LECTURE TWO

Functions

2.1 Introduction

In this lecture we introduce the concept of functions. We will consider one-one,

onto and invertible functions. This is a very important topic in analysis and will
be given further consideration later.

2.2 Lecture Objectives

By the end of this lecture the learner should be able to:

 Define a function
 Determine whether a function is one-to-one or onto
 Determine inverse of a function

2.3 Functions
Let A and B be a non-empty sets. Then a function f from A to B (in symbol f :    ) is a rule
that assigns to each element x of A a unique element y   . In this case y is called the value of
the function f at x, written y  f x  (or the image of x under f).

The set A is called the domain of f and the while the set  f  x  : x  A is called the range of f
denoted by R(f). In general R f    , B is called the codomain of f.

1
There is another way of visualizing a function namely a machine that accepts elements of the
domain of f, D  f   A as inputs and produces corresponding elements of R  f    as
outputs.

Example

Let A  D  f  be the set of real numbers and f be the rule (function) that squares every element
of A, if x  A then y  f  x   x 2 .

2.3.1 Direct and Inverse images

Let f : A  B be a function with domain D  f   A and range R f    . Let    and

   Then the direct image of E under f is the subset f   of B given by

f    f x  : x  

and the inverse image of H under f is the subset f  H 

1
of A given by

f 1     x   : f  x  

Thus if we are given a set    then a point b1  is in the direct image f   iff there exists
at least one point x1  such that b1  f  x1  . Similarly a point x 2 is in the inverse image
f 1   if and only if y2  f  x2  belongs to H.

Example

Let f :    be defined by f x   x 2 . Then the direct image of the set  :  x : 0  x  2 is

the set f   y : 0  y  4

If G   y : 0  y  4 , then the inverse image of G under f is the set f 1 G   x : 2  x  2

Observe that f 1  f   why ?

The following relations hold:

Let  i iI be a family of sets and let f be a function. Then

 
(i) f    i    f  Ai 
 i1  i 1

2
(ii) f  A
i 1
i f  Ai 

(iii) f 1  Ai    f 1  A

(iv) f 1  A  f 1  A

(v)  
f 1     f 
1 

Proof

 
(i) Let x  f  Ai 
 iI 

 f 1  x   Ai
iI

 f 1  x   Ai for some i

 x  f  Ai  for some i

 x f  Ai 
iI

(v) Let x  f 1    
 f  x   
 f  x  
 x  f 1   

 x   f 1    


2.3.2 Injections, Surjections and Bijections

Definition: Let f :    be a function from A to B

1) The function f is said to be surjective (onto) if f  A  B .

2) The function f is said to be injective (or to be one-one) if whenever

f x2   f x2 , then x1  x2 or equivalently whenever x1  x2 then
f x1   f x2  .

3) The function f is said to be bijective, if it is both injective and surjective.

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In order to prove that a function f is injective, we must establish that:

For all x1 , x2  , if f x1   f x2  then x1  x2

(That is the graph of f must satisfy the first horizontal line test: Every horizontal line y=b with
b   intersect the graph of f in at most one point).

To prove that a function f is surjective, we must show that for any b   there exists at least one
x   such that f x   b. (That is, the graph of f, satisfies the second horizontal test. Every
horizontal line y  b with b   intersects the graph of f in at least one point).

Example

2x
Let A   x  : x  1 and define f  x   for all x  . Show that f is injective and find
x 1
the set B such that f :    is surjective.

Solution

To show that f is injective for any x1 , x2  A

Suppose that f  x1   f  x2  . Then

2 x1 2 x2

x1  1 x 2  1

Which implies that x1 x2  1  x2 x1  x  , and hence x1  x2 . Therefore f is injective.

2x
To determine B (range of f), we solve the equation y  in terms of y to obtain
x 1

y
x . This is meaningful for y  2. Thus the range of f (i.e. B) is the set
y2

   y  : y  2. Thus f is a bijection of A onto B.

Example

Let f .  , be defined by f x   x 3  x . Show that f is not injective.

Solution

It is enough to show that there exists more than one point of  mapped onto one point in the
range of f. (Otherwise apply the first horizontal line test).

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We observe that f  x   x3  x  0  x  x 2  1  0  x  0, x  1 .

Thus the points  1,0,1 are mapped onto 0. Hence f is not one-one.

2.3.3 Inverse functions

Let f : A   be a function. Then f is said to be invertible (or has an inverse) if it is bijective
i.e. injective and surjective.
1
We denote the inverse function of f by f and define it as a function from B to A i.e

f 1 :    such that

f 1  y   x   : f  x   y

 
Moreover f 1  f x   f f 1 x   x

is bijective from A  x   : x  1 on to the set

2x
For example, the function f  x  
x 1

  y   : y  2. The inverse to f is given by

f 1  y  
y
for y  
y2

Remark

To find the inverse function of f, all we need is to solve for x in terms of y assuming that
y  f (x)

Example

Show that g : 1,    defined by g x   x  1 is the inverse function of

f : 0,    defined by f x   x 2  1

Solution we need to show that g  f x   f g x   x ,

which follows immediately.

2.3.4 Composition of functions

Definition: Given two functions f :    and g :   C , then the composite function g f
is the function from A into C defined by

5
g f   x   g  f  x   for all x  .

Example

Let f x   x 2 and g x   x  1, then

f g  x   f  g  x    f  x  1  ( x  1) 2  x 2  2 x  1
g f  x   g  f  x    g  x 2   x 2  1

Note that  f g   x    g f  x  , thus the order matters.

Theorem 1.3: Let f :    and g :   C. Then

(a) If f and g are surjective so is g f

(b) If f and g are injective, so is g f

(c) If f and g are bijective, so is g f .

Proof

(a) Since g is subjective (onto) R  g   C. That is, for any c  C,  b  such that

g b  c. Since f is subjective  a   such that f a   b. But

g f   a   g  f  a    g  b   c. So that g f is surjective.

(b) Suppose that for any x1 , x2  A,  g f  x1    g f  x2 

Then g  f x1   g  f x2 , since g is injective it implies that f  x1   f  x2  but f

is injective which implies that x1  x2 .

Hence g f is injective as required.

(c) Follows immediately from a and b.

6
Activity 2.1

x
1. Show that the function f defined by f  x 
, x  is a
x 1 2

bijection of  onto y : 1  y  1. Find the inverse of function f.

2. Let g  x   5x  3 and f  x   x3  1, for x . Find the composite

function h= g f .

3. Let f : A  B and g : B  C be functions and let H be a subset

of C. Show that  g f  H   f 1  g 1  H  .
1

2.4 Further Reading

Chidume, C. E. (2006). Foundations of Mathematical Analysis. The Abdus Salam ICTP,

Triese, Italy.

Bartle, R. G. (1976). The elements of Real Analysis. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York.

Marsden, J. E. (1974). Elementary Classical Analysis. W. H. Freeman and Company, San

Francisco.

Rudin, W. (1966). Principles of Mathematical Analysis. McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York.