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Accounting Information Systems: Basic Concepts and Current Issues (4th edition)
Dr. Bob Hurt, C.F.E.
End-of-chapter solutions
Chapter 8: REA modeling

1. Reading review questions

a. What are the similarities and differences between view-driven and event-driven
accounting information systems? Both types of systems can involve information
technology, although the specific technologies involved are different. In fact, most
event-driven systems require some form of relational databases due to their complexity.
In addition, both system types are capable of producing the general purpose financial
statements. Event-driven system are capable of producing many other types of reports
as well.

b. What does the acronym REA stand for? Give examples of each element. “R”
stands for Resources, such as inventory and equipment. “E” stands for Event, such as
“pay employees” or “purchase inventory.” “A” stands for Agent, such as a customer or
employee.

c. List the six steps for creating a REA model. 1. Understand the organization’s
environment and objectives. 2. Review the business process and identify the
strategically significant operating events. 3. Analyze each strategically significant
operating event to identify its resources and agents. 4. Identify the relevant behaviors,
characteristics and attributes of the REA model elements. 5. Identify and document the
direct relationships between elements of the REA model. 6. Validate the REA model
with business people.

d. Explain how to establish a set of cardinalities between two elements of a REA

model. Establishing a set of cardinalities involves asking four questions. If the
elements are denoted by “x” and “y,” the four questions are: 1. For each X, what is the
minimum number of Y involved? 2. For each X, what is the maximum number of Y
involved? 3. For each Y, what is the minimum number of X involved? 4. For each Y,
what is the maximum number of X involved? Answers to those questions commonly
include 0, 1 and many (denoted with an asterisk). The answers to the first two
questions are placed on the Y side of the relationship; the answers to the other two, on
the X side.

e. How would you use a REA model to design a relational database? In general,
each box in a REA model requires at least one table. If the maximum relationships
between two elements of the model are one and many, the primary key of the “one side”
must be included as a foreign key on the “many” side. If the maximums are both many,
a junction table is required.

f. Prepare a response to the questions for this chapter’s “AIS in the Business
World.” As in previous editions, I’ve posted responses to each chapter’s AIS in the
Business World on my accounting information systems blog
(www.bobhurtais.blogspot.com). Look for the 4th edition’s responses in the 15
December 2014 post.

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Accounting Information Systems: Basic Concepts and Current Issues (4th edition)
Dr. Bob Hurt, C.F.E.
End-of-chapter solutions
Chapter 8: REA modeling

2. Reading review problem

a. Which systems documentation technique would you use if your goal was to
construct the relational database that supports the narrative? Why? The best
documentation technique for database design is REA modeling. A properly constructed
REA model gives clear guidance when it comes to creating normalized database tables.

b. Regardless of your answer to (a), construct a complete REA model of the

process.

c. Based on your REA model, identify four tables you would need in the relational
database—one each for a resource, an event, an agent and a junction table. What
would be each table’s primary key?
• No resource table is required.
• Event table: Create Account. Primary key: Account number.
• Agent table: Customer. Primary key: Customer ID.
• Junction table: Customer / use miles. Primary key: Customer ID, Use miles
transaction number.

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Accounting Information Systems: Basic Concepts and Current Issues (4th edition)
Dr. Bob Hurt, C.F.E.
End-of-chapter solutions
Chapter 8: REA modeling

d. Based on the tables you created, suggest two queries the airline might create.
For each query, indicate its name, its purpose and the fields involved.

• Query 1: Customers that have not created an account. Fields: Customer ID,
Account number. (The latter would be ‘null’ in the query to select customers
without an account.)
• Query 2: To calculate a customer’s mileage balance. Fields: Customer ID,
miles earned, miles used. The query would need a calculated field to determine
the balance.

3. Multiple choice review questions. Answers to all of these questions appear at the
end of the textbook itself.

4. Making choices and exercising judgment

Students’ answers may vary significantly since the point of these exercises is for them
to think critically.

5. Field exercises
Answers to these exercises will vary significantly. Although I’m not providing solutions
to them, don’t hesitate to share your students’ work with me if they come up with an
especially strong response.

6. Constructing REA models

a. Tom’s Trailers

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Accounting Information Systems: Basic Concepts and Current Issues (4th edition)
Dr. Bob Hurt, C.F.E.
End-of-chapter solutions
Chapter 8: REA modeling

Here, “inventory” refers

to a specific trailer. (1,*)
Greet customer

(1,1) (1,1)
(1,*)
(1,1)
(0,1)
(1,1) Customer
(1,1)
(1,*)
(1,*) Show trailers (1,1)

(1,*)
(1,*) (1,*)

(0,1)
(0,*)
Inventory (0,1) (1,1)
(1,1) (1,1)
Sell trailer
(1,*) (1,1)
(1,1) Salesperson

(1,1) (1,1)

(1,*)
(1,1)
(1,*) (0,1) Bank
(1,*) Receive
payment (1,*)
(1,1)
Cash
(1,1)
(1,1)
Delivery person
(1,1) (1,1) (1,*)

Deliver trailer
(1,*)

The database would include at least the following tables (primary keys are underlined,
foreign keys are in brackets):
Inventory table: Identification number, make, model, year, date acquired,
purchase price.
Cash table: Cash account number, beginning balance, beginning balance date,
bank.
Greet customer table: [Customer ID], [Salesperson ID], date
Show trailers table: Show transaction #, [Customer ID], date, [Salesperson ID]
Sales table: Sales transaction #, transaction date, [inventory identification
number], [salesperson ID], [customer ID], type of sale (cash or installment)
Receive payment table: Receipt #, [sales transaction #], date, amount received,
source (bank or customer), [salesperson ID], [customer ID], [cash account
number]
Delivery table: [Sales transaction #], [delivery person ID], delivery date
Show trailers / inventory table: [Show transaction #], [inventory ID number],
[salesperson ID], [customer ID]

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Accounting Information Systems: Basic Concepts and Current Issues (4th edition)
Dr. Bob Hurt, C.F.E.
End-of-chapter solutions
Chapter 8: REA modeling

Customer table: Customer ID, last name, first name, address, city, state, ZIP,
area code, phone, date of first visit, date of first purchase
Salesperson table: : Salesperson ID, last name, first name, address, city, state,
ZIP, area code, phone, emergency contact information, date employed

b. Maple Bluff Pharmacy

Fill (1,*)
(0,*) prescription
(1,1)
(1,*) (1,*) Pharmacist

(1,1) (1,1)
(1,1)
Drugs Receive (1,*) (1,1)
payment Customer
(1,*) (0,*)
(1,*)

(1,1) (1,1)
(0,*) (2,2)
(1,1) Reconcile Pharmacy
cash employees
(1,1)
Cash (1,1)

(1,1) (1,1) (0,*)

(1,*) (1,1)
(1,1) Deposit Deposits
cash Express

Drugs table: Drug code, drug name, dosage, instructions

Cash table: Cash account number, beginning balance, beginning balance date,
bank.
Fill prescription table: Prescription #, [drug code], [customer ID], date, [payment
ID]
Receive payment table: Payment ID, [customer ID], [employee ID], date, form of
payment, amount received
Reconcile cash table: Date, [employee ID #1], [employee ID #2], total cash
Deposit cash table: Date, [employee ID], [Deposits Express ID], total cash
Employee table: Employee ID, last name, first name, address, city, state, zip,
area code, phone, emergency contact, job title, date employed (Note: I’ve
combined the “pharmacist” and “pharmacy employees” into a single table

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Accounting Information Systems: Basic Concepts and Current Issues (4th edition)
Dr. Bob Hurt, C.F.E.
End-of-chapter solutions
Chapter 8: REA modeling

here. Since the narrative implies only one pharmacist, it seemed inefficient
to create a separate “pharmacist” table. Pharmacists are differentiated
from other employees via the “job title” field.)
Customer table: Customer ID, last name, first name, address, city, state, ZIP,
area code, phone, date of first visit, medication allergies, primary doctor,
insurance
Deposits Express table: contact name, address, phone

c. Western Steel Company

(1,1)
(0,*) Receive (0,*) (1,1)
customer (1,1)
order Employees
(1,*) (1,1)
(1,1) (1,1)
(1,1)
(0,*)
Check
credit
(1,*) (1,*)
(1,1)
(1,1) (1,1)
Inventory
(1,*) (0,1) Customer
(1,*) (1,1)
(0,*)
Fill order
(1,1) (1,*) (0,*) (1,1) (1,1)

(1,1)
(1,1)
(1,1) (1,*)
(0,*)
Price list Ship order (0,*)

(1,1)
(1,1)
(1,1) (1,*)

(1,*) Invoice (0,*)

customer

(1,*)
(1,1)
(1,*) (1,1) Bank
Receive
payment
notice

Inventory table: Inventory ID, description, beginning quantity, beginning date,

average unit cost of beginning inventory
Price list table: [Inventory ID], price
Receive customer order table: Order ID, [employee ID], [customer ID], date

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Accounting Information Systems: Basic Concepts and Current Issues (4th edition)
Dr. Bob Hurt, C.F.E.
End-of-chapter solutions
Chapter 8: REA modeling

Receive order / inventory table: [Order ID], [Inventory ID], quantity ordered
Check credit table: [Order ID], [employee ID], credit decision (yes / no)
Fill order table: [Order ID], [employee ID], [customer ID], date
Fill order / inventory table: [Order ID], [Inventory ID], quantity filled
Ship order table: [Order ID], [customer ID], [employee ID], date shipped
Ship order / inventory table: [Order ID], [Inventory ID], quantity shipped
Invoice customer table: Invoice number, [Order ID], [customer ID], [employee ID],
invoice date, payment notice date

d. CPA firm payroll process

(1,*)
Submit
hours
(1,*) (1,1)
(1,1)
Auditors
(1,1) (1,1)
(1,*)
Compare
(1,1) actual & (1,*) (1,1)
budget
(1,1) Audit
Audit plan (1,1)
superviso
r
(1,1) (1,*)
(1,*) (1,1)
Prepare &
issue Payroll
checks staff

Submit hours table: Transaction number, date submitted, [auditor ID], task,
number of hours
Compare actual & budget table: [Transaction number], comparison date, audit
plan ID, [supervisor ID]
Audit plan table: Audit plan ID, client ID, audit task, budgeted task hours (Each
audit would involve multiple audit tasks. But, the # of tasks would be fixed;

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Accounting Information Systems: Basic Concepts and Current Issues (4th edition)
Dr. Bob Hurt, C.F.E.
End-of-chapter solutions
Chapter 8: REA modeling

therefore, a database designer would know how many “audit task” fields to
include in this table. If a particular task was not included in an audit, its
number of budgeted hours would be zero.)
Prepare & issue checks table: Check number, date prepared, [payroll staff ID],
[auditor ID]
Auditors table: Auditor ID, last name, first name, address, city, state, ZIP, area
code, phone, billing rate, withholding status, withholding allowances
Audit supervisors table: fields would be similar to the “auditors” table
Payroll staff table: fields would be similar to the “auditors” table

e. Textbook ordering and purchasing process

(1,*) (1,1)
(1,*) Collect
(1,*) Instructors
order data

(1,1)
(1,1)
(1,1)

Prepare (0,*) Secretary

(1,*) (1,*)
purchase
order
Textbooks (1,*)
(1,1) (1,*)
(1,1) (1,1)

(1,*) Bookstore
Receive (0,*) (1,1)
books staff
(1,*) (1,1)
(1,*)
(1,1)
(1,1) (1,1)
(1,1) (0,*)
Publisher
(1,*) (1,1)
Pay invoice

For the sake of simplicity, this solution assumes that the bookstore does
not receive partial shipments, nor does it pay for partial receipts.

Textbooks table: Textbook ID, title, author, copyright, publisher

Collect order data table: Order ID, [instructor ID], [secretary ID], date

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Accounting Information Systems: Basic Concepts and Current Issues (4th edition)
Dr. Bob Hurt, C.F.E.
End-of-chapter solutions
Chapter 8: REA modeling

Textbook / collect order data table: [Textbook ID], [Order ID], class, quantity

Prepare purchase order table: Purchase order #, [bookstore staff ID], [publisher
ID], date, [Order ID]

Prepare purchase order / textbook table: [Purchase order #], [textbook ID],
quantity ordered

Receive books table: Receiving transaction #, [bookstore staff ID], [publisher ID],
date

Receive books / textbook table: [Receiving transaction #], [Textbook ID], quantity
received

Pay invoice table: Transaction #, [publisher ID], [bookstore staff ID], date,
amount, [receiving transaction #]

Agent tables would be similar to those found in other exercises.

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Accounting Information Systems: Basic Concepts and Current Issues (4th edition)
Dr. Bob Hurt, C.F.E.
End-of-chapter solutions
Chapter 8: REA modeling

f. Beta Alpha Psi

Initiate new members table: Initiation event ID, Initiation date, Initiation place
Initiate new members / Chapter members table: [Initiation event ID], [Chapter
member ID]
Points table: Event type ID, points available

The other events would be similar to the “initiate new members” table. The
“chapter members” table would be similar to other agent tables presented
previously. And, the remaining junction table (host events / chapter members)
would be similar to the junction table presented above.

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Accounting Information Systems: Basic Concepts and Current Issues (4th edition)
Dr. Bob Hurt, C.F.E.
End-of-chapter solutions
Chapter 8: REA modeling

7. Interpreting a REA model

A pet owner calls the grooming salon to make an appointment for a pet; a grooming
salon employee assists the customer. A member of the grooming staff grooms the pet.

8. Terminology
1. J 6. A

2. E 7. F

3. I 8. C

4. D 9. G

5. H 10. B

9. Multiple choice questions

1. D
2. A
3. B
4. C
5. D

10. Statement evaluation

a. Never true

b. Always true

c. Always true

d. Sometimes true. DFDs and flowcharts may be unnecessary, depending upon

the task at hand.

e. Always true

f. Never true.

g. Sometimes true If resources and agents have a relationship independent of

an event, they may be related.

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Accounting Information Systems: Basic Concepts and Current Issues (4th edition)
Dr. Bob Hurt, C.F.E.
End-of-chapter solutions
Chapter 8: REA modeling

h. Sometimes true Some internal controls, such as adequate documentation,

are not represented in a REA model. Separation of duties can be represented if
it exists.

i. Always true

j. Sometimes true View-driven systems provide information for decisions based

on the general-purpose financial statements; they do not, however, provide
information for other kinds of decisions.

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Dr. Bob Hurt, C.F.E.
End-of-chapter solutions
Chapter 8: REA modeling

11. Excel application

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Other documents randomly have
different content
appears at the various periods of man’s existence.

The first important moment is, of course, the moment of birth. The
father, friends, and relatives are filled with anxiety for the life of both
mother and child. Prayers are daily offered up for the safety and
recovery of the patient and the well-being of the child. The
Twentieth Psalm is sometimes written on a tablet placed in the room
where the confinement takes place, probably as a reminder or an
invitation for visitors to pray to the Almighty; in this sense the
custom is to be commended; but if the tablet is filled with
meaningless signs, letters, and words, and is used merely as a
charm, the custom should be discontinued, being a superstitious
practice. In some parts it has been the custom that during the week
preceding the Berith-milah friends visited the house to pray there for
the well-being of the child, and boys recited there Biblical passages
containing blessings, such as Gen. xlviii. 16. 156 The night before the
berith was spent in reading Bible and Talmud, so that the child might
from the beginning breathe, as it were, the atmosphere of torah. 157
[478]

On the eighth day the male child is initiated into the covenant of
Abraham (Lev. xii. 3). Circumcision is one of “those mitsvoth which
the Israelites in times of religious persecution carried out
notwithstanding imminent danger to life.” The performance of this
Divine precept is therefore made the occasion of much rejoicing. In
some congregations the operation, as a sacred act, takes place in
the Synagogue after the Morning Service; in others the privacy of
the home is preferred. In ancient days mothers circumcised their
sons, but now the operation is only entrusted to a person who has
been duly trained, and has received from competent judges a
certificate of his qualification for the functions of a mohel. 158
Although, according to the Law, any person, otherwise capable of
doing it, may do the mitsvah, preference is given, and ought to be
given, to a person of genuine piety and of true enthusiasm for our
holy Religion, who performs the act in gloriam Dei. Not only the
mohel, but all who assist in the act do a mitsvah, and the meal
which is prepared for the occasion is a ‫‏סעודת מצוה‬‎(a meal
involving a religious act). 159 Immediately after the operation a name
is given to the child. 160 [479]

The next important moment in a boy’s life is the “Redemption” (‫‏פדיון‬

‫הבן‬‎) in case of the first-born male child (Exod. xiii. 13, 15), which
act is likewise made the occasion of a ‫‏סעודת מצוה‬‎. A cohen
(descendant of Aaron) receives the redemption-money to the
amount of five shekels (or 15s.), according to Num. xviii. 16. 161

In the case of a female child the naming generally takes place in the
Synagogue on a Sabbath, when the father is called up to the Law. In
many congregations this takes place when the mother has
sufficiently recovered to attend again for the first time the Service in
the Synagogue on Sabbath. Those who live at a great distance from
the Synagogue pay the first visit to the place of worship on a week-
day. A special Service has been arranged for the occasion. 162

Great care is now taken by the parents for the physical well-being of
the child, without entirely ignoring its moral and intellectual
development. “At five years the child is fit to be taught Mikra, i.e.,
reading the Bible” (Aboth v. 21), so the Mishnah teaches. But long
before this the child is taught to pray, and to repeat short Biblical
passages or prayers in Hebrew. It must, of course, be borne in mind
that children are not all alike, and that each child must be taught
according to its own capacities and [480]strength. The knowledge
must be imparted in such a manner that the child should seek it as a
source of pleasure and happiness.

As to the subjects which are to be taught, there is no branch of

general knowledge from which Jewish children are debarred by their
Religion, nor is there any branch of knowledge that is more Jewish
than the rest. Jewish children must learn like other children, as far
as possible, that which is considered necessary and useful, as well
as that which is conducive to the comfort and happiness of life. But
Religion, Scripture, and Hebrew must never be absent from the
curriculum of studies of a Jewish child. The instruction in Religion
need not occupy much time, for the best teaching of Religion is the
good example set by the parents at home and the teacher in the
school. The religious training of a child should begin early; the
surroundings and associations must teach the child to act nobly, to
speak purely, to think charitably, and to love our Religion. “Train up a
child in the way he should go; and when he is old, he will not depart
from it” (Prov. xxii. 6). Early practical training (‫‏חנוך‬‎) is also of great
importance with regard to the observance of religious precepts.
Children should be accustomed to regard with reverence that which
is holy, to honour Sabbath and Festivals, and to rejoice in doing what
the Almighty has commanded. Twice a year we have special
occasion for the fulfilment of this duty, viz., on Simchath-torah and
on the Seder-evening.

In teaching our children Hebrew our aim must be to make them

understand the holy language, to enable them to read the Word of
God in the original, and to [481]pray to the Almighty in the language
in which the Prophets and the Psalmists gave utterance to their
inspirations, and in which our forefathers addressed the Supreme
Being in the Temple.

A special ceremony used to introduce the child into the study of the
Bible in the original. 163 Teacher and pupil went to the Synagogue,
took a sepher from the Hechal, and the pupil was made to read the
first lesson from the sepher. This and similar ceremonies were
intended as a means of impressing on the pupil the great
importance of studying the Word of God in the original language.
After having acquired a sound knowledge of the Bible, the study of
other branches of Hebrew literature, of Talmudical and Rabbinical
works, is approached.

As a rule, boys devote more time to Hebrew studies than girls, only
because girls are considered physically more delicate and not
capable of doing so much work as boys. Girls are by no means
excluded from acquiring a sound Hebrew knowledge; on the
contrary, every encouragement should be given to them, if they are
inclined to study Hebrew beyond the first elements. 164

The boy when thirteen years old is bar-mitsvah (lit., “a son of the
commandment”), bound to obey the Law, and responsible for his
deeds. On the Sabbath following [482]his thirteenth birthday the boy
is called up to the Law; he reads the whole of the Sidra or a section
of it, and declares in the blessings which precede and follow the
lesson his belief in the Divine origin of the Torah, and his gratitude
to God for having given us the Law. 165

The school-years come gradually to a close, and the practical

preparation for life begins. A vocation has to be determined upon.
From a moral and religious point of view all kinds of trade, business,
and profession are equal. They are honourable or base according as
they are carried on in an honourable manner or not. Whatever
course is chosen, the moral and religious training must continue with
unabated energy. When the school-years are over, when the youth is
no longer under the control of the master, and is sometimes left
even without the control of the parents, he is exposed to various
kinds of temptation, especially through the influence of bad society.
The vices against which the youth must guard himself most at this
period of life are sensuality, excessive desire for pleasure, gambling,
and dishonesty, which bring about his moral, social, and physical
ruin. Self-control, acquired through continued religious training, is
the best safeguard against these dangers. It is therefore advisable
that those who have left the school should continue attending some
religious class, or otherwise devote part of their free time to Talmud-
torah, to the study of the Torah, and of works relating to it.

“At the age of eighteen years one is fit for marriage” (Aboth, ibid.) is
an ancient dictum, but which [483]could never have been meant as
an absolute law. For there are other qualifications equally important,
and even more essential than age. Maimonides (Mishneh-torah, Hil.
Deoth v. 11) says: “Man should first secure a living, then prepare a
residence, and after that seek a wife. But fools act otherwise: they
marry first, then look out for a house, and at last think of the means
of obtaining a livelihood.” (Comp. Deut. xx. 5–7 and xxviii. 30.)

Marriage is called in the Bible “a divine covenant” (Prov. ii. 17), or

“the covenant of God.” God is, as it were, made witness of the
covenant; in His presence the assurances of mutual love and the
promises of mutual fidelity are given by husband and wife (Mal. ii.
14). To break this covenant is therefore not only an offence of the
one against the other, but an offence against God.—In addition to
this religious basis of marriage, conditions of a more material nature
were agreed upon. The maiden has been long of use in the house of
her parents, and he who sought the privilege of taking her to his
house and making her his wife had to give to the parents “dowry
and gift” (‫‏מהר ומתן‬‎, Gen. xxxiv. 12). Later on, in the time of the
Mishnah, all that the husband promised to his wife was made the
subject of a written document (‫‏כתובה‬‎), signed by two witnesses. In
this document he guarantees to her 200 zus (or half the sum if she
is a widow), the value of her outfit and dowry (in Hebrew ‫‏נדוניא‬‎),
and a certain amount added to the afore-mentioned obligatory sum
(‫‏תוספת כתובה‬‎). He further promises to honour her, work for her,
maintain her, and honestly provide her with everything necessary for
her comfort. [484]
The marriage was preceded by the betrothal (‫‏אירוסין‬‎or ‫‏קידושין‬‎),
the solemn promise on his part to take her after a fixed time to his
house as his wife, and on her part to consider herself as his wife and
to prepare herself for the marriage. Legally she was already his wife,
and infidelity was visited with capital punishment. The interval
between the betrothal and marriage used to be twelve months; at
present the two events are united in the marriage ceremony, and are
only separated from each other by an address or by the reading of
the kethubhah. That which is now called betrothal or engagement is
merely a preliminary settlement of the conditions of the marriage
(‫‏תנאים‬‎“conditions”). The conditions used to be written down,
including a fine (‫‏קנס‬‎) for breach of promise; the agreement used to
be followed by the breaking of a glass 166 and by a feast.

The actual betrothal takes place on the wedding-day, and consists

mainly of the following significant words addressed by the
bridegroom to his bride: ‫‏הרי את מקודשת לי בטבעת זו כדת משה‬
‫וישראל‬‎“Behold, thou art consecrated (betrothed) to me by this ring
according to the Law of Moses and of Israel.” While saying this he
places a gold ring 167 on the second finger of the [485]right hand. This
act is preceded by a berachah over wine, read by the celebrant while
holding a cup of wine in his hand, and the birchath erusin (“blessing
of betrothal”), in which God is praised for the institution of Marriage.
Bride and bridegroom, who during the ceremony stand under a
canopy (‫‏חופה‬‎), taste of the wine.

The canopy or chuppah 168 represents symbolically the future home

of the married couple, which they have to guard as a sanctuary, and
to render inaccessible to evil deeds, words, and thoughts that would
pollute it. The top of the canopy, which is formed of a curtain
(‫‏פרכת‬‎) of the Hechal, or of a talith, expresses the idea of sanctity.
After the birchath erusin the bridegroom makes the solemn
declaration 169 mentioned above: “Behold, thou art consecrated
(betrothed) unto me by this ring according to the Law of Moses and
of Israel,” 170 whereupon the kethubhah is read in Aramaic 171 or in
English, [486]and an address is sometimes given. Then follow the
‫‏ברכות נשואין‬‎(“Blessings of Marriage”), called also after their
number ‫‏שבע ברכות‬‎“Seven Blessings.” 172 The ceremony concludes
with the breaking of a glass and the mutual congratulations of
friends and relatives, expressed in the words Mazzal-tobh (‫‏מזל טוב‬‎
“Good luck”). 173

A banquet (‫‏סעודת נישואין‬‎) follows, which is a ‫‏סעודת מצוה‬‎. It is

introduced by the usual berachah (‫‏המוציא‬‎), and followed by Grace
and the “Seven Blessings.”

The following are a few of the various customs connected with a

Jewish marriage without being essential elements of the marriage
ceremony:—

(1.) On the Sabbath previous to the wedding-day the bridegroom,

his father, and the father of the bride are called up to the Law, and
offerings are made (mi shebberach) in honour of the bride and the
bridegroom. In some congregations Gen. xxiv. is read after the
Service, on the morning of the wedding-day.

(2.) Bride and bridegroom enter upon a new life; the wedding-day is
to them a day of rejoicing, but also a day of great solemnity. It is
kept as a day of earnest reflections, of prayer and fasting, till after
[487]the ceremony, when the fast is broken and the rejoicing begins.
The bridegroom adds in the Minchah amidah the Confession (‫‏ודוי‬‎) of
the Day of Atonement.

(3.) The good wishes of friends and relatives are variously

expressed. Rice, wheat, or similar things are thrown over the bride
and the bridegroom as a symbol of abundance and fruitfulness.

(4.) The feast is accompanied by speeches in praise of the bride and

bridegroom; it was considered a special merit to speak on such an
occasion (‫‏אגרא דהלולא מילי‬‎, Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 6b). The
bridegroom used to give a discourse (‫‏דרשה‬‎) on some Talmudical
theme, if he was able to do so. He received presents for it
(derashah-presents).

(5.) In the time of the Bible and the Talmud the feasting lasted
seven days.—The first day after the wedding used to be
distinguished by a fish dinner (‫‏סעודת דגים‬‎), in allusion to Gen. xlviii.
16.

In spite of all blessings and good wishes the marriage sometimes

proves a failure, husband and wife being a source of trouble and
misery the one to the other, instead of being the cause of each
other’s happiness. In such a case a divorce may take place, and man
and wife separate from each other. Divorce is permitted (Deut. xxiv.
1–4), but not encouraged; it is an evil, but the lesser of two evils. A
written document was required (‫‏ספר כריתות‬‎, ‫‏גט‬‎), and later
legislation made the writing and the delivery of the document
difficult and protracted, in order to facilitate attempts at
reconciliation; the fulfilment of the conditions agreed upon in the
kethubhah also tended to [488]render divorce a rare event. The
number of cases of divorce among the Jews is therefore
comparatively smaller than among other denominations, but still
unfortunately far too large, owing to want of foresight and reflection
in the choice of a companion for life.

There is a kind of obligatory marriage (‫‏יבום‬‎) and or obligatory

divorce (‫‏חליצה‬‎), viz., with regard to the widow of a deceased
brother who has died without issue (Deut. xxv. 5–10). Since the
abolition of polygamy 174 by Rabbenu Gershom (eleventh century) the
obligatory marriage has almost disappeared, and the obligatory
divorce (‫‏חליצה‬‎) must take place before the widow can marry
again. 175

We acknowledge the principle laid down in the Talmud, “The law of

the country is binding upon us” (‫‏דינא דמלכותא דינא‬‎), but only in so
far as our civil relations are concerned. With regard to religious
questions our own religious code must be obeyed. Marriage laws
include two elements—civil relations and religious duties. As regards
the former, we abide by the decisions of the civil courts of the
country. We must, therefore, not solemnise a marriage which the
law of the country would not recognise; we must not religiously
dissolve a marriage by ‫‏גט‬‎, unless the civil courts of law have already
decreed the divorce. On the other hand, we must not content
ourselves [489]with civil marriage or civil divorce; religiously, neither
civil marriage nor civil divorce can be recognised unless
supplemented by marriage or divorce according to religious forms.
Furthermore, marriages allowed by the civil law, but prohibited by
our religious law—e.g., mixed marriages; that is, marriages between
Jews and non-Jews—cannot be recognised before the tribunal of our
Religion; such alliances are sinful, and the issue of such alliances
must be treated as illegitimate. Those who love their Religion and
have the well-being of Judaism at heart will do their utmost to
prevent the increase of mixed marriages.

“To every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose under
the heaven: a time to be born, and a time to die” (Eccles. iii. 1, 2).
Life is a precious gift the Creator has given us; while there is breath
in our nostrils we thank Him for it, we pray to Him for its
prolongation, do everything in our power to preserve it, and consider
its wilful destruction a criminal act. But notwithstanding all this
“there is a time to die.” Life and death are equally mysteries to us;
we trust in the mercy of Him who has ordained life and death, that
both are for our good. Death is, therefore, not to be regarded with
dread and horror; it is the transition to another state of life, the real
nature of which is unknown to us. But it is our belief that the future
life (‫‏העולם הבא‬‎) is infinitely superior to the present life (‫‏העולם‬
‫הזה‬‎); hence the saying in the Midrash that the words “exceedingly
good” (Gen. i. 31) applied to death. The only fear of death that can
reasonably be justified is the fear of departing from this life before
we have completed our task, before we have sufficiently
[490]strengthened “the breaches of the house” caused by our own
dereliction of duty. Our Sages advise, “Return one day before thy
death” (Aboth ii. 15); that is, every day, the day of death being
concealed from our knowledge. In this manner we constantly
prepare ourselves for death without curtailing our enjoyment of life.
“Rejoice, O young man, in thy youth; and let thy heart cheer thee in
the days of thy youth, and walk in the ways of thine heart, and in
the sight of thine eyes: but know thou, that for all these things God
will bring thee into judgment. Therefore remove sorrow from thy
heart, and put away evil from thy flesh: for childhood and youth are
vanity” (Eccles. xi. 9, 10). When passion overcomes us and evil
inclinations invite us to sin, we are told by our Sages to remember
the day of death, which may suddenly surprise us before we have
been able by repentance to purify ourselves from our transgressions
(Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 5a).

When death approaches, and announces itself through man’s illness,

we do everything that human knowledge and skill can suggest to
preserve and prolong the earthly life with which God has endowed
us; in addition, the patient himself and his friends invoke the mercy
of God for his recovery. 176 Even when death appears invincible, when
“the edge of the sword touches already man’s neck, we do not
relinquish our hope in God’s mercy, and continue to pray to the All-
merciful.” The patient is asked to [491]prepare himself for the solemn
moment, although it may in reality be as yet far off. 177 The
preparation consists of prayer, meditation, confession of sin,
repentance, and of the profession of our Creed, especially of the
Unity of God, in the words, “Hear, O Israel, the Lord is our God, the
Lord is One.” 178 To visit the sick, to comfort them by kind words and
deeds, to pray with and for the patient, are acts included in the duty
of “visiting the sick” (‫‏בקור הולים‬‎). 179 In the moment of death those
present testify their faith in God by proclaiming the Dominion, the
Omnipotence, and the Unity of God in the same way in which we
make this declaration at the conclusion of the Day of Atonement.
Although Prayer-books contain certain forms of prayer for this
purpose, the patient and those present should rather follow the
impulse of their heart, and commune with the Almighty in any form
their heart suggests.

When life has come to an end friends and relatives give free
expression to their grief; 180 to check it by comforting words at this
moment is useless (Aboth iv. 18). The mourners, 181 father, mother,
son, daughter, brother, and sister, have now to direct all their
attention [492]to the deceased relative, in order that nothing be
neglected in the last honours shown to him; they are therefore free
from all other religious obligations till after the burial. In Palestine
and neighbouring countries, where, in consequence of the higher
temperature, decomposition of the body begins soon after death,
the burial takes place on the same day. 182 In colder climates two or
three days elapse between death and burial. The mourners abstain
during the interval from wine and meat.

Every act of piety in honour of the deceased is a meritorious

religious act, a mitsvah, an act of kindness and truth (‫)‏חסד ואמת‬,
and in every congregation there exists a society, called ‫‏חברא קרישא‬‎
“holy society,” whose members devote themselves to the fulfilment
of these pious duties.
According to the principle that death equalises all, that “the small
and great are there” (Job iii. 19), the greatest simplicity and equality
is observed in all matters connected with the obsequies 183 of the
dead. Friends and relatives follow to the burial-ground; the ‫‏הלוית‬
‫המת‬‎, or attending the dead to their last resting-place, 184 [493]is one
of those mitsvoth “the fruits of which a man enjoys in this world,
while the stock remains for him for the world to come.”

Burying the dead is a very old custom, to which the Jews adhered
firmly at all ages. The custom of the Greeks, who burnt their dead,
found no advocates among the Jews. In the Written and the Oral
Law only the burying of the dead is mentioned. To leave a human
body unburied and unattended was considered by Jews, as by other
nations, an insult to the deceased person, and whoever found such a
body was bound to take charge of it and to effect its burial. 185

In the Burial Service we acknowledge the justice of God, and resign

ourselves to the Will of the Almighty (‫‏צדוק הדין‬‎). When the burial is
over our attention is directed to the living; words of comfort are
addressed to the mourners 186 who return home and keep ‫‏שבעה‬‎
“seven days of mourning.” A certain degree of mourning is then
continued till the end of [494]the year by the children of the
deceased, and till the end of the month (‫‏שלשים‬‎“thirty days”) by
other relatives. 187

Our regard for the deceased (‫‏יקרא דשכבי‬‎) and our sympathies with
the mourners (‫‏יקרא דחיי‬‎) are expressed in different ways.

The funeral oration (‫‏הספד‬‎) occasionally spoken at the grave, or in

the house of mourning, or in the Synagogue, generally combines
both elements; it contains a eulogy upon the deceased and words of
sympathy and exhortation for the living.
The special prayers offered up on such occasions likewise include
these two elements: petitions for the well-being of the soul of the
deceased, that it may find Divine mercy when appearing before the
Supreme Judge, and petitions for the comfort and relief of the
mourners. The Kaddish of the Mourners, however, does not contain
such prayers, but merely expresses their resignation to the Will of
the Almighty, their conviction that He is the only Being that is to be
worshipped, and that He alone will be worshipped by all mankind in
the days of Messiah, and their wish that the arrival of those days
may be hastened.

There are, besides, the following customs, the object [495]of which is
to express our regard for the memory of the deceased: (1.) A
tombstone (‫‏מצבה‬‎) is set up in front of or over the grave with the
name of the deceased, the date of his death, and such words of
praise as are dictated by the love and the esteem in which the
deceased was held by the mourners. (2.) A lamp is kept burning 188
during the week, or the month, or the year of mourning, and on the
anniversary of the day of death (Jahrzeit). (3.) By observing the
anniversary of the death as a day devoted to earnest reflection, and
to meditation on the merits and virtues of the deceased; we keep
away from amusements, and say Kaddish in the course of the
Services of the day. Some observe the anniversary as a fast-day. (4.)
By doing some mitsvah 189 in commemoration of the deceased. (5.)
By regarding with respect and piety the wishes of the departed
relative or friend, especially those uttered when death was
approaching. Our Sages teach: “It is our duty to fulfil the wishes of
the departed.” 190 The absence of this inner respect and piety makes
all the outward signs of mourning, however conscientiously
observed, valueless and illusory. [496]
[Contents]

Notes.

In addition to the customs already mentioned, there are a few

calling for some observation, customs which might seem
superstitious, but are not so if properly understood.

When life is extinct the eyes of the deceased are closed, and in
some cases also the mouth is kept shut. This is probably done out of
regard for the dead, that their face should not present a too ghastly
and repulsive appearance. The custom is mentioned in the Mishnah,
Shabbath xxiii. 5, and is also alluded to in the words, “And Joseph
shall put his hands upon thine eyes” (Gen. xlvi. 4).

From the house in which there was a dead person, and from the
houses in its immediate neighbourhood, the water was poured out.
According to Num. xix., everything in the house—and, under certain
conditions, also in the neighbouring houses—was unclean; the water
was poured out, from fear lest it be used in preparing holy food,
such as terumah (“heave-offering”). Furthermore, a kohen is not
allowed to enter such a house, and the pouring away of the water
served as an indication that a dead person was in the house.

An important element in the preparation for the burial is the

“cleaning” and robing of the body (‫‏טהרה‬‎); the cleansing of the body
before it returns to the earth is to be a symbol of the purification of
the soul by the mercy of God.
It is customary that those who came into contact with the deceased
during his lifetime express regret for any offence they may have
committed, knowingly or unknowingly, against him—a good custom,
that might serve as an exhortation to us all to be careful in our
actions towards our living fellow-men.

Whenever we mention the name of a deceased friend or relative we

add, as a mark of respect, ‫‏עליהן) השלום‬‎or ‫‏עלין (עליה עליהם‬‎,
‫‏זכרונו (זכרונה) לברכה‬‎, ‫‏זכר צדיק לברכה‬‎or ‫‏נוחו (נוחה) עדן‬‎
(abbreviated, ‫ ע״ה‬,‫ ז״ל‬,‫‏זצל‬‎or ‫‏נ״ע‬‎), “Peace be to him (her or them),”
“his (or her) memory be for a blessing,” “the memory of the
righteous be for a blessing,” or “his (or her) rest be Eden.” Comp.
Zunz, Zur Literatur u. Geschichte. Similarly we add to the names of
living friends and relatives the wish ‫‏שיחיה‬‎(‫‏שתחיה‬‎), or ‫‏נרו יאיר‬‎“May
he (or she) live,” or “May his light continue to shine.” [497]
1 Lit., “The accepting of the yoke of the heaven’s dominion;” “The accepting of
the yoke of the precepts.” The expression “yoke” is here by no means
derogatory. It simply indicates the duty which in the one case “the dominion of
heaven,” and in the other case “the Divine precepts,” impose upon us. ↑ a b
2 Hebrew titles of books are often fanciful names, which more or less distinctly
imply either the nature or contents of the books, or the name of their authors.
The Hebrew names for the fourteen books of Mishneh-torah are as follows: (1)
‫‏מדע‬‎“Knowledge;” (2) ‫‏אהבה‬‎“Love;” (3) ‫‏זמנים‬‎“Seasons;” (4) ‫‏נשים‬‎“Women;” (5)
‫‏קדושה‬‎“Sanctification;” (6) ‫‏הפלאה‬‎“Distinction;” (7) ‫‏זרעים‬‎“Seeds;” (8) ‫‏עבודה‬‎
“Service;” (9) ‫‏קרבנות‬‎“Sacrifices;” (10) ‫‏טהרה‬‎“Purity;” (11) ‫‏נזיקין‬‎“Damages;”
(12) ‫‏קנין‬‎“Acquisition:” (13) ‫‏משפטים‬‎“Disputes;” (14) ‫‏שופטים‬‎“Judges.” Rabbenu
Jakob calls his work ‫‏ארבעה טורים‬‎“Four Rows,” a name borrowed from Exod.
xxviii. 17. The names of the four parts are: ‫‏ארח חיים‬‎“Path of Life” (Ps. xvi. 11);
‫‏יורה דעה‬‎“Teacher of knowledge” (Isa. xxviii. 9); ‫‏אבן העזר‬‎“Stone of Help” (1
Sam. vii. 12, and Gen. ii. 18), and ‫‏חשן משפט‬‎“Breastplate of Judgment” (Exod.
xxviii. 15). ↑
3 I.e., if a person has no fear of God, he is himself the sole cause of its absence,
and he alone is responsible for it. ↑
4 The words of the Mishnah are ‫‏בכל מדה ומדה שהוא מודד לך הוי מודה לו מאד‬‎
The meanings of three roots are combined in this interpretation of the words
‫‏בכל מאדך‬‎viz., ‫‏מאד‬‎“exceedingly,” ‫‏מודד‬‎“measuring,” and ‫‏מודה‬‎“thanking.” The
three words are similar in sound. ↑
5 The term ‫‏עיון תפלה‬‎(lit., “reflecting on prayer”) has two meanings: (1)
reflecting on the prayer while uttering it; devotion; in German, Andacht; (2)
reflecting on the prayer after having uttered it, while we are waiting for the sure
fulfilment of the wishes expressed in it. ↑
6 In the whole Book of Esther the name of God does not occur even once. It is
not mere chance; there are several passages where the mention of the Divine
Being is expected, and it is believed that the omission is due to the fear of a
subsequent desecration of the book in the hands of the Persians. ↑
7 I.e., the word consisting of four letters, yod, hé, vav and hé. ↑
8 E.g., by giving bad advice and transgressing the law, “Thou shalt not put a
stumbling block before the blind” (Lev. xix. 14). ↑
9 Comp. the saying, ‫‏לא עכברא גמבא אלא חורא‬‎“Not the mouse is the thief, but
the hole.” ↑
10 Those who become security for a stranger are blamed (Prov. vi. 1 seq.) as
acting rashly, and foolishly endangering their peace and welfare. ↑
11 See p. 294. ↑
12 The Hebrew is composed of the names of the three consecutive Sidras, Lev.
xvi.–xxiv. ↑
13 Lit., inquiring, scil., what the condition of the patient is, and what is needed for
his recovery. ↑
14 Comp. supra, p. 261. ↑
15 The prayer for the head of the State, beginning ‫‏הנתן תשועה למלכים‬‎has its
origin in this sense of loyalty towards the State in which we live. ↑
16 I.e., When the old and experienced counsel to pull down a house, the pulling
down is essential to its rebuilding; whilst the counsel of young and
inexperienced men to build may imply destructive elements. ↑
17 There are some exceptions to this rule:—The Reader wears the talith during
every Service; in some congregations mourners wear it when they recite
kaddish. On the Day of Atonement the whole congregation wear the talith during
all the Services. On the Fast of Ab the talith is put on before the Afternoon Service
instead of during the Morning Service. ↑
18 There are two forms of the blessing which accompanies the performance
[330]of a Divine precept: the precept is expressed (1) by a noun which is
preceded by the preposition ‫‏עא‬‎“concerning;” (2) by the infinitive of a verb
preceded by the preposition ‫‏ל‬‎“to,” e.g., “concerning the commandment of
tsitsith,” and “to wrap ourselves with a garment provided with tsitsith.” The latter
form is used (1) when the blessing is recited before the performance of the
mitsvah has commenced; (2) when he who performs the mitsvah is personally
commanded to perform it. In all other cases the first form is used. Hence ‫‏על מצות‬
‫ציצת‬‎, because we are, as a rule, not in a fit state for prayer when we put it on,
and therefore recite the blessing later on; ‫‏על מקרא מגלה‬‎; because he who reads
might just as well be one of the listeners. We say ‫‏להניח תפלין‬‎at the
commencement of the mitsvah; ‫‏על מצות תפלין‬‎before the second part. (See
Babyl. Talm. Pesachim, p. 7.) ↑
19The term ‫‏תפלין‬‎reminds us of ‫‏תפלה‬‎“prayer,” and denotes things used during
prayer. Originally it had probably the more general signification: ornament or
head-ornament; in the Chaldee Version it is the translation of ‫‏טטפות‬‎, which
denotes “head-ornament.” (Comp. Mishnah Shabbath vi. 1.) ↑
20 Two sides of the bayith have the shin impressed on them, the right and the left;
but in different forms, on the right the letter has three strokes (‫‏ש‬‎), on the left it
has four strokes ( ), in order to ensure the right order of the four paragraphs
(‫‏פרשיות‬‎) which the bayith contains from right to left. ↑
21 The knot formed by the ‫‏רצועות‬‎of the tefillah shel rosh has the shape of a
daleth, that of the tefillah shel yad is like a yod; these two letters added to the
shin of the tefillin shel rosh read shaddai, “Almighty.” ↑
22 In the evening it was but natural that tsitsith and tefillin should be laid aside, as
the greater part of the night was devoted to sleep; the rule was therefore
generally adopted: “The night is not the proper time for laying tefillin” (‫‏לילה לאו‬
‫זמן תפילין‬‎). The opposite principle, however, “The night is likewise a suitable time
for laying tefillin” (‫‏לילה זמן תפלין‬‎), had also its advocates among Rabbinical
authorities (Babyl. Talm. Menachoth 36b). ↑
23 With the completion of the thirteenth year a boy becomes of age in reference
to the fulfilment of all religious duties. He is then called Bar-mitsvah (lit. “a son
of the commandment”), a member of the Jewish community, upon whom devolve
all such duties as a Jew has to perform. On the Sabbath following that birthday he
is called to the Law, either to read a portion of the Sidra or to listen to its reading,
and publicly acknowledge God as the Giver of the Law. ↑
24 Compare p. 329. ↑
25 See Daily Prayer Book, Morning Service. ↑
26 There are, besides, on the back of the scroll, just behind the names of God in
the first line three words of a mystic character consisting of the letters following
in the alphabet the letters of these divine names. The words have in themselves
no meaning, and it may be that their object is simply to indicate from outside
where the names of God are written, and to prevent a nail being driven through
that part in fixing the mezuzah to the door-post. ↑
27 Mishneh-torah III., Zemannim, Hil. Shabbath, ch. xxx. § 1. ↑
28 Maimonides applies these terms to Sabbath; but they apply generally with
equal force to the Festivals. ↑
29 We “remember” also the Sabbath or Festival by naming after it the preceding
day, the night following, and in the case of Festivals the day [341]following: the
eve of Sabbath or Festival ‫‏ערב שבת‬‎, ‫‏ערב יום טוב‬‎; the night after Sabbath or
Festival, ‫‏מוצאי שבת‬‎, ‫‏מוצאי יום טוב‬‎; “the day after the Festival,” ‫‏אסרו חג‬‎(lit.,
“bind the Festival,” with reference to Ps. cxviii. 27). ↑
30 A similar ceremony takes place before the first meal in the morning. A cup of
wine or other spirituous liquor is poured out, some Biblical passages referring to
the Sabbath are recited, and the usual blessing is said before partaking of the
beverage. The blessing containing the Kiddush is not said, and the ceremony has
the name Kiddush or Kiddusha rabba, “great Kiddush,” only on account of its
similarity with the evening Kiddush. The passages recited are the following: Exod.
xxxi. 16, 17, xx. 8–11; Isa. lviii. 13, 14. ↑
31 ‫‏ברוך אתה … בורא פרי הגפן‬‎“Blessed art thou, O Lord, our God, King of the
universe, who hast created the fruit of the vine.” In the absence of wine, or if
wine is disliked or injurious to health, the blessing over bread is substituted for
that over wine.—The blessings are generally preceded by the word ‫‏סברי‬‎“Is it your
pleasure, scil., that I read?” whereby it is simply intended to call the attention of
the company to the prayer. ↑
32 See p. 352, on the difference between the holiness of Sabbath and that of
Festivals.—The last two ‫‏ברכות‬‎, viz. ‫‏בורא מאורי האש‬‎and [342]‫‏המבדיל‬‎are
added; the second part of the latter is slightly modified in order to suit the
transition from Sabbath to Festival.—The Habhdalah on the night following the Day
of Atonement consists of three ‫‏ברכות‬‎, that over spices being omitted, except if
Jom-kippur falls on Sabbath; in that case the Habhdalah includes all the four
‫‏ברכות‬‎. ↑
33 Habhdalah is likewise omitted when Sabbath is closely followed by the Fast of
Ab. On Sabbath night, eating and drinking being forbidden, only the one
blessing, ‫‏בורא מאורי האש‬‎is recited; that over spices is omitted, and the
remaining two blessings are recited on Sunday evening after the fast. ↑
34 Although the whole of the Day of Atonement is devoted to Divine Service, less
time is given to reading from the Law than on Sabbath, in order to leave more
time for Prayers, Confessions, and Meditations. Rabbi Akiba, however, was of
opinion that seven should be called up [347]to the Law on the Day of Atonement,
and six on Sabbath (B. Talm. Megillah 23a). ↑
35The distance allowed is called ‫‏תחום שבת‬‎“a Sabbath-journey,” and is 2000
cubits in every direction; it is reckoned from the outskirts of the place in which
we live. If, however, a person desires to perform a mitsvah, such as milah, at a
place distant about a double Sabbath-journey from his domicile, he may fix before
Sabbath his abode for that day half-way between the two places, and then
traverse on Sabbath the whole distance from the one place to the other. This
change of abode is called erubhe thechumin, “combination of two Sabbath-
journeys into one,” by changing the centre from which they are measured. ↑
36 They are called ‫‏אבות מלאכות‬‎“principal kinds of work,” and are those which
directly or indirectly were wanted in the erection of the Tabernacle, and were
therefore included in the prohibition of doing any work for this purpose (Exod.
xxxi. 15 and xxxv. 2).
There are certain things which cannot be brought under any of these heads, and
are nevertheless prohibited, because they frequently lead to a breach of the
Sabbath laws; e.g., riding in a carriage or in any kind of conveyance; playing
music. These prohibitions are called ‫‏שבות‬‎i.e., acts prohibited on Sabbath and
Holy-days by our Sages; or ‫‏גזרה‬‎(lit., “decree”), safeguard against breaking the
Law.
Divine precepts, however, ordained for the Sabbath—e.g., sacrifices—or for a
certain day, which happens to fall on a Sabbath—e.g., initiation of a male child
into the covenant of Abraham on the eighth day of its birth, or saving the life of a
fellow-man in case of illness or any other danger—must be performed although
they may involve any of the acts otherwise prohibited on the day of rest. ↑
37 The preparation of food is only permitted on Holy-days if wanted for the same
day, except when Sabbath follows immediately after the Holy-day. In that case
it is allowable to prepare the food for Sabbath on the Holy-day, provided such
preparation has commenced before and need only be continued on the Holy-day.
The preparation made for Sabbath before the Holy-day comes in is called erubh
tabhshilin, “combination of dishes,” i.e., of the dishes prepared for Sabbath on the
eve of the Festival (‫‏ערב יום טוב‬‎) and of those prepared on the Festival itself; it is
accompanied by a blessing and a declaration of the significance of the erubh. The
following is the blessing: ‫‏ברוך … אשר קדשנו במצותיו וצונו על מצות ערוב‬‎“Blessed
art thou … who hast [353]sanctified us by thy commandments, and hast ordained
for us the mitsvah of erubh.”
It may here be noted that there are, besides, three kinds of erubh, viz.:—
1. Erubh techumim. See above, page 350.
2. Erubh chatseroth (lit., “combination of the houses in a court”). According to the
traditional law, we must not carry anything on Sabbath from a private place (‫‏רשות‬
‫היחיד‬‎) into the street (‫‏רשות הרבים‬‎). The former is defined to be a locality
belonging to one person or family, and separated from the public by a fence. The
Jewish inhabitants of a court or a town closed on all sides combine to form one
family, and thus turn the ‫‏רשות הרבים‬‎into ‫‏רשות היחיד‬‎. The symbol of such
combination consists of some food kept in a room, to which all have access (e.g.,
the Synagogue). This is the origin and meaning of the Passover-cake (‫‏מצה‬‎) which
may still be noticed in some of the Continental Synagogues.
3. Erubh par excellence.—An opening left in a fence or wall round a ‫‏רשות היחיד‬‎
must at least have some token that indicates the closing of the space; e.g., a wire
drawn through the open space from one part of the fence to the other. Such
symbol is called erubh, “combination of the various parts of the fence or wall into
one.” Such erubh may likewise be noticed in some of the Continental towns. In all
these cases the symbol was not introduced for the purpose of permitting the
actual transgression of a law, but rather for the purpose of reminding us of what
the law forbids us to do; since, in fact, that which becomes permitted through
these symbols is even in their absence no direct breach of any of the Sabbath
laws. ↑
38 Comp. the two forms of the prayer ‫‏השכיבנו‬‎in the Evening Service for week-
days and for Sabbath, in the Spanish Ritual. ↑
39 ‫‏שבת היא מלזעוק ורפואה (ונחמה) קרובה לבוא ושבתו בשלום‬
“To-day is Sabbath and we must not lament, for recovery (comfort) is near to
come; now keep Sabbath in peace.” ↑
40 ‫‏עשה שבתך חול ואל תצטרך לבריות‬‎(B. Talm. Shabbath, 18a). ↑
41 Exod. xvi. 13, 14. ↑
42 Another explanation of this custom has been suggested. Bread and wine being
before us, it is doubtful which should have the preference for the purpose of
Kiddush; the bread is therefore covered, so that no choice is left (Tur Orach
Chayyim 271). Bread being the ordinary requisite at our meals, the use of wine for
Kiddush is considered more indicative of the distinction of the day. If, however,
wine is disliked or injurious, bread is used us its substitute (page 341, note 2). ↑
43 A peculiar ceremony may here be noticed. Some pass the knife over the bread
before the berachah is said. The origin of this custom is this: the rule has been
laid down that there should not be a long interval between the berachah and the
partaking of the food. The knife and the bread are therefore kept ready, and
originally an incision was made into the loaf in order to shorten that interval as
much as possible. ↑
44 ‫‏ברוך א׳ י׳ א׳ מ׳ ה׳ אשר קדשנו במצותיו וצונו להפריש חלה‬‎, “Blessed art thou, O
Lord, our God, King of the Universe, who hast sanctified us by thy
commandments, and commanded us to separate challah.” ↑
45 Comp. Mishnah Shabbath ii. 16. ↑
46 Some kindle the lights first, and then say the blessing whilst their hands are
spread out before the lights. The origin of this latter practice is this: It happens
sometimes that the housewife is not ready in time for kindling the lights, and lets
another do it for her, she reserving to herself the privilege of saying the berachah
later on. In that case the holding of the hands before the lights and withdrawing
them after the blessing represents symbolically the kindling of the lights. What
was originally done in exceptional cases became subsequently the rule. ↑
47 Calendar is derived from the Latin Calendæ, which signifies the first of the
month. The Hebrew term ‫‏לוח‬‎, used for “Calendar” or “Almanac,” denotes
“table” or “tablet.” In the Talmud. Sod (or Yesod) ha-ibbur is used in the sense of
“the theory of the Calendar:” [361]literally, the term denotes the fixing of the
additional day to the month or the additional month to the year. ↑
48 Or more exactly, 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3⅓ seconds. The technical
formula in Hebrew is: ‫‏כ״ט י״ב תש״צג‬‎29 days, 12​793⁄1080 hours. ↑
49 In the first month the barley becomes ripe; in the second the whole vegetation
of the country stands in its full splendour; in the seventh the hardy fruit, which
withstood the heat of the summer, ripens; and in the eighth the first rain of the
season comes down. ↑
50 The meaning of most of these names is uncertain. The two names Elul and
Tishri seem to denote “the disappearance” and “the beginning” of the year. ↑
51 The adjustment is necessary for the right observance of Passover, which must
be celebrated in the first month (Exod. xii. 2), the month of Abib (Deut. xvi. 1),
that is, in the spring, when in Palestine the corn begins to ripen. Without the
periodical insertion of a month, Passover would be celebrated in every succeeding
year eleven days earlier than in the previous one, and in course of time at
different seasons, contrary to the Law. ↑
52 The Hebrew term ‫‏חדש‬‎has a double meaning “beginning of the month” and
“month;” comp. ‫‏שבת‬‎, “day of rest,” and also “week,” or the period that passes
between two consecutive Sabbaths. ↑
53 In Hebrew molad, “birth.” ↑
54 The molad of Tishri in the year 1 is assumed to have been on Sunday evening
between eleven and twelve. (‫‏בהר״ד‬‎) ↑
55 In this tradition the period of the Persian rule in Palestine, which lasted over
two centuries, is contracted to thirty-four years. It is possible that the years
were counted according to the years of Release (‫‏שמטה‬‎) or the years of the
Jubilee, and these were probably not kept immediately after the return of the Jews
from Babylon. ↑
56 See Mishnah, Megillah iii. 4. ↑
57 Talm. Jerush., Shekalim i. 1. ↑
58 Mishnah, Shekalim i. 1. ↑
59 According to Tradition, Exod. xii. 2 not only deals with the appointment of Nisan
as the first month of the year, but implies also the rules for fixing ‫‏ראש חדש‬‎,
New-moon, or the first of the month; and this verse, with its traditional
interpretation, was therefore considered as the basis of the Jewish Calendar.
Hence the prominence given to this section of the Pentateuch by having it read on
the 1st of Nisan or on the Sabbath before the 1st of Nisan. ↑
60 Various reasons are given for this title. According to Tradition, the 10th of Nisan
in the year of the Exodus was on Saturday; it was considered a great event, a
miracle, in fact, that the Israelites could on that day select a lamb for sacrifice
without being molested by their Egyptian masters, who at other times would have
stoned them for such daring (Exod. viii. 22). Another reason is this: The Sabbath
before any of the chief Festivals was called the great Sabbath on account of
[372]the instruction sought and given respecting the importance and the
observances of the coming Festival (see Zunz, Ritus. p. 9). This name has only
been preserved in the case of the Sabbath before Passover.—It is, however,
possible that “the great day,” the predominant idea in the haphtarah of the day,
suggested the name.
It is the custom in some congregations to read in the Afternoon-service of
Shabbath haggadol part of the Haggadah instead of the Psalms (civ. and cxx.–
cxxxiv.). ↑
61 The word ‫‏פסח‬‎“Passover,” signifies (1) the act of passing over or sparing (Exod.
xii. 11); (2) the sacrifice of passover, especially as object to the verb ‫‏עשה‬‎“to
make” (ibid. 47, 48); (3) the time when the passover was offered and consumed;
i.e., the 14th of Nisan, afternoon and evening (Lev. xxiii. 5; Num. xxviii. 16); (4)
the whole of Passover (Mishnah, and in all post-Biblical literature).
The day on which an Israelite brought a sacrifice was a Festival to him and his
family; and no work was done on that day. Accordingly on the afternoon of the
14th of Nisan, ‫‏ערב פסח‬‎, the time fixed for the Passover-offering, no work was
done; some abstained from [373]work the whole day (Mishnah, Pesachim iv. 1;
comp. also ibid. 5).—It is customary for the first-born to fast the whole or part of
‫‏ערב פסח‬‎(Talm. Jerus. x. 1, and Masecheth Soferim xxi. 3). They might rather be
expected to feast in memory of the deliverance of the first-born Israelites in Egypt.
But the case is similar to that of Purim. Both the day of danger and the day of
victory are celebrated; the one by fasting (fast of Esther), the other by feasting
(Purim). So here the 14th of Nisan was for the first-born the day of danger, the
following night the season of deliverance. Hence the fasting during the day and
the feasting in the evening. The day suggests thoughts like the following: Our
forefathers were saved from danger: should we deserve to be saved if danger
threatened us? Such reflections may have been the origin of the fast of the first-
born on the eve of Passover. Some also fast on this day, or at least abstain on it
from a full meal, in order to do honour to the festive meal in the evening and
approach it with appetite (‫‏לתיאבון‬‎). A similar custom obtains, though not to the
same extent, on the eve of Sabbath and of every Festival (Mishnah, Pesachim x.
1). ↑
62 Within the four days there was ample time for examining the lamb, whether it
was really ‫‏תמים‬‎, without blemish, and fit both for sacrifice and for human food.
—Some suggest that the keeping of the lamb for four days was to be a test of the
faith of the Israelites, whether they would obey the Will of God in spite of the
dreaded wrath of the Egyptians. ↑
63 Their faith in God had to be shown by their willingly going forth whither the
command of God led them, without taking with them any provision for the
journey. The lamb which they had prepared was to be consumed before they left
Egypt, and whatever was left had to be burnt. This was probably also the object of
the precepts that no bone of the lamb was to be broken, and no part of it was to
be carried from one house to another; for the breaking of the bones and the
carrying part of the meat about from place to place would facilitate its being
stored away for the journey.—Other precepts, which implied haste and readiness,
e.g., the roasting it with fire, eating it with loins girded, &c., were to teach the
Israelites the lesson that they were to be always ready and willing to do God’s
bidding. ↑
64 An instance of Passover being put off because of the unfitness of the priests to
offer up sacrifices is met with in the Second Book of [376]Chronicles (xxx. 2). It
seems similar to the rule of Pesach sheni, but is in reality different from it. King
Hezekiah did not put off the Passover sacrifice for a month on account of the
uncleanness of the priests, but he made the preceding year a leap-year, and the
month which would have been the second became the first, whilst the first was
counted as the thirteenth of the past year (comp. Mishnah, Pesachim iv. 9). ↑
65 It is only the fermentation of any of these five kinds of grain that forms ‫‏חמץ‬‎.
Fermentation of grapes or other fruit constitutes no ‫‏חמץ‬‎. ↑
66 ‫‏חמץ‬‎is both ‫‏אסור באכילה‬‎and ‫‏אסור בהנאה‬‎(Mishnah, Pesachim ii. 1). ↑
67 It is now the custom to eat ‫‏חמץ‬‎on Erebh Pesach, only during the first third of
the day; i.e., till about ten o’clock in the morning (ibid. i. 4). ↑
68 Ibid. i. 1.—The evening was chosen for this task, because with a taper or lamp
the corners and dark recesses can be better searched than by daylight. Besides,
in the evening, when every one has finished his day’s work, people are more at
ease to do the searching in a thorough manner. ↑
69 The formula with ‫‏על‬‎is employed here, because we need not do the searching
by ourselves; it may be done by a substitute.—Although we only search in the
evening, we use the term ‫‏על ביעור חמץ‬‎“concerning the removal or the
destruction of the chamets,” because this removal or destruction is the object of
the searching. ↑
70 The declaration, printed usually on the first page of the Haggadah, is made
twice: once in the evening after the searching of the chamets, and once in the
morning after its removal; with this difference, that in the evening only the
chamets that has not been found is disclaimed; in the morning all chamets, if left
in the house, is disclaimed, whether it has been noticed in the course of searching
or not. ↑
71 There are different kinds of the process of kasher: (1) by making the articles in
question red hot—this applies to the iron oven and other iron vessels; (2) by
dipping the vessel in boiling water, or pouring boiling water over it, or letting the
water in the vessel boil over. The object of this process is to free the vessel from
any chamets it may have [379]absorbed.—Before the process of kasher begins, the
vessel must, of course, be thoroughly cleaned. ↑
72 The four cups of wine are not taken at once; but one serves for Kiddush, as on
Sabbath and Holy-days; the second is taken at the conclusion of the first part of
the Seder; the third after Grace, it being customary also on ordinary days to take a
cup of wine after Grace; the fourth at the conclusion of the second part of the
Seder. The four cups [380]are also said to indicate our joy in reference to four
elements constituting the redemption, and implied in the four terms: ‫‏והוצאתי‬‎,
‫‏וגאלתי‬, ‫‏והצלתי‬‎, and ‫‏ולקחתי‬‎, (Exod. vi. 6, 7), liberation from bondage, deliverance
from service, redemption from all dependence on Egypt, and appointment as “the
people of the Lord.”—These four cups were considered of such importance for the
Seder-evening that the poor were provided as of right with wine for the arba
kosoth (Mishnah, Pesachim x. 1).—Although the number of the four cups of wine
is sanctioned by the reference to the above four expressions of redemption, a fifth
cup may, if needed, be interpolated before singing Ps. cxxxvi. (Tosaphoth,
Pesachim 117b).
It is customary to pour in an extra cup and keep it ready for any new-comer that
might join the company. The cup is called ‫‏כוס של אליהו‬‎“the cup of Elijah,”
because his advent may be looked for at any time. Comp. Mal. iii. 23. ↑
73 Two of them are the “double portion,” ‫‏לחם משנה‬‎, of Sabbath and Holy-day.
The third represents the ‫‏לחם עני‬‎“bread of poverty,” and is therefore broken
into pieces, in order to be distinguished from the others as “bread of poverty.” The
bread of poverty is intended to remind us of the bread of poverty or affliction
eaten by our forefathers when kept as slaves in Egypt. But les extrèmes se
touchent; it is remarkable that this very term ‫‏לחם עני‬‎admits also of the meaning
“bread of song,” and has been interpreted to signify the bread eaten at a joyous
meal, such as the Israelites in Egypt ate the night of their liberation. It is possible
that the author of the opening paragraph of the Haggadah purposely employed
the term ‫‏לחם עניא‬‎in this double sense (Pes. 115a).
Among some Israelites it is the custom to style the three unleavened cakes,
Cohen, Levi, and Israel. The three matsoth, as a play upon words, are also called
mitsvoth, “commandments;” i.e., matsoth employed in fulfilment of the
commandment, “In the evening ye shall eat unleavened bread.” These matsoth
are distinguished from the rest by being baked especially for this purpose. Some
are careful in regard to these matsoth to have every process in their preparation,
from the cutting of the wheat to the baking of the matsoth, done for the express
purpose of the Seder, and to have the wheat and the flour well guarded from
moisture or any foreign admixture. Matsoth prepared in this way [381]are called
‫‏מצה שמורה‬‎, “guarded matsoth.” People still more particular have all their
unleavened bread for Passover prepared in this way. ↑
74 The vegetables, that were ordinarily taken as a relish and a means of producing
appetite for the meal, have only been introduced here (Pesachim 114b) for the
purpose of attracting the attention of the children. According to the custom of
those ancient days, the master of the house had before him a table covered with
the different dishes required for the meal, and sent portions to every member of
the company. When the meal was finished, before Grace, this table was removed.
But on the Seder-evening the table was removed immediately after the partaking
of a little parsley or other vegetables. The child, accustomed on ordinary evenings
to have supper without such an introduction, asks expressly or implicitly why
things are different to-night, adding also other questions. Instead of parsley, other
vegetables, or even some of the bitter herbs, may be taken. This last act not being
an essential element in the Service, and not being obligatory, is not preceded by
the berachah, “Blessed art thou … who hast commanded us, &c.,” but “Blessed art
thou … who hast created the fruit of the earth.”—At present the table is not
removed, but the lifting up of the Seder-dish while reciting the first paragraph (‫‏הא‬
‫לחמא‬‎) is the survival of that custom. ↑
75 Two views are expressed in the Talmud concerning charoseth: (1) it is a
medicinal protective against the evil effects of the bitter herbs; (2) it is an
essential part of the mitsvah, a symbol and reminder of the bricks and mortar with
which the Israelites had to do the work imposed on them by their taskmasters (B.
Talm., Pesachim 115b); it may also serve to suggest to us the idea that there is a
means of softening the bitterness of oppression, viz., faith in God (Mishnah,
Pesachim x. 3). ↑
76 The bone and the egg are symbols of two dishes that used in the time of the
Temple to be on the table: the Passover sacrifice and the festive offering called
‫‏חגיגה‬‎; the latter was added when the company was large (ibid. vi. 3, and B.
Talm., Pes. 114b). ↑
77 The eating of anything dipped in water or in any other liquid was usually
preceded by the washing of the hands. But as the eating of vegetables at this
point is not obligatory, the reader alone washes his hands, but without reciting the
blessing, ‫‏על נטילת ידים‬‎. ↑
78 See p. 381, note 1. ↑
79 Comp. p. 380, note 1. The part laid aside is called afikuman, a name of which
many curious etymologies have been suggested. The meaning is clear; it is that
which is eaten just before the table is removed (p. 381, note 1), or before the
dishes are cleared away: the dessert. The name is therefore a compound of two
Chaldaic words, afiku-man, “dish-remover,” i.e., the dessert after which all dishes
are removed and the company is ready for Grace (B. T. Pesachim 86a Rashi). ↑
80 The term is derived from the words of the Pentateuch, ‫‏והגדת לבנך‬‎“And thou
shall tell thy son” (Exod. xiii. 8). Hence also the name of the book Haggadah. ↑
81 The first paragraph is not an invitation sent forth to those whom it cannot
reach, but an appeal to those present to join heartily in the Service and the
succeeding meal; that none should feel ashamed of his poverty, none elated on
account of his possessions; all having been brethren in past troubles, and in the
deliverance from them, and all destined alike to share in the glories of the coming
redemption. ↑
82 The questions have been arranged according to their importance; otherwise the
third question might have been expected first (see p. 381, note 1). The
expression “dipping” (‫‏טבול‬‎) used in this question merely signifies “taking some
relish,” in distinction from the real and solid meal, and the meaning of the question
is, “Why do we to-night partake twice of the vegetables before approaching the
actual meal? It indicates a festive supper. What is the reason for this?” ↑
83 The three different forms correspond perhaps to the three characters or ages of
the inquirers: the ignorant, the simple, and the sceptic; [384]whilst the answer
to the wise has not been formulated, but depends on his question, and the
capacity of the father to instruct him. It is only the general question as to the
difference between the Seder-evening and other evenings that is answered in
these three forms. Each of these forms was probably followed by the explanation
of Pesach, Matsah, and Maror. ↑
84 The Midrashic comparison of “finger of God” to “His hand” and the
multiplication of the number of plagues must not be understood as intended to
gratify our feeling of revenge, but merely as a simple and child-like illustration of
the greatness of the Divine Power displayed on those occasions.—Rabbi Jehudah,
probably from a feeling of tender sympathies with the sufferers, would not
mention even the full names of the plagues, but merely indicated them by initial
letters. ↑
85 It seems that in the time of the Talmud the one piece was eaten after the first
blessing, and the other after the second. As, therefore, [386]the partaking of
matsah has taken place before the second blessing, the formula ‫‏על אכילת מצה‬‎is
used (see p. 329, note 2). The same is the case with regard to the blessing before
“eating bitter herbs,” as it was not contrary to usage to partake of bitter herbs
instead of karpas at the beginning of the Service. ↑
86 The afikuman has been reserved wrapped in a napkin (reminding of Exod. xii.
34), in order that the meal should finish up with matsah, just as in the time of
the Temple it finished up with meat of the Passover-sacrifice.—In the Talmud (Pes.
109a) the rule is given ‫‏וחוטפין מצה‬‎“We make haste to come quickly to the eating
of matsah,” before the younger members of the company become drowsy or fall
asleep. The words ‫‏וחוטפין מצה‬‎have erroneously been interpreted, “We should
snatch away the matsah,” and this interpretation caused the Service to be
accompanied by a certain kind of childish amusement: some one of the company
stealthily possesses himself of the matsah laid aside for afikuman, and does not
surrender it until the master of the house promises him some present—The
custom is unseemly and ought to be discouraged. ↑
87 After Grace a few verses from the Bible (Ps. lxxix. 6, 7, and Lam. iii. 66) have
been added, beginning ‫‏שפך חמתך‬and containing a prayer for God’s wrath to
be poured forth over the godless people who seek the destruction of Israel. The
cause of the addition is this: The season of Passover was, in the Middle Ages, a
season of constant terror and danger to the Jews, because of the hostilities of
their Christian neighbours against them. Helpless and defenceless, the Jews had
no other way of meeting their foe than to cry to Him “who is near to all who call
upon Him in truth.” The conduct of their neighbours towards them hardly
suggested thoughts of love, especially at that moment. For it frequently happened
that several families met in one house for the purpose of hearing the Seder-
Service. They dispersed after the first part of the Service, took their meals at
home, and assembled later in the evening for the second part of the Seder.
Sometimes another course was taken. One person read the Service in several
houses consecutively for the benefit of those who were not capable of doing so for
themselves; then, after having had his meal, he began his circuit again for reading
the second part of the Service. The return of the Reader or of the several families
was anxiously waited for. The opening of the door before ‫‏שפך חמתך‬‎, at present
meaningless, had its origin in this circumstance. On returning to the second part of
the Service, the guests had too often a sad tale to tell of their experiences in the
street, and filled with indignation, they gave expression to their feeling in the
above verses. We continue to read these verses now, but in a different spirit. We
live in peace with our neighbours, protected by the laws of the country and
unmolested in the performance of our religious duties. We have nothing but
feelings and thoughts of love for our fellow-men, and in reciting these verses we
merely condemn the wickedness of those who seek the destruction of the people
of the Lord. Our Christian neighbours may certainly join us in this condemnation. ↑
88 Comp. Isa. xl. 2. ↑
89 An omer is, according to Tradition, equal to the space occupied by 43⅙ eggs of
ordinary size; it is about half a gallon. ↑
90 Or ‫‏היום … לעמר שהם …‏‬‎(Portug. Ritual). ↑
91As the month of Iyar corresponds to some extent to May, some assert, without
foundation, that the Jews hold no weddings this month, because May is held by
non-Jews to be an unlucky season for marriages. Jews who refuse to celebrate
marriages in May for this reason are guilty of gross superstition. ↑
92 According to the traditional interpretation of ‫‏ממחרת השבת‬‎“from the morrow
after the Sabbath,” the term “Sabbath” signifies “day of rest” or “festival,” and
refers to the first day of Passover (comp. Lev. xxiii. 32). The Sadducees, and
afterwards the Karaites, contested the correctness of this interpretation, but
without success (see Babyl. Talm., Menachoth 65; and Ibn Ezra on Lev. xxiii. 15). ↑
93The collection of these passages is called ‫‏תקון לליל שבועות‬‎. A similar
collection for the seventh night of Tabernacles is called ‫‏תקון לליל הושענא רבא‬‎.
See p. 398, note 1. ↑
94 On Sabbath the lulabh is not taken, because it might be necessary to carry it
from place to place through the street (‫‏רשות הרבים‬‎), and [397]this is forbidden
(see Mishnah, Shabbath i. 1 and vii. 2). For the same reason the shofar is not
blown on the first day of New-year, if it happens to fall on Saturday. In the Temple,
however, there was no occasion for the above apprehension; the lulabh was
therefore taken and the shofar was blown on Sabbath (Mishnah, Succah iv. 1, and
Rosh ha-shanah iv. 1). ↑
95 In the Temple willow-branches were placed round the altar, the shofar was
blown, and the priests made then a circuit round the altar, with the lulabh in
their hands, and singing part of Hallel.—The hoshaanoth refer chiefly to the
redemption of Israel and the rebuilding of the Temple.—The circuit round the altar
reminds us of the taking of Jericho, and strengthens our hope that in future also
the Almighty will be with us, and help us through all difficulties to ultimate
victory. ↑
96 The lulabh alone is mentioned in the blessing, because it is the most
prominent, and the other three species seem to be its appendages.—The form
‫‏על נטילת‬‎is explained by the fact that we generally hold the four species in our
hand, and thus commence the mitsvah, before the berachah (see p. 329, note 2).
—The three species, palm-branch, myrtle, and willow, are usually bound together
by means of leaves of the palm-tree. Some used to add golden bands to these
leaves (Mishnah, Succah iii. 8). ↑
97 Mishnah, Succah iv. 5.—In the Temple the shofar was sounded during the
priests’ circuit round the altar. A similar custom exists in the Spanish and
Portuguese Synagogues on Hoshaana-rabba.—Tradition attributed great
importance to the Morning Service on Hoshaana-rabba, and made it a kind of
sequel to the Service on the “Solemn Days,” as if to give another opportunity of
repentance to those who had not made full use of the means of grace afforded by
the Day of Atonement, before the final sentence (‫‏גמר חתימה תובה‬‎) is