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Computer Vision
This page intentionally left blank
 Computer Vision
Principles, Algorithms,
Applications, Learning
Fifth Edition

E.R. Davies
Royal Holloway, University of London, United Kingdom
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom
525 B Street, Suite 1800, San Diego, CA 92101-4495, United States
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 This book is dedicated to my family.
To my late mother, Mary Davies, to record her never-failing love
and devotion.
To my late father, Arthur Granville Davies, who passed on to me
his appreciation of the beauties of mathematics and science.
To my wife, Joan, for love, patience, support, and inspiration.
To my children, Elizabeth, Sarah, and Marion, the music in my life.
To my grandchildren, Jasper, Jerome, Eva, and Tara, for constantly
reminding me of the carefree joys of youth!
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
About the Author....................................................................................................xxi
Foreword .............................................................................................................. xxiii
Preface to the Fifth Edition ...................................................................................xxv
Preface to the First Edition ................................................................................ xxvii
Acknowledgments ................................................................................................xxxi
Topics Covered in Application Case Studies .....................................................xxxv
Glossary of Acronyms and Abbreviations .........................................................xxxix

CHAPTER 1 Vision, the challenge.................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction—Man and His Senses ...............................................1
1.2 The Nature of Vision .....................................................................2
1.2.1 The Process of Recognition................................................ 2
1.2.2 Tackling the Recognition Problem ..................................... 4
1.2.3 Object Location................................................................... 6
1.2.4 Scene Analysis .................................................................... 9
1.2.5 Vision as Inverse Graphics ................................................. 9
1.3 From Automated Visual Inspection to Surveillance ...................10
1.4 What This Book Is About ............................................................12
1.5 The Part Played by Machine Learning ........................................13
1.6 The Following Chapters...............................................................14
1.7 Bibliographical Notes...................................................................15

PART 1 LOW-LEVEL VISION

CHAPTER 2 Images and imaging operations ................................. 19
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................19
2.1.1 Gray Scale Versus Color .................................................. 21
2.2 Image Processing Operations.......................................................24
2.2.1 Some Basic Operations on Grayscale Images.................. 25
2.2.2 Basic Operations on Binary Images ................................. 29
2.3 Convolutions and Point Spread Functions...................................33
2.4 Sequential Versus Parallel Operations.........................................35
2.5 Concluding Remarks ....................................................................36
2.6 Bibliographical and Historical Notes...........................................37
2.7 Problems .......................................................................................37

vii
viii Contents

CHAPTER 3 Image filtering and morphology ................................. 39

3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................40
3.2 Noise Suppression by Gaussian Smoothing ................................42
3.3 Median Filters ..............................................................................44
3.4 Mode Filters .................................................................................46
3.5 Rank Order Filters........................................................................53
3.6 Sharp
Unsharp Masking .............................................................54
3.7 Shifts Introduced by Median Filters ............................................56
3.7.1 Continuum Model of Median Shifts................................. 57
3.7.2 Generalization to Grayscale Images ................................. 58
3.7.3 Discrete Model of Median Shifts ..................................... 60
3.8 Shifts Introduced by Rank Order Filters .....................................61
3.8.1 Shifts in Rectangular Neighborhoods............................... 62
3.9 The Role of Filters in Industrial Applications of Vision ............66
3.10 Color in Image Filtering ..............................................................68
3.11 Dilation and Erosion in Binary Images .......................................69
3.11.1 Dilation and Erosion ....................................................... 69
3.11.2 Cancellation Effects ........................................................ 69
3.11.3 Modified Dilation and Erosion Operators ...................... 70
3.12 Mathematical Morphology...........................................................70
3.12.1 Generalized Morphological Dilation .............................. 70
3.12.2 Generalized Morphological Erosion............................... 72
3.12.3 Duality Between Dilation and Erosion........................... 72
3.12.4 Properties of Dilation and Erosion Operators ................ 73
3.12.5 Closing and Opening ...................................................... 76
3.12.6 Summary of Basic Morphological Operations............... 78
3.13 Morphological Grouping..............................................................79
3.14 Morphology in Grayscale Images................................................84
3.15 Concluding Remarks ....................................................................86
3.16 Bibliographical and Historical Notes...........................................87
3.16.1 More Recent Developments............................................ 89
3.17 Problems .......................................................................................90

CHAPTER 4 The role of thresholding ............................................. 93

4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................93
4.2 Region-Growing Methods............................................................94
4.3 Thresholding.................................................................................95
4.3.1 Finding a Suitable Threshold............................................ 95
4.3.2 Tackling the Problem of Bias in Threshold
Selection ............................................................................ 97
 Contents ix

4.4 Adaptive Thresholding.................................................................97

4.4.1 Local Thresholding Methods ............................................ 98
4.5 More Thoroughgoing Approaches to Threshold Selection .......101
4.5.1 Variance-Based Thresholding......................................... 101
4.5.2 Entropy-Based Thresholding .......................................... 104
4.5.3 Maximum Likelihood Thresholding............................... 105
4.6 The Global Valley Approach to Thresholding ..........................106
4.7 Practical Results Obtained Using the Global Valley
Method........................................................................................108
4.8 Histogram Concavity Analysis ..................................................113
4.9 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................115
4.10 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................116
4.10.1 More Recent Developments.......................................... 117
4.11 Problems .....................................................................................118

CHAPTER 5 Edge detection .......................................................... 119

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................119
5.2 Basic Theory of Edge Detection................................................120
5.3 The Template Matching Approach ............................................123
5.4 Theory of 3 3 3 Template Operators.........................................123
5.5 The Design of Differential Gradient Operators.........................125
5.6 The Concept of a Circular Operator ..........................................126
5.7 Detailed Implementation of Circular Operators ........................127
5.8 The Systematic Design of Differential Edge Operators............130
5.9 Problems with the Above Approach—Some Alternative
Schemes ......................................................................................130
5.10 Hysteresis Thresholding .............................................................134
5.11 The Canny Operator...................................................................136
5.12 The Laplacian Operator .............................................................139
5.13 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................143
5.14 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................144
5.14.1 More Recent Developments.......................................... 145
5.15 Problems .....................................................................................145

CHAPTER 6 Corner, interest point, and invariant feature

detection ................................................................... 147
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................147
6.2 Template Matching ....................................................................148
6.3 Second-Order Derivative Schemes ............................................149
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x Contents

6.4 A Median Filter
based Corner Detector ..................................151

6.4.1 Analyzing the Operation of the Median Detector.......... 152
6.4.2 Practical Results.............................................................. 154
6.5 The Harris Interest Point Operator ............................................156
6.5.1 Corner Signals and Shifts for Various Geometric
Configurations................................................................. 159
6.5.2 Performance with Crossing Points and
T-junctions ...................................................................... 160
6.5.3 Different Forms of the Harris Operator.......................... 163
6.6 Corner Orientation......................................................................164
6.7 Local Invariant Feature Detectors and Descriptors...................166
6.7.1 Geometric Transformations and Feature
Normalization.................................................................. 167
6.7.2 Harris Scale and Affine Invariant Detectors and
Descriptors ...................................................................... 169
6.7.3 Hessian Scale and Affine Invariant Detectors and
Descriptors ...................................................................... 171
6.7.4 The Scale Invariant Feature Transforms
Operator........................................................................... 171
6.7.5 The Speeded-Up Robust Features
Operator........................................................................... 172
6.7.6 Maximally Stable Extremal Regions.............................. 174
6.7.7 Comparison of the Various Invariant Feature
Detectors.......................................................................... 175
6.7.8 Histograms of Oriented Gradients .................................. 177
6.8 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................179
6.9 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................180
6.9.1 More Recent Developments............................................ 182
6.10 Problems .....................................................................................183

CHAPTER 7 Texture analysis........................................................ 185

7.1 Introduction ................................................................................185
7.2 Some Basic Approaches to Texture Analysis ...........................188
7.3 Graylevel Co-occurrence Matrices ............................................190
7.4 Laws’ Texture Energy Approach...............................................193
7.5 Ade’s Eigenfilter Approach .......................................................195
7.6 Appraisal of the Laws and Ade Approaches .............................197
7.7 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................198
7.8 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................199
7.8.1 More Recent Developments............................................ 200
 Contents xi

PART 2 INTERMEDIATE-LEVEL VISION

CHAPTER 8 Binary shape analysis............................................... 203
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................203
8.2 Connectedness in Binary Images ...............................................204
8.3 Object Labeling and Counting...................................................205
8.3.1 Solving the Labeling Problem in a More
Complex Case ................................................................. 209
8.4 Size Filtering ..............................................................................212
8.5 Distance Functions and Their Uses ...........................................214
8.5.1 Local Maxima and Data Compression ........................... 216
8.6 Skeletons and Thinning..............................................................218
8.6.1 Crossing Number ............................................................ 219
8.6.2 Parallel and Sequential Implementations
of Thinning...................................................................... 221
8.6.3 Guided Thinning ............................................................. 224
8.6.4 A Comment on the Nature of the Skeleton.................... 224
8.6.5 Skeleton Node Analysis.................................................. 225
8.6.6 Application of Skeletons for Shape Recognition ........... 227
8.7 Other Measures for Shape Recognition.....................................227
8.8 Boundary Tracking Procedures..................................................230
8.9 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................231
8.10 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................232
8.10.1 More Recent Developments.......................................... 233
8.11 Problems .....................................................................................234

CHAPTER 9 Boundary pattern analysis ........................................ 239

9.1 Introduction ................................................................................239
9.2 Boundary Tracking Procedures..................................................242
9.3 Centroidal Profiles......................................................................242
9.4 Problems with the Centroidal Profile Approach .......................243
9.4.1 Some Solutions ............................................................... 245
9.5 The (s,ψ) Plot .............................................................................247
9.6 Tackling the Problems of Occlusion .........................................249
9.7 Accuracy of Boundary Length Measures ..................................252
9.8 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................253
9.9 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................254
9.9.1 More Recent Developments............................................ 255
9.10 Problems .....................................................................................256
xii Contents

CHAPTER 10 Line, circle, and ellipse detection........................... 259

10.1 Introduction ................................................................................259
10.2 Application of the Hough Transform to Line Detection...........261
10.2.1 Longitudinal Line Localization .................................... 264
10.3 The Foot-of-Normal Method .....................................................265
10.3.1 Application of the Foot-of-Normal Method................. 266
10.4 Using RANSAC for Straight Line Detection ............................267
10.5 Location of Laparoscopic Tools ................................................272
10.6 Hough-Based Schemes for Circular Object Detection..............273
10.7 The Problem of Unknown Circle Radius ..................................278
10.7.1 Practical Results............................................................ 279
10.8 Overcoming the Speed Problem ................................................279
10.8.1 Practical Results............................................................ 281
10.9 Ellipse Detection ........................................................................284
10.9.1 The Diameter Bisection Method .................................. 284
10.9.2 The Chord
Tangent Method........................................ 286
10.9.3 Finding the Remaining Ellipse Parameters .................. 287
10.10 Human Iris Location ..................................................................289
10.11 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................290
10.12 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................292
10.12.1 More Recent Developments........................................ 294
10.13 Problems .....................................................................................295

CHAPTER 11 The generalized Hough transform............................ 299

11.1 Introduction ................................................................................299
11.2 The Generalized Hough Transform ...........................................300
11.3 The Relevance of Spatial Matched Filtering.............................302
11.4 Gradient Weighting Versus Uniform Weighting.......................304
11.4.1 Calculation of Sensitivity and Computational Load .... 306
11.4.2 Summary ....................................................................... 307
11.5 Use of the GHT for Ellipse Detection.......................................308
11.5.1 Practical Details ............................................................ 310
11.6 Comparing the Various Methods for Ellipse Detection............312
11.7 A Graph-Theoretic Approach to Object Location.....................314
11.7.1 A Practical Example—Locating Cream Biscuits ......... 318
11.8 Possibilities for Saving Computation ........................................319
11.9 Using the GHT for Feature Collation........................................323
11.9.1 Computational Load...................................................... 325
11.10 Generalizing the Maximal Clique and Other Approaches ........326
11.11 Search .........................................................................................327
 Contents xiii

11.12 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................328

11.13 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................329
11.13.1 More Recent Developments........................................ 333
11.14 Problems .....................................................................................334

CHAPTER 12 Object segmentation and shape models .................. 341

12.1 Introduction ................................................................................341
12.2 Active Contours..........................................................................342
12.3 Practical Results Obtained Using Active Contours...................344
12.4 The Level-Set Approach to Object Segmentation.....................346
12.5 Shape Models .............................................................................348
12.5.1 Locating Objects Using Shape Models ........................ 353
12.6 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................359
12.7 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................360

PART 3 MACHINE LEARNING AND DEEP LEARNING

NETWORKS
CHAPTER 13 Basic classification concepts .................................. 365
13.1 Introduction ................................................................................365
13.2 The Nearest Neighbor Algorithm ..............................................367
13.3 Bayes’ Decision Theory.............................................................369
13.3.1 The Naı̈ve Bayes’ Classifier ......................................... 371
13.4 Relation of the Nearest Neighbor and Bayes’ Approaches ......372
13.4.1 Mathematical Statement of the Problem ...................... 372
13.4.2 The Importance of the Nearest Neighbor
Algorithm ...................................................................... 374
13.5 The Optimum Number of Features............................................375
13.6 Cost Functions and Error
Reject Tradeoff...............................376
13.7 Supervised and Unsupervised Learning ....................................377
13.8 Cluster Analysis .........................................................................379
13.9 The Support Vector Machine.....................................................381
13.10 Artificial Neural Networks.........................................................383
13.11 The Back-Propagation Algorithm..............................................388
13.12 Multilayer Perceptron Architectures..........................................391
13.13 Overfitting to the Training Data ................................................392
13.14 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................395
13.15 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................396
13.15.1 More Recent Developments........................................ 398
13.16 Problems .....................................................................................398
xiv Contents

CHAPTER 14 Machine learning: probabilistic methods................ 399

14.1 Introduction ................................................................................399
14.2 Mixtures of Gaussians and the EM Algorithm..........................402
14.2.1 Details of the Expectation Maximization
Algorithm ...................................................................... 405
14.3 A More General View of the EM Algorithm............................408
14.4 Some Practical Examples...........................................................411
14.5 Principal Components Analysis .................................................419
14.6 Multiple Classifiers ....................................................................422
14.7 The Boosting Approach .............................................................425
14.8 Modeling AdaBoost ...................................................................428
14.8.1 Real AdaBoost .............................................................. 430
14.9 Loss Functions for Boosting ......................................................431
14.10 The LogitBoost Algorithm.........................................................435
14.11 The Effectiveness of Boosting ...................................................438
14.12 Boosting with Multiple Classes .................................................438
14.13 The Receiver Operating Characteristic......................................443
14.13.1 Performance Measures Relating to
Error Rates .................................................................. 446
14.14 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................447
14.15 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................448
14.16 Problems .....................................................................................451

CHAPTER 15 Deep-learning networks............................................ 453

15.1 Introduction ................................................................................453
15.2 Convolutional Neural Networks ................................................456
15.3 Parameters for Defining CNN Architectures.............................459
15.4 LeCun et al.’s LeNet Architecture ............................................463
15.5 Krizhevsky et al.’s AlexNet Architecture .................................468
15.6 Zeiler and Fergus’s Work on CNN Architectures.....................474
15.7 Zeiler and Fergus’s Visualization Experiments ........................477
15.8 Simonyan and Zisserman’s VGGNet Architecture ...................479
15.9 Noh et al.’s DeconvNet Architecture ........................................481
15.10 Badrinarayanan et al.’s SegNet Architecture ............................484
15.11 Recurrent Neural Networks .......................................................487
15.12 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................490
15.13 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................492
 Contents xv

PART 4 3D VISION AND MOTION

CHAPTER 16 The three-dimensional world ................................... 497
16.1 Introduction ................................................................................497
16.2 Three-Dimensional Vision—The Variety of Methods..............498
16.3 Projection Schemes for Three-Dimensional Vision ..................500
16.3.1 Binocular Images .......................................................... 502
16.3.2 The Correspondence Problem....................................... 504
16.4 Shape from Shading ...................................................................506
16.5 Photometric Stereo .....................................................................511
16.6 The Assumption of Surface Smoothness...................................514
16.7 Shape from Texture....................................................................515
16.8 Use of Structured Lighting ........................................................516
16.9 Three-Dimensional Object Recognition Schemes.....................518
16.10 Horaud’s Junction Orientation Technique .................................519
16.11 An Important Paradigm—Location of Industrial Parts .............523
16.12 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................525
16.13 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................526
16.13.1 More Recent Developments........................................ 528
16.14 Problems .....................................................................................529

CHAPTER 17 Tackling the perspective n-point problem............... 533

17.1 Introduction ................................................................................533
17.2 The Phenomenon of Perspective Inversion ...............................534
17.3 Ambiguity of Pose Under Weak Perspective Projection ..........535
17.4 Obtaining Unique Solutions to the Pose Problem.....................538
17.4.1 Solution of the Three-Point Problem............................ 542
17.4.2 Using Symmetric Trapezia for Estimating Pose .......... 543
17.5 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................544
17.6 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................545
17.6.1 More Recent Developments.......................................... 546
17.7 Problems .....................................................................................547

CHAPTER 18 Invariants and perspective ....................................... 549

18.1 Introduction ................................................................................549
18.2 Cross Ratios: The “Ratio of Ratios” Concept ...........................551
18.3 Invariants for Noncollinear Points .............................................555
18.3.1 Further Remarks About the 5-Point Configuration...... 558
18.4 Invariants for Points on Conics..................................................559
xvi Contents

18.5 Differential and Semidifferential Invariants..............................561

18.6 Symmetric Cross-Ratio Functions .............................................564
18.7 Vanishing Point Detection .........................................................565
18.8 More on Vanishing Points .........................................................568
18.9 Apparent Centers of Circles and Ellipses..................................569
18.10 Perspective Effects in Art and Photography..............................572
18.11 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................579
18.12 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................581
18.12.1 More Recent Developments........................................ 582
18.13 Problems .....................................................................................583

CHAPTER 19 Image transformations and camera calibration ...... 585

19.1 Introduction ................................................................................585
19.2 Image Transformations ..............................................................586
19.3 Camera Calibration ....................................................................590
19.4 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Parameters .............................................592
19.5 Correcting for Radial Distortions ..............................................595
19.6 Multiple View Vision.................................................................597
19.7 Generalized Epipolar Geometry ................................................598
19.8 The Essential Matrix ..................................................................599
19.9 The Fundamental Matrix............................................................601
19.10 Properties of the Essential and Fundamental Matrices .............602
19.11 Estimating the Fundamental Matrix ..........................................603
19.12 An Update on the Eight-Point Algorithm..................................603
19.13 Image Rectification ....................................................................604
19.14 3-D Reconstruction ....................................................................605
19.15 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................608
19.16 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................608
19.16.1 More Recent Developments........................................ 609
19.17 Problems .....................................................................................610

CHAPTER 20 Motion ....................................................................... 611

20.1 Introduction ................................................................................611
20.2 Optical Flow ...............................................................................612
20.3 Interpretation of Optical Flow Fields ........................................615
20.4 Using Focus of Expansion to Avoid Collision..........................617
20.5 Time-to-Adjacency Analysis......................................................618
20.6 Basic Difficulties with the Optical Flow Model .......................620
20.7 Stereo from Motion ....................................................................621
 Contents xvii

20.8 The Kalman Filter ......................................................................623

20.9 Wide Baseline Matching............................................................625
20.10 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................627
20.11 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................627
20.12 Problem.......................................................................................628

PART 5 PUTTING COMPUTER VISION TO WORK

CHAPTER 21 Face detection and recognition: the impact
of deep learning........................................................ 631
21.1Introduction ................................................................................631
21.2A Simple Approach to Face Detection......................................632
21.3Facial Feature Detection ............................................................634
21.4The Viola
Jones Approach to Rapid Face Detection ..............636
21.5The Eigenface Approach to Face Recognition..........................640
21.6More on the Difficulties of Face Recognition...........................643
21.7Frontalization..............................................................................645
21.8The Sun et al. DeepID Face Representation System ................649
21.9Fast Face Detection Revisited....................................................654
21.9.1 Even More Powerful Object Detection
Schemes......................................................................... 656
21.10 The Face as Part of a 3-D Object ..............................................657
21.11 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................659
21.12 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................661

CHAPTER 22 Surveillance .............................................................. 663

22.1 Introduction ................................................................................664
22.2 Surveillance—The Basic Geometry ..........................................665
22.3 Foreground
Background Separation ........................................669
22.3.1 Background Modeling................................................... 669
22.3.2 Practical Examples of Background Modeling.............. 675
22.3.3 Direct Detection of the Foreground.............................. 677
22.4 Particle Filters ............................................................................678
22.5 Use of Color Histograms for Tracking......................................684
22.6 Implementation of Particle Filters .............................................688
22.7 Chamfer Matching, Tracking, and Occlusion ...........................691
22.8 Combining Views from Multiple Cameras ...............................693
22.8.1 The Case of Nonoverlapping Fields of View............... 697
xviii Contents

22.9 Applications to the Monitoring of Traffic Flow .......................698

22.9.1 The System of Bascle et al........................................... 698
22.9.2 The System of Koller et al. .......................................... 700
22.10 License Plate Location ...............................................................702
22.11 Occlusion Classification for Tracking .......................................705
22.12 Distinguishing Pedestrians by Their Gait ..................................708
22.13 Human Gait Analysis .................................................................711
22.14 Model-based Tracking of Animals ............................................713
22.15 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................716
22.16 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................717
22.16.1 More Recent Developments........................................ 719
22.17 Problem.......................................................................................720

CHAPTER 23 In-vehicle vision systems ......................................... 721

23.1 Introduction ................................................................................721
23.2 Locating the Roadway ...............................................................723
23.3 Location of Road Markings .......................................................725
23.4 Location of Road Signs..............................................................726
23.5 Location of Vehicles ..................................................................728
23.6 Information Obtained by Viewing License Plates
and Other Structural Features ....................................................731
23.7 Locating Pedestrians ..................................................................734
23.8 Guidance and Egomotion...........................................................739
23.8.1 A Simple Path-Planning Algorithm.............................. 742
23.9 Vehicle Guidance in Agriculture ...............................................742
23.9.1 3-D Aspects of the Task ............................................... 746
23.9.2 Real-Time Implementation ........................................... 747
23.10 Concluding Remarks ..................................................................747
23.11 More Detailed Developments and Bibliographies
Relating to Advanced Driver Assistance Systems ....................749
23.11.1 Developments in Vehicle Detection ........................... 750
23.11.2 Developments in Pedestrian Detection....................... 752
23.11.3 Developments in Road and Lane Detection............... 754
23.11.4 Developments in Road Sign Detection ...................... 755
23.11.5 Developments in Path Planning, Navigation,
and Egomotion ............................................................ 757
23.12 Problem.......................................................................................757
 Contents xix

CHAPTER 24 Epilogue—Perspectives in vision ............................ 759

24.1 Introduction ................................................................................759
24.2 Parameters of Importance in Machine Vision ...........................760
24.3 Tradeoffs.....................................................................................762
24.3.1 Some Important Tradeoffs ............................................ 762
24.3.2 Tradeoffs for Two-Stage Template Matching.............. 763
24.4 Moore’s Law in Action..............................................................764
24.5 Hardware, Algorithms, and Processes .......................................765
24.6 The Importance of Choice of Representation............................766
24.7 Past, Present, and Future............................................................767
24.8 The Deep Learning Explosion ...................................................768
24.9 Bibliographical and Historical Notes.........................................769

Appendix A: Robust statistics ...............................................................................771

Appendix B: The sampling theorem .....................................................................789
Appendix C: The representation of color .............................................................793
Appendix D: Sampling from distributions............................................................797
References..............................................................................................................801
Index ......................................................................................................................847
Visit https://textbookfull.com
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About the Author
Roy Davies is Emeritus Professor of Machine Vision at
Royal Holloway, University of London, United Kingdom.
He has worked on many aspects of vision, from feature
detection and noise suppression to robust pattern
matching and real-time implementations of practical
vision tasks. His interests include automated visual
inspection, surveillance, vehicle guidance, and crime
detection. He has published more than 200 papers and
three books—Machine Vision: Theory, Algorithms,
Practicalities (1990), Electronics, Noise and Signal
Recovery (1993), and Image Processing for the Food
Industry (2000); the first of these has been widely used internationally for more
than 25 years, and is now out in this much enhanced fifth edition. Roy is a fellow
of the IoP and the IET, and a senior member of the IEEE. He is on the Editorial
Boards of Pattern Recognition Letters, Real-Time Image Processing, Imaging
Science, and IET Image Processing. He holds a DSc from the University of
London, he was awarded BMVA Distinguished Fellow in 2005, and Fellow of the
International Association of Pattern Recognition in 2008.

xxi
This page intentionally left blank
Foreword
It is an honor to write a foreword for Roy Davies’ new edition of Computer and
Machine Vision, now entitled Computer Vision: Principles, Algorithms,
Applications, Learning. This is one of the major books in Computer Vision and
not just for its longevity, having now reached its Fifth Edition. It is actually a
splendid achievement to reach this status and it reflects not only on the tenacity
and commitment of its author, but also on the achievements of the book itself.
Computer Vision has shown awesome progress in its short history. This is part
due to technology: computers are much faster and memory is now much cheaper
than they were in the early days when Roy started his research. There have been
many achievements and many developments. All of this can affect the evolution
of a textbook. There have been excellent textbooks in the past, which were neither
continued nor maintained. That has been avoided here as the textbook has contin-
ued to mature with the field and its many developments.
We can look forward to a future where automated computer vision systems
will make our lives easier while enriching them too. There are already many
applications of Computer Vision in the food industry and robotic cars that will be
with us very soon. Then there are continuing advancements in medical image
analysis, where Computer Vision techniques can be used to aid in diagnosis and
therapy by automated means. Even accessing a mobile phone is considerably
more convenient when using a fingerprint and access by face recognition con-
tinues to improve. These have all come about due to advancements in computers,
Computer Vision, and applied artificial intelligence.
Adherents of Computer Vision will know it to be an exciting field indeed. It
manages to cover many aspects of technology from human vision to machine
learning requiring electronic hardware, computer implementations, and a lot of
computer software. Roy continues to cover these in excellent detail.
I remember the First Edition when it was first published in 1990 with its
unique and pragmatic blend of theory, implementation, and algorithms. I am
pleased to see that the Fifth Edition maintains this unique approach, much appre-
ciated by students in previous editions who wanted an accessible introduction to
Computer Vision. It has certainly increased in size with age, and that is often the
way with books. It is most certainly the way with Computer Vision since many of
its researchers continue to improve, refine, and develop new techniques.
A major change here is the inclusion of Deep Learning. Indeed, this has been
a major change in the field of Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition. One
implication of the increase in computing power and the reduction of memory cost
is that techniques can become considerably more complex, and that complexity
lends itself to application in the analysis of “big data.” One cannot ignore the per-
formance of deep learning and convolutional neural networks: one only has to
peruse the program of top international conferences to perceive their revolution-
ary effect on research direction. Naturally, it is early days but it is good to have

xxiii
xxiv Foreword

guidance as we have here. The nature of performance is always in question in any

system in artificial intelligence and part of the way to answer those questions is
to consider more deeply the architectures and their basis. That again is the func-
tion of a textbook for it is the distillation of research and practice in a ratiocinated
exposition. It is a brave move to include Deep Learning in this edition, but a nec-
essary one.
And what of Roy Davies himself? Following his DPhil in Solid State Physics
at Oxford, he later developed a new sensitive method in Nuclear Resonance
called “Davies-ENDOR” (Electron and Nuclear Double Resonance) which
avoided the blind spots of its predecessor “Mims-ENDOR.” In 1970 he was
appointed as a lecturer at Royal Holloway and a long series of publications in pat-
tern recognition and its applications led to the award of his Personal Chair, his
DSc and then the Distinguished Fellow of the British Machine Vision Association
(BMVA), 2005. He has served the BMVA in many ways, latterly editing its
Newsletter. Clearly the level of his work and his many contacts and papers have
contributed much to the material that is found herein.
I look forward to having this Fifth Edition sitting proudly in my shelf, repla-
cing the Fourth that will in turn pass to one of my student’s shelves. It will not
stop there for long for it is one of the textbooks I often turn to for the information
I need. Unlike the snapshots to be found on the Web, in a textbook I find it
placed in context and in sequence and with extension to other material. That is
the function of a textbook and it will be well served by this Fifth Edition.

Mark S. Nixon
University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
July 2017
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promise to spread into a generous shade. At the tea-house where
the great Japanese dinner was given by the local governor, with
maiko and geisha and jugglers performing between the courses,
they still preserve the floor-cushion on which their illustrious guest
was seated, and bring it out to show to favored Americans. To the
Japanese, General Grant and Commodore Perry mean America; nor
could we have sent them better types than the great sailor who
peaceably opened Japan to the world, and the greater soldier who
made use of war only to insure enduring peace.
The Portuguese and Dutch have left records of their occupancy
here in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Francis Xavier and
the Jesuit fathers who succeeded him converted thousands of
Japanese to Christianity, and though it had been supposed that the
persecutions and tortures under Iyeyasu had destroyed the
Christians, the opening of the country after the Restoration
discovered whole communities of them near Nagasaki, who retained
their belief, wore the peculiar dress prescribed for them by the
Jesuits, knew the prayers and forms, and made the sign of the cross.
Nothing in the Book of Martyrs exceeds the tortures and suffering of
these Christians, who would not deny their religion, nor tread upon
the paper picture of Christ, as they were bidden to do. The tradition
goes that at Pappenberg, the precipitous little island at the mouth of
the harbor, thousands of converts were forced by spear-points into
the sea, but the best scholars and authorities now discredit this
wholesale horror, of which no trustworthy record exists.
From 1641 the Dutch lived as prisoners on the little island of
Deshima, where the porcelain bazaar now stands, suffering
incredible restrictions and humiliations for the sake of monopolizing
the trade of the country. Nagasaki’s children and beggars still follow
strangers with the shout, “Hollander san! Hollander san!” as a
remembrance of those first foreign residents, and in curio-shops
queer clocks and ornaments show the adaptation and imitation of
many Dutch articles by the Japanese.
The fact of Nagasaki’s being only a port of call makes its curio
market fluctuate in proportion to the number of merchantmen and
men-of-war in port. When the harbor is full, no resident visits the
curio-shops, whose prices always soar at such times. Tortoise-shell
carving is a great industry of the place, but porcelain is still the
specialty of this southern province, where the art was first
introduced. Those wares of South Japan known anciently as
Nabeshima and Hirado are the finest of Japanese porcelains, their
blue and white beauty being simply perfect. The potters who brought
the art from Korea and China settled in Satsuma and Hizen, and the
kilns of Arita and Kagoshima are still firing. The Dutch carried the
Arita ware to Europe under the name of Hizen. This porcelain is now
more commonly termed Imari, while Deshima is another general
name for the modern product, and Nabeshima and Hirado are the
words used by connoisseurs in vaunting precious wares. This
confusion of names misleads the traveller, who cannot at once
discern that Hizen is the name of the province; Arita of the town
where the potters live and the kilns are at work; Imari of the port from
which it is shipped; Nabeshima the family name of that daimio of
Hizen who brought the potters from Korea; and Hirado of the daimio,
whose factory at Mikawaji, near Arita, produced the exquisite pieces
coveted by all of his fellow-daimios. Modern Imari ware is much too
fascinating and tempting to the slender purse, but when one
acquires a fondness for the exquisite porcelains the old Nabeshima
made for themselves, learns the comb-like lines and the geometrical
and floral marks on the underside that characterize them, and is
aroused to the perception of the incomparable “seven boy” Hirado,
his peace of mind is gone. Genuine old Hirado vases or plates, with
the seven boys at play, or even five boys or three boys, are hardly to
be bought to-day, and the countless commercial imitations of the old
designs do not deceive even the amateur connoisseur. Old Satsuma
is even rarer, and a purchaser needs to be more suspicious of it in
Japan than in London. It is true that the air is full of tales of
impoverished noblemen finally selling their treasures; of forgotten
godowns being rediscovered; and of rich uncles leaving stores of
Hirado and Satsuma to poor relations, whose very rice-box is empty.
But the wise heed not the voice of the charmer. The credulity of the
stranger and the tourist is not greater than the ignorance of residents
who have been in the country for years without learning to beware of
almost everything on which the Emperor’s chrysanthemum crest, the
Tokugawa trefoil, or the Satsuma square and circle stand
conspicuous.
The fine modern Satsuma, all small pieces decorated in
microscopically fine work, is painted chiefly by a few artists in Kioto
and Osaka, and their work and signatures are easily recognized. The
commoner Satsuma—large urns, koros, vases, and plates—is made
in the province of Satsuma and in the Awata district of Kioto, but it is
decorated anywhere—Kobé, Kioto, Yokohama, and Tokio all coating
it with the blaze of cheap gilding that catches and delights the foreign
eye. Once upon a time ship-loads of porcelains, bronzes, and
lacquer were sold for a song; fine bells going for ship ballast, and
ships’ cooks using veritable old Satsuma jars to put their drippings
in. But that time is not now. A collection of old Satsuma lately
gathered up in Europe by a Japanese buyer brought five times its
cost when disposed of in Japan. Some notion of the wealth of art
works, and of the great stores the country contained in the old days,
may be conveyed by the drain of these twenty years, since
Japanese art began to revolutionize the art world. The Restoration,
the Satsuma rebellion, the adoption of foreign dress for the army and
the court, each sent a flood of rare things into the curio market, and
hard times still bring forth treasures. The great collectors and
connoisseurs are now so generally known that sacrifices of choice
curios are made directly to them by private sale, and not in the open
market. Government has begun to realize the irrecoverable loss of
the country, and the necessity of retaining what still remains, and
lists and photographs are being made of all art treasures stored in
the Government and temple godowns throughout the empire. Much
has been destroyed by fire, of course, and it is said that the priests
themselves have put the torch to their temples at the approach of the
official commission that would have discovered what priceless
temple treasures they had sold in times of need. All the Buddhist
establishments suffered loss of revenues after the Restoration, and
only by secretly disposing of the sacred objects in the godowns were
many priests kept from starvation.
While the Dutch were there, Nagasaki had a large trade with
China, and still does a great business with that country in the
exportation of dried fish. It smells to heaven all along the Bund, and
in the court-yards of the large warehouses men and women turn in
the sun and pack into bags oblong brown things that might be either
the billets of wood used in cricket, or old boot-soles. These hard
blocks are the dried bonito which, shaved on a plane, stewed, and
eaten with rice, are a staple of food in both countries, and not
unpalatable, as we found while storm-bound on Fuji.
Almost all the coal used in China and Japan, and by the Asiatic
fleets of the different nations, comes from the mines on the island of
Takashima, at the entrance of Nagasaki’s fiord-like harbor. Cargoes
of it have been sent even to San Francisco with profit, although this
soft and very dirty fuel is much inferior to the Australian coal. The
Takashima mines and the dry-dock at Nagasaki are owned by the
Mitsu Bishi company, which retained those properties when it sold its
steamship line to the Government, and the coal-mine brings in two
million yen a year to its owners. Its deepest shaft is only one
hundred and fifty feet down, and barges carry the coal from the
mouth of the shafts to the waiting ships in harbor.
In 1885, the year of the great cholera epidemic, the village of
mining employés was almost depopulated. The harbor was nearly
deserted, the American and English mission stations were closed,
and the missionaries and their families fled to Mount Hiyeizan. Only
the Catholic fathers and the nuns remained, much to the concern of
the governor and officials, who begged them to go. On our way to
China we touched at Nagasaki while the epidemic was at its height,
but no passenger was allowed to go ashore, and all day we kept to
the decks that were saturated with carbolic acid. It took six hours to
coal the ship, and from noon to sundown we beheld a water carnival.
As the first coal-barge drew near, a man in the airy summer costume
of the harbor country—which consisted of a rope around his waist—
jumped over the side and swam to the stern of our steamer. He was
like a big, brown frog kicking about in the water, and when he came
dripping up the gang-way the faithful steerage steward gave him a
carbolic spraying with his bucket and brush. The barge was hauled
up alongside and made fast, and our consignment of coal was
passed on board in half-bushel baskets from hand to hand along a
line of chanting men and women. Nothing more primitive could be
imagined, for, with block, tackle, windlass, steam, and a donkey
engine on board, it took a hundred pairs of hands to do their work. At
the end of each hour there was a breathing spell. Many of the
women were young and pretty, and some of them had brought their
children, who, throwing back the empty baskets and helping to pass
them along the line, thus began their lives of toil and earned a few
pennies. The passengers threw to the grimy children all the small
Japanese coins they possessed, and when the ship swung loose
and started away their cheerful little sayonaras long rang after us.
 CHAPTER XXXVII
IN THE END

And after a foreigner has spent months or years in the midst of

these charming people, what has he discovered them to be? What
does the future hold for them? To what end did Commodore Perry
precipitate upon them the struggle and ferment of the nineteenth
century? The present generation ceasing to be what their forefathers
were, what do they expect of their descendants? Is our world
thoroughly to occidentalize them, or will they slowly orientalize us?
Which civilization is to hold, and which is the better? These are the
unsolvable problems that continually confront the thoughtful
observer.
The Japanese are the enigma of this century; the most
inscrutable, the most paradoxical of races. They and their outward
surroundings are so picturesque, theatrical, and artistic that at
moments they appear a nation of poseurs—all their world a stage,
and all their men and women merely players; a trifling, superficial,
fantastic people, bent on nothing but pleasing effects. Again, the
Occidental is as a babe before the deep mysteries, the innate
wisdom, the philosophies, the art, the thought, the subtle refinements
of this finest branch of the yellow race. To generalize, to epitomize is
impossible; for they are so opposite and contradictory, so unlike all
other Asiatic peoples, that analogy fails. They are at once the most
sensitive, artistic, and mercurial of human beings, and the most
impassible, conventional, and stolid; at once the most logical,
profound, and conscientious, and the most irrational, superficial, and
indifferent; at once the most stately, solemn, and taciturn, and the
most playful, whimsical, and loquacious. While history declares them
aggressive, cruel, and revengeful, experience proves them yielding,
merciful, and gentle. The same centuries in which was devised the
elaborate refinement of cha no yu saw tortures, persecutions, and
battle-field butcheries unparalleled. The same men who spent half
their lives in lofty meditation, in indicting poems, and fostering art,
devoted the other half to gross pleasures, to hacking their enemies
in pieces, and watching a hara kiri with delight. Dreaming,
procrastinating, and referring all things to that mythical mionichi (to-
morrow), they can yet amaze one with a wizard-like rapidity of action
and accomplishment. The same spirit which built the Shinagawa
forts during the three months of Commodore Perry’s absence at
times animates the most dilatory tradesmen and coolies.
There is no end to the surprises of Japanese character, and the
longer the foreigner lives among them the less does he understand
the people, and the less do his facts contribute to any explanation.
Their very origin is mysterious, their Ainos the rock on which
ethnologists founder. Their physical types present so many widely
differing peculiarities that one cannot believe in any common source,
or in the preservation of the race from outside influences for so many
centuries. Some coolie possesses the finely-cut features, perfectly-
modelled surfaces, and proudly-set head of a Roman emperor.
Some peer exhibits the features, the stolidity, and the slow, guttural
articulation of a Sioux Indian, and it is common to see coolies
identical in figure and countenance with the native races of the north-
west coast of America. One group of children might come from an
Alaskan village, and in another group frolic the counterparts of
Richter’s fisher boys of Italy. At times the soft, musical speech flows
like Italian; at other times it is rough and harsh, and rumbles with
consonants.
Their very simplicity, their childlike naivete, deceives one into a
conviction of their openness, while a mysterious, invisible,
unconquerable barrier rises forever between us and them. The
divergence of life and thought began in Western Asia too many ages
since for the races that followed the setting sun to find, at this late
day, the clew to the race that sought the source of the sun’s rising.
China, which once gave the Japanese their precepts and models
and teachers, shows now more differences than resemblances. Far
as the pupils have departed from the traditions of the instructor, there
yet remains a celestial conservatism, a worship of dry formality, and
a respect for the conventional which the new order overcomes but
slowly. The missionaries in China, who have to contend against the
apathy or open hostility and the horrible surroundings of the native
population, greatly admire the Japanese, and envy their colleagues
who live in so beautiful a country, among so clean, courteous, and
friendly a people, so eager to learn and so quick to acquire. It is true
that foreign merchants and officials in China laud the superior
qualities of the Celestial, and infer a superficiality and want of
seriousness in the Japanese; but the alien who has dwelt in Japan
experiences a new homesickness when he exchanges a Japanese
port for one across the Yellow Sea, with “Nanking” instead of
“Nippon” servitors about him. The Japanese make an unconscious
appeal to a sentiment deeper than mere admiration, but the secret of
the fascination they exercise defies analysis.
Politically and socially, the Japanese copy the examples of the
western world; and the Restoration, with its consequences, furnishes
the most astonishing political problem of the century. The sudden
abandonment of the old order, the upspringing of a whole nation
armed cap-a-pie in modern panoply of peace, has been too amazing
to be at once accepted, at least among Europeans, as a real and
permanent condition of things. If Europe cannot take the United
States seriously after a whole century of steadfastness, much less
can it comprehend an alien nation like Japan in a brief score of
years.
A constitution and a parliament have been voluntarily given to a
people who had hardly chafed under autocratic forms, or even
demanded a representation. Its military and naval establishments, its
police organization, and its civil service are modelled upon the best
of many foreign models. Its educational system is complete, an
admirable union of the best of American, English, and German
methods. Its postal establishment, its light-houses, telegraphs,
railways, hospitals equal those of the West. And all this was
accomplished, not by slow growth and gradual development, the fruit
of long need, but almost overnight, voluntarily, and at a wave of the
imperial magician’s wand.
 This new birth, this sudden change from feudalism and the Middle
Ages to a constitutional Government and the nineteenth century of
Europe and America, is a unique spectacle. This spectacle—this
unparalleled effort of a people to lay aside what they were born to
reverence and follow, because alien customs seemed to promise a
greater good to a greater number—this spectacle, which should
have challenged the admiration, the sympathy, and the generous aid
of western nations—has been met almost by their opposition. A
weaker people groping towards the light, learning by the saddest
experiences, has been hampered, bound, and forced from its chosen
way by the Christian nations, who have taken every shameful
advantage of superior strength and astuteness. Unjust treaties were
forced upon the Japanese at a time when they could not protest, and
when they could neither understand nor foresee the workings of
them. Backed by a display of naval strength, these treaties were
pressed upon the little nation, and by the bully’s one argument a
revision of these unjust agreements has been denied them for these
thirty years; although the Japan of to-day, its conditions and
institutions are, in no one particular, what they were at the time of the
first negotiations. Pathetic have been the struggles of citizens and
statesmen, while the most high-spirited of races has been forced to
submit to political outrages or face the consequences of war—the
imposition of yet harder terms by their oppressors. Limited in its
revenues by these very treaties, Japan can the less consider war
with unscrupulous western powers. The Government, in its efforts to
secure foreign training for its people, has been fleeced, imposed
upon, and hoodwinked, through its ignorance of foreign ways.
Reluctantly admitting the perfidy of one people, the Japanese have
turned to another. In consequence, they are berated for their
fickleness and love of change, and taunted with the fact that
American, English, and German influences, successively, have been
uppermost at court, and their languages and customs successively
fashionable. The Germans, to our shame be it said, have dealt with
them more honorably than any other people, and the present triumph
of German interests has been well deserved.
The ambition, the courage, and persistency of this small nation, in
the face of such hindrances, is wonderful; and their struggles with
strange tongues, strange customs, and strange dress, all at once,
were heroic. Indifferent critics ascribe this peaceful revolution to a
love of novelty and an idle craze for foreign fashions. They claim that
it is but a phase, a fleeting fancy, a bit of masquerading, to be
abandoned when the people weary of it, or attain their ends. But
fickleness is not the characteristic of thousands of persons of one
race, pursuing the same objects for thirty years; nor could a nation of
such taste and intelligence adopt and adhere to strange customs for
the mere sake of novelty. Prophecies of retrogression discredit
themselves, now that a whole generation has grown up to whom the
new is the established order. Japanese youths, educated and trained
abroad, have returned home to fill the places of foreign instructors
and managers. Each year fewer and fewer foreigners are needed in
Government departments and institutions. “Japan for the Japanese”
is a familiar cry. The desire for enlightenment and the impulse
towards progress were the result of forces already acting from within,
long before Commodore Perry’s black ships came to anchor in
Mississippi Bay, and still potent as then.
In this day the way to distinction and power is open to the
humblest. There is a baton in every knapsack, an imperial
councillor’s star in every school-room. The merchant has been
ennobled, the samurai have sat at the Emperor’s table, the eta walks
free, the equal of other citizens, and the humblest peasant has
inviolable civil rights. Women have come out of their guarded
seclusion, and enjoy a social existence and importance and a legal
equality, and their educational opportunities are ever enlarging.
Marriage laws, divorce laws, and property laws secure to them rights
greater than some European women hold. The family life and
authority remain unchanged, and the privacy of the home is jealously
guarded, no foreigner penetrating to that sacred centre. The family
ceremonies and festivals are observed as punctiliously as ever. The
nobility and the official class lead the social life of Europeans, but the
conservatism of the middle or merchant class still clings to the old
order, which another century may find almost unchanged.
The art of Japan has already revolutionized the western world,
leaving its impress everywhere. The quick appropriation of Japanese
ideas and expressions marks an era in the Occident as distinct as
that of the Renaissance. For all her giving with full hands, we can
return nothing to this most art-loving of nations. Western examples
and teachings, and the ignorant demands of western trade, have
wrought artistic havoc in the Island Empire. Wherever foreign orders
have been received, the simplest work has so deteriorated, has been
so vulgarized and cheapened, that recognized efforts are now
making to arrest this degradation of the national art. Cultivated
Japanese, appalled at this result of western teachings, encourage
artists and artisans in the study of national masterpieces and the
practice of the old methods, and the labors of these public-spirited
citizens are ably seconded by the Government. The foreign
professor of drawing, with his hard pencils and his plaster casts, is a
functionary of the past. To-day the youth of Japan holds to his own
writing-brush, and begins, as aforetime, with the one stroke, two
stroke, and three stroke sketches that lie at the root of the old
masters’ matchless art. Strangely enough, all perception of the
beauty and relation of color seems to leave the Japanese when they
use foreign materials. The people who have all their lives wrought
and used and worn the most harmonious combinations of color in
their garments and household goods, will execute monstrosities in
Berlin wools in place of the rich old fukusa, and combine the crudest
and most hostile hues with unconcern. The very use of foreign
furnishings or utensils seems to abate the national rage for
cleanliness, and in any tea-house that aspires to be conducted in
foreign fashion, one discovers a dust, disorder, shabbiness, and
want of care that is wholly un-Japanese.
Nor in other ways has contact with foreigners wrought good to
these people. Conservative families have been mortified and
humiliated by what seems to them the roughness and vulgarity of the
manners of their sons and daughters who had been educated
abroad. Many gentlemen even, in Tokio, long refused their daughters
a foreign education for this reason. The mission-schools for girls
found it necessary to engage masters of cha no yu and of native
deportment and etiquette, to instruct the pupils in their charge.
Among the lower classes the decay of courtesy, under foreign
influences, was rapid. The bold, impertinent, ill-mannered coolies
and nesans of the treaty ports are as unlike as possible to the same
people in interior or remoter towns.
If the people are to lose their art, the fine finish of their manners,
the simplicity of living, all the exquisite charm of their homes,
Commodore Perry should be rated as their worst enemy. If they
refine and make better what they now receive from the Occident, as
they did with what China gave them long ago, is it not possible that
Japan will surpass the world in the next century? Already the art
workshop of the globe, has it no greater mission, as travel brings all
countries nearer together, than to become the play-ground and
holiday country of all nations, occupying the same relation to both
hemispheres that Switzerland does to Europe?
Surely some better lot than that awaits this charming people, who
so quickly win the admiration, sympathy, and affection of the stranger
that is within their gates.
 INDEX

Actors, 96, 97, 283.

Ainos, 370.
Akamatsu, Mr., 239.
Akasaka, 125.
Alaska, 358, 370.
Aleshine, Mrs., 2.
Aleutian Islands, 2.
Amado, 141, 144, 162, 323.
Amah, 24, 174.
Amenomori, Mr., 139.
Amida, 230, 238, 251.
Andons, 90, 141.
Anthem, the National, 116.
Arashiyama, 252, 253.
Arima, 345, 346, 349.
Arimatsu, 204, 205.
Arisugawa, Prince Takehito, 124.
Arita, 364.
Armor, 106, 210, 212, 237, 249, 275, 329, 344.
Arnold, Sir Edwin, 95.
Art, Club, Tokio, 50.
⸺ Commission, Imperial, 312.
⸺ Japanese, 50, 374, 327, 328.
Asahiko, the Empress Dowager, 123.
⸺ Prince Kuni, 128.
Asakusa, 47, 51, 52.
Ashikaga, 250, 251.
Atago Yama, 49.
Attu, Island of, 2.
Awata, 228, 235, 269, 270, 277, 279, 285, 286, 365.
Awatsu, 221.

Baku, 99.
Baltimore, 51.
Bamboo, 35, 136, 233, 346, 347.
Banko ware, 209.
Baths, 128, 169, 170, 173, 194, 195, 203, 349.
Battledore, 283.
Bazaars, 131, 273, 335.
Beauvais, 260.
Behring Strait, 2.
Belgium, 344.
Benkei, 217.
Benten, the Goddess, 41, 42, 272.
⸺ Dori, 13, 15.
Berry, Dr. J. C., 241.
Bird, Miss Isabella, 146.
Bishamon, 271.
Biwa, 22.
⸺ Lake, 179, 216-218, 235, 331.
Black tea, 351, 352.
Bleaching, 283.
Bluff, the, Yokohama, 7, 11.
Board of Trade, 331.
Bon Festival, 242, 361.
Boston, 51, 328, 329.
Botan, 77.
Bridge, the Sacred Red, 148, 160.
Brocades, 63, 257-259.
Bronze, 275, 276.
Buddha, 38, 78, 148, 157, 222, 230, 234, 235, 237, 238, 308,
311, 312, 327, 342, 344, 345, 359.
Buddhism, 21, 47, 135, 138, 230, 236, 237, 239, 241, 310, 311,
313, 321, 322, 326, 327, 338, 342, 366.
Bund, Hiogo, 341.
⸺ Kobé, 341.
⸺, Nagasaki, 366.
⸺ Yokohama, 3, 4, 8.

Cables, telegraphic, 23, 255, 357.

Camels, 165, 352.
Camphor, 52, 341.
Canada, 351.
Canadian Pacific Co., 2.
Canton, 261.
Cape King, 3.
Caravan, 352.
Carp, 78, 193, 286, 302, 303.
Castle, Kioto, 249.
⸺ Nagoya, 206-208.
⸺ Osaka, 331-334.
⸺ Shidzuoka, 197.
⸺ Tokio, 125.
Catacombs, 272.
Cats, 154, 284.
Cemeteries, 158, 243, 244, 343, 361.
Ceylon, 240, 311.
Cha no yu, 91, 113, 127, 132, 250, 296, 297, 299, 369, 375.
Chapel, the Imperial, 128.
Charcoal, 170, 337.
Chautauqua, 218.
Chemnitz, 334.
Cherry blossoms, 69-74, 252, 253.
Chicago, 331, 344.
Chickens, 52, 285.
Children, 4, 16, 54.
China, 1, 20, 31, 47, 120, 250, 272, 310, 327, 351, 352, 364,
367, 371, 375.
Chinatown, 20.
Chinese, 20, 65, 113, 120, 135, 238, 247, 248, 261, 272, 284,
295, 322.
Chioin temple, 234, 235.
Chirimen, 262-264.
Chit, 26.
Chit-book, 26.
Chiuzenji, 165-167.
Cholera, 254, 367, 368.
Chopsticks, 88, 128, 214.
Christianity, 240, 241, 363.
Chrysanthemum, 29, 65, 81, 85, 95, 260.
⸺ Order of the, 112.
Chrysanthemum, War of the, 250, 342.
Citadel, 333.
Climate, 22, 23, 362.
Clipper ships, 357.
Coal, 361, 367, 368.
Coins, 14, 328, 334.
Columbus, Christopher, 25.
Compradores, 21, 355.
Concession, foreign, 342.
Constitution, the new, 114, 371.
Consuls, 46.
Coolies, 8, 9, 205, 206, 253, 254, 325, 356, 375.
Court circle, 131, 132.
⸺ costume, 116, 119, 120, 316.
Crabs, 42.
Crapes, 13, 261, 267.
⸺ cotton, 13, 283.
Crèche, 357.
Cremation, 343.
Cross, Buddhist, 272.
Cryptomeria, 141, 309, 316.
Cupid, 307.

Dai Butsu, 38, 234, 311-313.

Daidokoro Mon, 245.
Daikoku, 137, 271, 273.
Dai Maru, 62.
Daimios, 44, 141, 212, 272, 315.
Daimonji, 242-244, 265, 361.
Daitokuji, 296.
Daiyagawa, 147, 148, 154, 174.
Dancing, 90, 132, 154, 215, 252, 315, 316, 319.
Dango-zaka, 81, 82.
Danjiro, 105, 109.
Daruma, 223.
Dasha, 211.
Declaration of Independence, 292.
⸺ of New Constitution, 114.
Deer, 307-310.
Deshima, 364.
Dialects, 294.
Divorce, 374.
Dohachi, 228.
Doshisha, 240, 241.
Dotemachi Gakko, 259.
Drama, the, 96, 100.
Dramatic literature, 99-101.
Dresser, Dr. C., 96, 292.
Dry-docks, 361, 367.
Dutch, the, 364, 366.
Dyeing, 204, 205, 260, 261, 283, 354.

Earthquakes, 61.
Ebisu, 264, 271.
Echigoya, 62.
Edinburgh, Duke of, 98.
Education, 57, 240, 241, 371, 373, 375.
Eels, 95.
El Capitan, 333.
Electric lights, 23, 104, 126, 282.
Embroideries, 267, 268.
Emperor, the. See Mutsu Hito.
Empress, the. See Haruko.
⸺ the Dowager. See Asahiko.
Enamel, cloisonné, 209, 278, 285-291.
Engei Kyokai, 97.
Enoshima, 38, 41, 42.
Eta, 96, 159, 373.
Etruscan, 272.
Execution-ground, 342.
Eyeball, Buddha’s, 327, 328.

Face-powder, 12.
Faience, 277.
Fans, 281, 366.
Farm-houses, 12.
Feast of Dolls, 54.
⸺ of Lanterns, 243.
Festival, boys’, 56.
Fine Arts Club, Tokio, 50.
Fire-flies, 188, 280, 320, 351.
Fires, 59.
Fish, 40, 42, 285, 366.
Flash-light, 327, 341, 362.
Fleas, 145.
Fleur-de-lis, 77.
Floods, 331, 332.
Florists, 11, 49, 81.
Flower festivals, 65-86.
Frescos, 327.
Fruits, 22.
Fuji-san, the Goddess, 176, 186.