water Cycle

Oxygen-Carbon Cycle

Nitrogen Cycle
Biochemical Cycles:
Water Cycle
• Water is essential to life.
• Water circulates
continuously between
Earth’s surface and
atmosphere.
 Evaporation/Transpiration
Process of
Water Condensation
Cycle
Precipitation
Water Cycle:
Evaporation
• It is the process of
changing water from
liquid into gas. It
occurs when surface
water is heated by the
sun.
Water Cycle:
Evaporation
• Transpiration is the
evaporation of water
from plants’ body.
Water Cycle:
Evaporation
• Water vapor (gaseous state of
water), is less dense than the
surrounding air.
• As a result, it rises into the
upper atmosphere, where
lower temperatures cause it
to cool and condense into
liquid droplets or ice crystals.
Water Cycle:
Condensation
• It turns water vapor into
liquid, forming water
droplets.
• The water droplets form
the clouds.
Water Cycle:
Precipitation
• When the droplets are
heavy enough, they fall as
precipitation in the form
of rain, snow, sleet, or
hail.
Water Cycle:
Precipitation
• Most precipitation fall in
the ocean, while some
fall on the ground to be
used by many organisms.
Evaporation,
Condensation,
Precipitation
The cycle continuous
and repeats itself.
Biochemical Cycles: Oxygen-Carbon Cycle
Plants release oxygen (byproduct of photosynthesis)

Oxygen is used by animals

Animals will breakdown sugar molecules from food they eat and
release carbon dioxide through cellular respiration

Carbon dioxide will be used by plants in photosynt esis

Carbon is stored in the body of tissues of living organisms.

The stored carbon returns to the cycle via two - decomposition

processes: - combustion

All living things will eventually die and decompose

Decomposers (fungi and microorganisms) play an important role in

decomposing dead organic matters.

Carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere during decomposition.

In some cases, the carbon is not released immediately.

It is stored deep down in the ground.

With the right conditions, it becomes the fossil fuel that

is used for vehicles and engines.

Carbon stored as fossil is released back into the

atmosphere when used in combustion.
 There is roughly 78% of nitrogen in Earth’s
atmosphere.

Biochemical Nitrogen on air is “free” nitrogen as it is

not yet combined with other elements.
Cycles:
Nitrogen Nitrogen is necessary for building proteins
and body chemicals.
Cycle
Plants, animals and most fungi cannot use
free nitrogen. It must first undergo certain
processes to be converted into usable forms.
 Nitrogen Fixation
Processes Ammonification
of Nitrogen
Cycle Nitrification
Denitrification
Nitrogen Fixation
• The nitrogen in the
atmosphere must be
processed, or “fixed” to
be used by plants.
Nitrogen Fixation
• Nitrogen fixation may
occur when lightning
strikes.
• Nitrogen fixation is done
by nitrogen-fixing bacteria
present in the soil or in the
roots of certain plants.
Nitrogen Fixation
Gaseous nitrogen + Hydrogen

Ammonia

Converted into organic compounds

• Plants obtain nitrogen from soil
by root absorption in the form of
nitrate ions, or ammonia ions.
• Most nitrogen in animals are
obtained by eating plants or
other animals that consume
plants (in the case of carnivores).
Ammonification
• When a pant or animals die
or defecate, nitrogen is
returned into the soil.
Ammonification
• Ammonification is a process
where organic nitrogen from
dead organisms, waste
products, and other organic
materials is converted into
ammonia (NH₃) or ammonium
ions (NH₄⁺) by the action of
decomposers, such as bacteria
and fungi.
Nitrification
• It is a process where
ammonia (NH₃) or
ammonium ions (NH₄⁺)
are converted into nitrites
(NO₂⁻) and then into
nitrates (NO₃⁻) by
specialized nitrifying
bacteria.
Denitrification
• It is a process where nitrate
ions (NO₃⁻) are converted
back into nitrogen gas (N₂) or
nitrous oxide (N₂O), which are
released into the atmosphere
to join the reserved “free”
nitrogen.
 Nitrogen Fixation

Nitrogen Ammonification
Cycle Nitrification
Denitrification
 Illegal logging

Human Excessive illegal mining

Activities
Throwing of garbage in the bodies of
that Affect water
the Poaching – illegal hunting, killing, or collecting
Ecosystem animals specifically wild and endangered
animals
Increased carbon in the atmosphere – affects
Earth’s greenhouse gases, increasing its
temperature.
Human Activities that Affect the Ecosystem
Sources of carbon:
ücombustion of fuel
üburning of coal
If these harmful activities continue, they
will pose severe threats to the balance
and sustainability of our world’s
ecosystem in the near future.
Prepared: Eden J. Loredo