[TRANS] UNIT 2: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

• The illustration shows pineal gland, hypothalamus, and

OUTLINE pituitary located in the brain.
I INTRODUCTION o PARATHYROIDS (posterior part of thyroid) and
II ENDOCRINE SYSTEM FUNCTIONS thyroid located near the throat.
III TYPES OF HORMONES
o THYMUS is located below the thyroid gland in the
IV REGULATION OF BLOOD HORMONE LEVELS
V ACTION OF NUCLEAR RECEPTORS chest.
VI MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTORS ACTIONS o The ADRENALS are located above the kidney and
VII PITUITARY GLAND pancreases (islet) is located between the kidneys.
VIII THYROID GLAND o OVARIES (female) and TESTIS (male) are in the
IX PARATHYROID GLAND genital region.
X ADRENAL GLAN ACTIONS
XI PANCREAS ACTIONS
XII PANCREAS HORMONES
CLASSESS OF CHEMICAL MESSENGERS
XIII TESTES HORMONES • AUTOCRINE:
XIV OVARIAN HORMONES o released by cells and a have local effect on same cell
XV THYMUS GLAND HORMONE type
XVI PINEAL GLAND HORMONE § Example - eicosanoids
• PARACRINE:
o released by cells that affect other cell types in close
proximity.
INTRODUCTION § Example – somatostatin
• The ENDOCRINE SYSTEM is composed of endocrine
glands and specialized endocrine cells located throughout NOTE: These chemicals are tiny molecules that travel
the body. throughout the body in the bloodstream.
o Endocrine glands and cells secrete minute amounts EICOSANOIDS – are involved in vasodilation and
of chemical messengers called HORMONES into the vasoconstriction, promotion of sleep, pain, and fever. They pay
bloodstream, rather than into a duct. a role in up- or down-regulating inflammatory cytokines
§ Hormones then travel through the general blood o “Para” means beside.
circulation to target tissues or effectors.
• The target tissues have receptors for a specific hormone. • NEUROTRANSMITTER AND NEUROMODULATORS:
o Hormones produce a particular response in the target o secreted by nerve cells
tissues. § Example - nervous system function
• HORMONES AND NEUROHORMONES:
Figure 1. Endocrine System Glands
o secreted into blood and bind to receptors on target
tissues
§ Example - epinephrine and insulin

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM FUNCTIONS

1. Regulation of metabolism
2. Control of food intake and digestion
3. Modulation of tissue development
4. Regulation of ion levels
5. Control of water balance
6. Regulation of cardiovascular function
7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
8. Control of reproductive functions
9. Stimulation of uterine contraction and milk release
10. Modulation of immune system function

TYPES OF HORMONES
• WATER-SOLUBLE HORMONES:
o include proteins, peptides, amino acids
o most common type of hormone
§ Examples - growth hormone, antidiuretic,
prolactin
• LIPID-SOLUBLE HORMONES:
o include steroids and eicosanoids
§ Examples - Luteinizing hormone, androgens

Figure 2. Effects of Binding Proteins

o GLANDS are organs that secretes hormones

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Figure 5. Control by Humoral Stimuli

CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION

• Blood-borne chemicals can directly stimulate the release of
some hormones.
o These chemicals are referred to as humoral stimuli
because they circulate in the blood,
§ Humoral refers to body fluids, including blood.
• Hormone release can also be under neural control.
o Following action potentials, neurons release a
neurotransmitter into the synapse with the cells that
produce the hormone.
• Hormone release can also be controlled by other
hormones.
o It occurs when a hormone is secreted that, in turn,
stimulates the secretion of other hormones.
• The same three types of stimuli (humoral, neural, and
hormonal) can stimulate or inhibit hormone release.

Figure 3. Control of Humoral Stimuli

INHIBITION OF HORMONE RELEASE

• HUMORAL INHIBITION of hormone release generally
Figure 4. Control by Neural Stimuli involves the actions of companion hormones.
• Usually each of the companion hormones performs an
opposite function.
o For example, to raise blood pressure, the ADRENAL
CORTEX secretes the hormone aldosterone in
response to low blood pressure, but to lower it the heart
atria secrete atrial natriuretic peptide.
§ They work together to maintain homeostasis of
blood pressure.
o Neurons inhibit targets just as often as they stimulate
targets.
o If the neurotransmitter is inhibitory, the target
endocrine gland does not secrete its hormone.
• In control of hormone release by other hormones, some
hormones are inhibitory hormones, that reduce the
release of the hormone being controlled.
o For example, THYROID HORMONES can control their
own blood levels by inhibiting their anterior pituitary
tropic hormone.

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REGULATION OF BLOOD HORMONE LEVELS WATER-SOLUBLE RECEPTORS

• Two major mechanisms maintain hormone levels in the • Water-soluble hormones, such as protein and peptide
blood within a homeostatic range: negative feedback and types, cannot pass through the cell membrane.
positive feedback • Interactions are with membrane-bound receptors, that are
o Most hormones are regulated by a negative- proteins that extend across the cell membrane, with their
feedback mechanism, whereby the hormone’s hormone-binding sites exposed on the cell membrane’s
secretion is inhibited by the hormone itself once blood outer surface.
levels have reached a certain point. o When the hormone binds to the receptor, it turns on
• Some hormones are regulation by positive feedback, as intracellular enzymes that ultimately cause the
exemplified by tropic hormone action. response dictated by the hormone-receptor interaction.

NOTE: The release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland Figure 7. Target Tissue Specificity and Response
during labor is an example of positive feedback mechanism.

OXYTOCIN
• stimulates the muscle contractions that push the baby
through the birth canal. The release of oxytocin result in
stronger or augmented contractions during labor.

TROPIC HORMONE
• any of a class of hormones from the anterior pituitary
gland that affect the secretion of other endocrine glands.
o The tropic hormones include thyroid-stimulating
hormone, corticotropin, follicle-stimulating
hormone, and luteinizing hormone.

Figure 6. Negative and Positive Feedback

Figure 8. Nuclear and Membrane-Bound Receptors

HORMONE RECEPTORS AND

MECHANISMS OF ACTIONS
• A hormone can stimulate only the cells that have the
receptor for that hormone.
• The portion of each receptor molecule where a hormone
binds is called a RECEPTOR SITE.
o The receptor site has specificity, allowing only one
hormone to bind to it.
• Some hormones, such as epinephrine, can bind to a
“family” of receptors that are structurally similar.
o This specificity is due to molecular shape and
chemical characteristics.
• Lipid-soluble and water-soluble hormones bind to their own
classes of receptors.
§ Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear receptors
due to their lipid solubility and small molecular size
allowing to easily pass through the cell membrane.
§ Water-soluble hormones bind to membrane-
bound receptors. Water-soluble hormones are
polar molecules and cannot pass through the cell
membrane.
ACTION OF NUCLEAR RECEPTORS
LIPID-SOLUBLE HORMONE RECEPTORS
• LIPID-SOLUBLE HORMONES stimulate protein
• Nuclear receptors can also be in the cytoplasm, but then synthesis.
move to the nucleus when activated. o Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across the cell
o When hormones bind to nuclear receptors, the membrane and bind to their receptors, with the
hormone-receptor complex interacts with nuclear DNA complex now binding to hormone-response
to regulate specific gene transcription. elements on DNA.

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• This action regulates the transcription of specific

messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) molecules and
protein synthesis occurs.

Figure 9. Nuclear Receptor Model

SIGNAL AMPLIFICATION
• Hormones that stimulate the synthesis of second
messengers act quickly and have an amplification
effect.
o Each receptor produces thousands of second
messengers, leading to a cascade effect and
ultimately amplification of the hormonal signal.
• With amplification, a single hormone activates many
second messengers, each of which activates enzymes that
produce an enormous amount of final product.
• The efficiency of this second-messenger amplification is
MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTOR ACTIONS virtually unparalleled in the body.
• Membrane bound receptors act in two ways, either altering
Figure 11. Cascade Effect
the activity of G proteins on the inner surface of the cell
membrane or directly altering the activity of
intracellular enzymes.
o Activation of G proteins, or intracellular enzymes,
elicits specific responses in cells, including the
production of molecules called, second messengers.
• A second messenger molecule is produced inside a cell
once a ligand binds to its membrane-bound receptor.
• A second messenger, such as cyclic adenosine
monophosphate (cAMP), then activates specific cellular
processes inside the cell in response to the hormone.

G-PROTEIN ACTIVITATION
• Many membrane-bound receptors produce responses
through the action of G proteins, which consist of 3
subunits.
• The G proteins are so named because one of the subunits
binds to guanine nucleotides.
• G-proteins, after several sequential actions, interact with
adenylate cyclase, an enzyme that converts ATP to
cAMP.
• cAMP binds to protein kinases and activates them.
• Protein kinases are enzymes that, in turn, regulate the
activity of other enzymes. PITUITARY GLAND
• Depending on the other enzyme, protein kinases can • Small gland in brain
increase or decrease its activity. • Controlled by hypothalamus
• Phosphodiesterase, an intracellular enzyme, breaks down • Divided into 2 regions: ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR
cAMP and thus results in no further cell stimulation.
• Secretes at least 6 hormones
Figure 10. Cyclic AMP Synthesis
Figure 12. Pituitary Gland

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ANTERIOR PITUITARY HORMONES

GROWTH HORMONE:
• Target tissues: most tissues
• Functions: stimulates growth of bones, muscles, and
organs
• Abnormalities:
o Too much GH causes giantism
o Too little GH causes pituitary dwarfism

THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH)

• Target tissues: thyroid gland
• Functions: regulates thyroid gland secretions
• Abnormalities:
o Too much TSH, thyroid gland enlarges (goiter)
o Too little TSH, thyroid gland shrinks

GONADOTROPIN HORMONE
• LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH) for females:
o Target tissue: ovaries
o Function: promotes ovulation and progesterone
production
• LH FOR MALES:
o Target tissue: testes
o Function: production of sperm and testosterone

GONADOTROPIN HORMONE
• FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH) for females:
o Target tissue: follicles in ovaries
o Function: follicle maturation and estrogen secretion
• FSH FOR MALES:
o Target tissue: seminiferous tubules (testes)
HYPOTHALAMIC CONTROL OF THE ANTERIOR o Function: sperm production
PITUITARY GLAND
• The ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND synthesizes PROLACTIN
hormones under the control of the hypothalamus. • Target tissues: mammary glands and ovaries
o Neurons of the hypothalamus secrete releasing • Functions: milk production
hormones that stimulate the production and secretion
of a specific hormone. MELANOCYTE STIMULATING HORMONE (MSH)
• Inhibiting hormones decrease the secretion of a specific
• Target tissues: melanocytes in the skin
anterior pituitary hormone
• Functions: stimulate melanin production in melanocytes
• The POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND stores and releases
hormones produced by neuroendocrine cells in the
hypothalamus. ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIC HORMONE (ACTH)
o The two hormones released from the posterior pituitary • Target tissues: cells of adrenal cortex
are antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin. • Functions: stimulate production of certain corticosteroids

Figure 13. Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary HORMONES OF THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY

ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE (ADH)

• Target tissues: kidneys
• Functions: conserve water
• Abnormalities: Diabetes insipidus
o low ADH
o kidneys to produce large amounts of dilute
o (watery) urine
o can lead to dehydration and thirst

OXYTOCIN
• Target tissues: uterus
• Functions: increases uterine contractions during labor

Figure 14. Hypothalamus and Posterior Pituitary

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Figure 16. Regulation of Thyroid Hormone Secretion

THYROID HORMONE DISORDER

HYPOTHYROIDISM
• Decreased metabolism
• Weight gain, reduced appetite, fatigue
• Low temp. and pulse
• Dry, cold skin
• Myxedema in adults
• Cretinism in infants

HYPERTHYROIDISM
• Increased metabolism
• Weight loss, increased appetite, nervousness
• Higher temp. and pulse
• Warm, flushed skin
• Graves’ disease (leads to goiter)

THYROID GLAND PARATHYROID GLAND

• One of largest glands • PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH):
• Requires IODINE to function o Target tissues: bones and kidneys
• Secretes thyroid hormone and calcitonin o Functions: regulates blood Ca2+ levels (more than
• THYROID HORMONES secreted by follicular cells: calcitonin)
o Target tissues: most tissues • If Ca2+ is low, then osteoclasts break down bone matrix and
o Functions: regulates metabolic rates and is needed less Ca2+ is lost in urine.
for growth • If Ca2+ is high, then osteoclasts don’t break down bone
• CALCITONIN secreted by parafollicular cells: matrix and more Ca2+ is lost in urine.
o Target tissues: bone and some other tissues
o Function: reduces blood calcium level when high Figure 17. Regulation of Blood Calcium Levels

Figure 15. Thyroid Gland and Parathyroid Glands

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Figure 19. Regulation of Adrenal Medullary Secretions

ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES

• ALDOSTERONE:
o Type of mineralocorticoid
§ Target tissues: kidneys
§ Functions: regulate ion balance, causes Na+ and
H2O to be retained and K+ to be secreted, indirectly
involved with blood pressure and blood volume
• CORTISOL:
o Type of glucocorticoid
§ Target tissues: most
§ Functions: increases breakdown of fat and
protein for energy uses reduces inflammatory and
immune responses
ADRENAL GLAND ACTIONS Figure 20. Regulation of Cortisol Secretion
• The ADRENAL GLANDS are two small glands located
superior to each kidney
o Each adrenal gland has an inner part, called the
adrenal medulla, and an outer part, called the adrenal
cortex.
• The adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex function as
separate endocrine glands.

Figure 18. Adrenal Gland

• ANDROGENS:
o Target tissues: most tissues
o Functions:
§ Males: secondary sexual characteristics
§ Females: sex drive

PANCREAS ACTIONS
• The PANCREAS is a mixed gland, with an exocrine portion
and an endocrine portion.
o The EXOCRINE PORTION of the pancreas secretes
digestive enzymes.
o THE ENDOCRINE PART OF THE PANCREAS
consists of pancreatic islets (Islets of Langerhans),
which are dispersed throughout the exocrine portion of
ADRENAL MEDULLA HORMONES the pancreas.
• EPINEPHRINE/NOREPINEPHRINE: § The ISLETS consist of three cell types, each of
o Target tissues: heart, blood vessels, liver, fat cells which secretes a separate hormone.
o Functions: released as part of fight or flight response

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§ Alpha cells secrete glucagon, beta cells secrete
insulin, and delta cells secrete somatostatin.
• These three hormones regulate the blood levels of
nutrients, especially glucose.

Figure 21. Pancreas Structure

PANCREAS HORMONES
INSULIN
• Target tissues: liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue
• Functions:
o regulates blood glucose levels
o after a meal glucose levels are high, and insulin is
secreted
o extra glucose is stored in form of glycogen
• INSULIN ABNORMALITIES:
O DIABETES MELLITUS:
o Causes: too little insulin or faulty insulin receptors
o Symptoms: hyperglycemia, exaggerated appetite,
excess urine, dehydration, thirst, fatigue
§ Type I: insulin dependent (daily injections
required)
TESTES HORMONE
§ Type II: insulin independent, often found in obese
• TESTOSTERONE:
people, can be treated with diet but can turn into
o Target tissues: most tissues
type I
o Functions: aids in sperm and reproductive organ
development and function
GLUCAGON
• Target tissues: liver OVARIAN HORMONES
• Function: • ESTROGEN/PROGESTERONE:
o regulates blood glucose levels o Target tissues: most tissues
o between meals glucose levels drop and glucagon is o Functions: involved in uterine and mammary gland
secreted development and menstrual cycle
o glucagon allows glycogen to be broken down into
glucose THYMUS GLAND HORMONE
• THYMOSIN:
Figure 22. Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels o Target tissues: immune system tissues
o Functions: promotes immune system development and
function

PINEAL GLAND HORMONE

• MELATONIN:
o Target tissues: hypothalamus
o Functions: plays a role in onset of puberty and controls
circadian rhythms. Light affects its function.

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