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New Topics in Superconductivity Research 1st Edition
Barry P. Martins Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Barry P. Martins
ISBN(s): 9781594549854, 1594549850
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 11.46 MB
Year: 2006
Language: english
NEW TOPICS IN
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY RESEARCH
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NEW TOPICS IN
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY RESEARCH
BARRY P. MARTINS
EDITOR
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Preface vii
Chapter 1 Hot Electron Non Equilibrium High Temperature 1
Superconductor THz Radiation Sensing and the Integrated
Electron Cooling
M.M. Kaila
Chapter 2 Use of Acoustic Emission in Studying High-Tc 45
Superconducting Phenomena
E. Dul’kin and M. Roth
Chapter 3 Van Hove Scenario for High Tc Superconductors 73
J. Bok and J. Bouvier
Chapter 4 Studies of YBCO Electromagnetic Properties for High- 107
Temperature Superconductor Maglev Technology
Honghai Song, Jiasu Wang, Suyu Wang, Zhongyou Ren,
Xiaorong Wang, Oliver de Haas, Gunter Fuchs, Ludwig
Schultz
Chapter 5 Study of High Temperature Superconductor 157
Liang FangYing
Chapter 6 Studies of Cu-based High Temperature Superconductors by 195
Using Coincidence Doppler Broadening of the Electron
Positron Annihilation Radiation Measurement Technique
Mahuya Chakrabarti, D. Sanyal, A. Sarkar, S. Chattopadhyay
Chapter 7 Comparative Study of Statisics of Cooper’s Electron Pairs in 223
Low-Temperature Superconductors and Coupled Holes Pairs
in High Tc Ceramics
I.G. Kaplan and O. Navarro
Chapter 8 Unified Explanation for the Nine Features of Inhomogeneities 239
of Gap and Superconductivity in the High-Tc Cuprates
Fu-sui Liu and Yumin Hou
vi Barry P. Martins
power of the laser pump, provides for the electrons, the AC ( alternating current ) bias. The
DC ( direct current ) bias is carried out by, a fixed, I ( current ) through or V ( Voltage )
across the device. The sensor is operated, in the hot electron mode i.e. near the critical
temperature Tc of the superconductor.The THz thermal sensors based on the ' hot electron
phenomena',like any other thermal sensor, require cooling of the electrons.This may be an
external, and or an internal ( self ) cooling. A convenient, thermoelectric method of cooling,
for the HTSC sensors, is the aim in the development of the sensor.The heated electrons, due
to Ac and DC bias, are above the lattice temperature. Hot electrons, are easy to manipulate,
at the THz frequencies. The quasiparticle excitations, resulting from the electron-phonon
thermaldynamics, provide the desired tool of sensing. These excitations have relaxation time
of 10-12 - 10-15s, in the HTSCs. The superconducting coherence length in HTSCs, is much
shorter in comparison to that found in low temperature superconductors ( LTSCs ). This puts
a much lower limit, on the workable dimensions in space,in the superconducting film, for use
as an HTSC sensor.HTSC thermal sensing provides a tool, between temperatures 50-140K,for
making a convenient class of THz band of radiation sensors. This window of the
electromagnetic radiation spectrum ( 10-5 m to 10-3 m wavelength ), provides a faster and yet
invisible light,for applications, in communication, astronomy and medicine. In order for the
electrons, to be an efficient means of sensing the THz radiation, they must loose heat, at a
very fast rate.This should happen as close as possible to the point of incidence, of the incident
radiation. This means electrons need to travel as short a distance, as possible, in the sensor,
before being collected. The devices developed so far, have electron heat dissipation, mainly
via the sensor film-substrate, system. In this system, the electron-phonon interactions, with
the relaxation time 10-12-10-15s, lasting on a much wider space,control the ultimate speed of
the sensor. The phonons are an obstruction to the fast movement of the electrons, away from
the sensitive areas of the sensor. They originate, in the sensor film material, and also as a
result of the back flow from the substrate. This is after the sensitive area has been heated by
the laser beam. The DC boas also adds its share of heating to the sensor,raising the average
temperature of the sensor, above that of the substrate.
It is an easy way out, but costly and cumbersome, to use mK range of temperatures, to
reduce electron-phonon interactions. The much reduced phonon specific heat, at mK
temperatures, provides the much desired environment, for the easy transport of the electrons,
but with the added complexity of a cryogenics infrastructure. One can produce scatter free
travel, of the electrons in the film, in various alternate ways. One possible way would be, to
design, a regiment of superconducting dots, on a low dimensional structure,thermeolectric
film. The interface of the, HTSC-thermeolectric junctions, so produced, can be used, as an
efficient source of highly mobile electrons.The output can then be collected, as an integrated
signal from the dots. May be one can sandwich, an insulating layer, in between, the
superconducting and thermeolectric layers, to achieve tunneling of the electrons, with
minimum back flow of the heat. The materials considered highly efficient, in thermal
sensing, at present, are the low temperature superconductors ( LTSCs ).Typical examples are
Al, Pb, Nbn, etc. and are operated at mK temperatures.The specific heat of the phonons at mK
temperatures, is very low ~ 102J/K/m3. The specific heat of the electrons may be, slightly
higher or lower than that of the phonons. At these low temperatures, electrons travel almost
free of interactions with the phonons. In the case of HTSCs, e.g. YBaCuO, BiSrCaCuO,
etc., the scenario is quite different. Here, the specific heat of the electrons is high ~
104J/K/m3. The specific heat of the phonons is much higher ~106J/K/m3. The phonons, play a
Preface ix
very deleterious role, in the performance of an HTSC thermal sensor. A new ray of hope, in
the direction of efficient electron cooling, with minimum involvement of phonons, has now
emerged. It is by virtue of the nano structure, thermoelectric cooling, materials and devices,
operating between 50 and 200K. Band gap engineering using nano structures, can channel
much faster electrontransport in low dimensions. Integrated cooling, can be provided by the
already well known thermoelectric cooling materials e.g. Bi-Sb-Te compounds, or the
recently developed Zr,Ti penta-tellurides. The low dimensional materials and structures,
under investigation world wide, now form a suitable class of materials, for the required
thermoelectric cooling. They have the capability, to bridge the cooling gap, 50 to 200K.
These new materials, have a strong potential, for developing self ( Peltier ) cooling devices,
for an efficient operation of the HTSC thermal sensors. It is the purpose of Chapter 1 to bring
home, the importance of the HTSCs, as a suitable class of thermal sensing materials, with
integrated electronic cooling, as compared to the LTSCs. In the case of the HTSCs, it is
convenient to use, liquid nitrogen as a refrigerant. A thermoelectric or a combination with
liquid nitrogen, if required, as the cooling technique, would also be an
achievement.Thermoelectric cooling, is very economical in space, and does not involve,
moving parts, thus very quiet in operation. A simple current manipulation of the devices,
provides the desired temperature control.
As discussed in Chapter 2, acoustic emission is widely known as a nondestructive method
for investigating the dislocation movement and accumulation accompanying plastic
deformation as well as the generation and propagation of cracks in solid state materials
subjected to mechanical stress. Other extensively studied sources of acoustic emission include
martensitic phase transitions in metals and alloys under thermal ramping and martensitic-like
structural phase transitions in ferroelectric and ferroelastic materials under both thermally and
electric field induced stresses. During the last decade, the acoustic emission method has been
successfully applied to studying the physical properties of high-Tc superconductors under
variable temperature, electric current and external magnetic field conditions. The most
important issues emphasized in the present review are: (i) superconducting and structural
phase transitions in a wide temperature range, (ii) kinetics of superconducting ceramics
sintering and oxygenation, (iii) dislocation mechanisms of mechanical work hardening during
long term thermal cycling and (iv) magnetic flux penetration into the superconductor and flux
lines pinning and interaction. Most of the results have been obtained with YBCO
(YBa2Cu3Ox) ceramics, yet some properties of BISCCO (Bi2Sr2CaCu2Ox) high-Tc
superconducting composite tapes have been also addressed. The authors show that by
monitoring the acoustic emission bursts it is possible to measure the temperature hysteresis of
phase transitions and to reveal their order, to determine the temperature of maximal oxygen
absorption (and calculate the absorption kinetic coefficient) as well as to measure the lower
critical magnetic field Hc1 and the full penetration field H* under electrical current transport.
The cumulative results demonstrate that acoustic emission method is an indispensable tool for
studying the high-Tc superconducting phenomena.
In Chapter 3, the authors give a general description of their approach which explains
many physical properties in the superconducting and normal states of almost all 2D high Tc
superconductors (HTSC). This 2D character leads to the existence of Van Hove singularities
(VHs) or saddle points in the band structure of these compounds. The presence of VHs near
the Fermi level in HTSC is now well established. They review some physical properties of
these materials which can be explained by this scenario, in particular: the critical temperature
x Barry P. Martins
Tc, the anomalous isotope effect, the superconducting gap and its anisotropy, and
thermodynamic and transport properties (eg: Hall effect). The effects of doping and
temperature are also studied, and they are directly dependent of the position of the Fermi level
relative to the VHs position. They show that these compounds present a topological transition
for a critical hole doping p ≈ 0.21 hole per CuO2 plane. Most of these compounds are
disordered metals in the normal state, they think that the Coulomb repulsion is responsible for
the loss of electronic states at the Fermi level, leading to a dip, or the so-called “pseudo-gap”.
Melt textured YBa2Cu3O7−δ superconductor has been widely used in the field of high
temperature superconductor (HTS) Maglev technology, such as the flywheel energy storage
system and the transportation system. The induced (shielded) current may flow at large
density without loss, circulating in large single-grained superconductors. So they can be used
as permanent magnet, but with much higher magnetic fields. However, before good
engineering designs for these applications can be derived, a deeper understanding of the
magnetic behavior of YBCO superconductor must be obtained. Therefore, the studies on the
electromagnetic properties of HTS YBCO bulks are reported for Maglev technology in
Chapter 4. Both experimental and computational results have been discussed in terms of
Electromagnetic Properties of Bulk High Temperature Superconductor for HTS Maglev
Technology. It was found that not only growth sector boundaries (GSB) between the five
growth sectors (GS) but also superconduction property variations in these growth sectors
contribute to inhomogeneities of bulk YBCO. Experiments were designed to investigate the
macroscopic anisotropy of magnetization critical current density of bulk YBCO. While the
field is kept constant at 1.0 T, the ratio increases as the temperature decreasing from 85 K to
20 K. Although levitation force has linear relationship with the applied field in the case of
symmetrical, such a linear relationship disappears once the applied field becomes
unsymmetrical. However, levitation stiffness has linear relationship with the associated
levitation force, whether the applied field is symmetrical or unsymmetrical. The multiple
seeded melt growth (MSMG) bulk has grain boundary (GB), but it still can be regarded as
single larger grain bulk in the perpendicular mode due to the inter-grain critical currents
flowing across GBs, and it has much larger levitation force than the stacked bulk array.
During the lateral movement, the decay of levitation force is dependent on both the maximum
lateral displacement and the movement cycle times, while the guidance force hysteresis curve
does not change after the first cycle. Moreover, A variational approach was presented for the
studies on the field dependence of the critical current density in YBCO Superconductor.
When the anisotropy ratio into account in the HTS computation modelling, the calculated
levitation forces between superconductor and magnet agree with the experimental ones. This
work may be helpful to the system optimization and may provide scientific analysis for the
HTS Maglev system design.
Chapter 5 addresses five important issues:
1. Anomalous transport characteristics of high temperature superconductors and
Josephson currents
The electric currents of superconductor and electrical field are relation of direct
proportion; the currents and magnetic field are relation of inverse ratio. In a special
condition, the Josephon currents has anomalous characteristic.
2. Thermodynamic properties of high temperature superconductor
A new systematic calculation of the specific heat contributions of vortex liquids and
solids is presented. Three derivatives of the free energy with respect to the
Preface xi
⎧⎪ ⎛ 2k ρ 3 2 ⎞ 3 ⎛ k T ρ3 2 ⎞ 2
CV = 2a03 ⎨5⎜⎜ ba0 − B 0 ⎟T + 6⎜1 − 2ba0Tc 0 + B C 0 0
⎟ ⎜
⎟T
⎟
⎪⎩ ⎝ 3L0 ⎠ ⎝ L0 ⎠
⎛ k T 2 ρ3 2 ⎞ k T ρ ⎪⎫
3 32
− 9⎜⎜ TC 0 − ba 0TC20 + B C 0 0 ⎟T + 3TC20 − 2ba 0TC30
⎟ + B C0 0 ⎬
⎝ 3L0 ⎠ 3L0 ⎪⎭
.
they are fermions for equal k. The analysis of trilinear commutation relations for the Cooper
pair (pairon) operators reveals that they correspond to the modified parafermi statistics of
rank p = 1. Two different expressions for the Cooper pair number operator are presented in
Chapter 7. The authors demonstrate that the calculations with a Hamiltonian expressed via
pairon operators is more convenient using the commutation properties of these operators
without presenting them as a product of fermion operators. This allows to study problems in
which the interactions between Cooper’s pairs are also included. The problem with two
interacting Cooper’s pairs is resolved and its generalization in the case of large systems is
discussed. It is shown that in site representation, the hole-pair operators obey the same
commutation relations (paulion) as the Cooper pair operators in impulse representation,
although the latter describe delocalized quasiparticles. In quasi-impulse representation, the
hole-pair operators are also delocalized and their exact commutation relations correspond to a
modified parafermi statistics of rankM (M is the number of sites in a ”superlattice” formed by
the centers of mass of each hole pair). From this follows that one state can be occupied by up
to M pairs. Even in the absence of dynamic interaction, the system of hole pairs is
characterized by some immanent interaction, named after Dyson as kinematic interaction.
This interaction appears because of the deviation of the quasiparticle statistics from the Bose
(Fermi) statistics and its magnitude depends on the concentration of hole pairs. In spite of the
non-bosonic behavior, there is no statistical prohibition on the Bose-Einstein condensation of
coupled hole pairs.
Recent scanning tunneling microscope (STM) experiments on Bi2212 have shed new
light on the nature of superconducting state in high-Tc cuprates and have emphasized the
important role played by inhomogeneities of superconductivity and energy gap in the CuO2
plane of the high-Tc cuprates. Summarizing all related observations, they find that there are
nine features altogether for the inhomogeneities. Chapter 8 demonstrates that the thermal
perturbation leads to the fluctuation of antiferromagnetic short-range coherence length
(AFSRCL) in the CuO2 plane, and further leads to the fluctuation of pairing potential. The
latter can cause the inhomogeneities of the gap and the superconductivity. This chapter gives
a unified explanation for the nine features of the inhomogeneities. The physical picture of the
inhomogeneities of superconductivity and gap in the CuO2 plane is as follows. The values of
the gap and the critical temperature Tc in bulk measurements are determined by the most
probable value of AFSRCL. At T = Tc, a superconducting percolation channel is established
by the locations with the most probable AFSRCL and the locations with AFSRCL larger than
the most probable one. The proximity effect and pair tunneling effect exist in the locations
with lower values of Tc. However, both effects are not important for the inhomogeneities.
The authors think that the mobile Opσ holes in the CuO2 plane are of homogeneous
distribution. The gap and the superconductivity themselves are stable, and the stability does
not need the help of nodal Cooper pair. This chapter also reconciles Lang et al.’s
experimental observations with the basic concept of superconductivity.
A General Theory of Superconductivity with points of view differing from those of the
BCS Theory is presented. In Chapter 9 The formation of electron pairs in a conductor
material is investigated upon arriving to the critical temperature where the conductor-
superconductor transition occurs. A general equation for the superconductivity is obtained
based on the stable pairing of two electrons bound by a phonon for any type of
superconductor material. This equation comes from a self-consistent field calculation with a
screening, which is temperature dependent, showing that the total energy of the electron pairs
Preface xiii
is constant and the local energy of the paired electrons is equal to that of the phonon in the
range 0 to TC . A specific condition for the existence of the superconducting state is
established, allowing the prediction of the critical temperature. The dispersion law of the
elementary excitements produced by the superconductivity is obtained and correctly
interpreted. The method is based on represent to the operators of Bose that characterize to
phonons and to the electron-phonon interaction as a combination of products of Fermi
operators corresponding to the electrons that form the pairs. The expression obtained for the
critical temperature is compatible with those obtained by G.M. Eliashberg and W.L.
McMillan. An expression for the bond energy of the pairs, or better known as superconductor
gap, is also obtained as a function of the temperature and the critical temperature, resulting
very similar to that formulated by Buckingham. This theory is reached in the frame of self-
consistent field equations for any natural or artificial solid where free electrons exist. The
necessity of the electrons must be coupled by phonons for the existence of the
superconducting state is also justified, arriving to a general conclusion: the superconductivity
theory is based only on the theory used to carry out the electron-phonon interaction and more
concretely of the phonons (harmonic or anharmonic theory, low, intermediate and high
temperature). The theory is applied to the particular case of low temperature superconductors,
obtaining an excellent agreement with the results of other theories (phenomenological and
microscopic) as well as with experimental data. An application of the general equation
obtained for low critical temperature superconductors utilizing a phononic theory is
developed. Then, the authors arrive to a specific expression for the bounding energy as a
function of temperature. The density of states of the electron pairs is calculated and used to
obtain an equation for the critical magnetic field. This result is needed to determine the
electrodynamical properties. Finally, they obtain the specific heat as a function of
temperature, they compare it to experimental data for Sn , and they calculate its jump at TC
for eight superconductors. The authors have also determined the variation of the energy gap
or bond energy with the temperature of the MgB 2 superconductor and they have compared
the results with another theoretical and experimental results reported in the literature,
obtaining an excellent agreement with the experimental results.
In: New Topics in Superconductivity Research ISBN: 1-59454-985-0
Editor: Barry P. Martins, pp. 1-44 © 2006 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
M.M. Kaila*
School of Physics, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
Abstract
The recently discovered high temperature superconductors (HTSCs) have been found, to
be a very suitable class of materials, for the development of THz radiation sensors. They are
easy to manufacture and operate, over the efficiently achievable,thermoelectric temperature
control interval of, 80-140K. The temperature control over this range, can easily be
manipulated by liquid nitrogen as a refrigerant. But the recently developed, low temperature
thermoelectric refrigeration materials (e.g. Zr, Hf penatellurides), provide an efficient and a
very convenient alternative. The THz, hot electron thermal sensor (HETS) technique, has now
reached an advanced stage of development. Here the electrons are heated by a local
femtosecond pulsed laser pump, above the lattice temperature. This copious supply of
electrons, is then modulated by the chopped, remote THz radiation signal, which is to be
*
E-mail address : [email protected], Ph: 612-93854561, Fx .: 612-93856060
2 M.M. Kaila
detected. The chopped radiation, modulates the non equilibrium, electron-phonon thermal
dynamics.
The associated response of the dynamics, of the electrical resistance of the
superconductor, on a femtosecond time scale, is the key,to the THz radiation detection. This is
facilitated by adding to the sensor an external heterodyne electronic system. Pulsed boost
power of the laser pump, provides for the electrons, the AC (alternating current) bias. The DC
(direct current) bias is carried out by, a fixed, I (current) through or V (Voltage) across the
device. The sensor is operated, in the hot electron mode i.e. near the critical temperature Tc of
the superconductor.The THz thermal sensors based on the ' hot electron phenomena',like any
other thermal sensor, require cooling of the electrons.This may be an external, and or an
internal (self) cooling. A convenient, thermoelectric method of cooling, for the HTSC sensors,
is the aim in the development of the sensor.The heated electrons, due to Ac and DC bias, are
above the lattice temperature. Hot electrons, are easy to manipulate, at the THz frequencies.
The quasiparticle excitations, resulting from the electron-phonon thermaldynamics, provide
the desired tool of sensing. These excitations have relaxation time of 10-12 - 10-15s, in the
HTSCs. The superconducting coherence length in HTSCs, is much shorter in comparison to
that found in low temperature superconductors (LTSCs). This puts a much lower limit, on the
workable dimensions in space,in the superconducting film, for use as an HTSC sensor.HTSC
thermal sensing provides a tool, between temperatures 50-140K,for making a convenient class
of THz band of radiation sensors. This window of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum (10-5
m to 10-3 m wavelength), provides a faster and yet invisible light,for applications, in
communication, astronomy and medicine. In order for the electrons, to be an efficient means
of sensing the THz radiation, they must loose heat, at a very fast rate.This should happen as
close as possible to the point of incidence, of the incident radiation. This means electrons need
to travel as short a distance, as possible, in the sensor, before being collected. The devices
developed so far, have electron heat dissipation, mainly via the sensor film-substrate, system.
In this system, the electron-phonon interactions, with the relaxation time 10-12-10-15s, lasting
on a much wider space,control the ultimate speed of the sensor. The phonons are an
obstruction to the fast movement of the electrons, away from the sensitive areas of the sensor.
They originate, in the sensor film material, and also as a result of the back flow from the
substrate. This is after the sensitive area has been heated by the laser beam. The DC boas also
adds its share of heating to the sensor,raising the average temperature of the sensor, above that
of the substrate.
It is an easy way out, but costly and cumbersome, to use mK range of temperatures, to
reduce electron-phonon interactions. The much reduced phonon specific heat, at mK
temperatures, provides the much desired environment, for the easy transport of the electrons,
but with the added complexity of a cryogenics infrastructure. One can produce scatter free
travel, of the electrons in the film, in various alternate ways. One possible way would be, to
design, a regiment of superconducting dots, on a low dimensional structure,thermeolectric
film. The interface of the, HTSC-thermeolectric junctions, so produced, can be used, as an
efficient source of highly mobile electrons.The output can then be collected, as an integrated
signal from the dots. May be one can sandwich, an insulating layer, in between, the
superconducting and thermeolectric layers, to achieve tunneling of the electrons, with
minimum back flow of the heat. The materials considered highly efficient, in thermal sensing,
at present, are the low temperature superconductors (LTSCs).Typical examples are Al, Pb,
Nbn, etc. and are operated at mK temperatures.The specific heat of the phonons at mK
temperatures, is very low ~ 102J/K/m3. The specific heat of the electrons may be, slightly
higher or lower than that of the phonons. At these low temperatures, electrons travel almost
free of interactions with the phonons.
In the case of HTSCs, e.g. YBaCuO, BiSrCaCuO, etc., the scenario is quite different.
Here, the specific heat of the electrons is high ~ 104J/K/m3. The specific heat of the phonons is
much higher ~106J/K/m3. The phonons, play a very deleterious role, in the performance of an
HTSC thermal sensor. A new ray of hope, in the direction of efficient electron cooling, with
minimum involvement of phonons, has now emerged. It is by virtue of the nano structure,
thermoelectric cooling, materials and devices, operating between 50 and 200K. Band gap
Hot Electron non Eqilibrium High Temperature Superconductor Thz Radiation... 3
engineering using nano structures, can channel much faster electrontransport in low
dimensions. Integrated cooling, can be provided by the already well known thermoelectric
cooling materials e.g. Bi-Sb-Te compounds, or the recently developed Zr,Ti penta-tellurides.
The low dimensional materials and structures, under investigation world wide, now form a
suitable class of materials, for the required thermoelectric cooling. They have the capability,
to bridge the cooling gap, 50 to 200K. These new materials, have a strong potential, for
developing self (Peltier) cooling devices, for an efficient operation of the HTSC thermal
sensors.
It is the purpose of this work to bring home, the importance of the HTSCs, as a suitable
class of thermal sensing materials, with integrated electronic cooling, as compared to the
LTSCs. In the case of the HTSCs, it is convenient to use, liquid nitrogen as a refrigerant. A
thermoelectric or a combination with liquid nitrogen, if required, as the cooling technique,
would also be an achievement.Thermoelectric cooling, is very economical in space, and does
not involve, moving parts, thus very quiet in operation. A simple current manipulation of the
devices, provides the desired temperature control.
Foreword
It is my intention, in this work, to provide the reader, with a broad base of physics, to appraise
oneself, with the present status, in the area of non equilibrium hot electron thermal sensing
and electronic cooling.The non equilibrium electron-phonon thermal dynamics, in the sensor
film, is the result of the power boost by a femtosecond laser pump. In a hot electron
operation, an HTSC is operated close to its critical temperature Tc (transition from
superconductor to normal state), for developing thermal sensors. I have included, in this
work, a comparison of the HTSC and the LTSC materials. But the work, is particularly aimed
at the HTSC sensors. It is the efficient cooling of the sensor, that is a necessary step,in the
overall performance of the sensor. One can today, develop, a low dimensional materials
based, THz (1012, cycles/second) radiation thermal sensor, with an integrated electronic
cooling. This work, creates the direction, in the knowledge required,so as to enable the
application, of the developed low temperature bulk thermoelectric cooling materials, to the
HTSCs thin film thermal sensors.
Room temperature bulk thermoelectric cooling materials, were developed during the
sixties and seventies. There has been little development since then. One can see today, a rapid
surge in research and development efforts, towards the low dimensional (nano structure)
thermoelectrics. There is now an urgent demand, to create,
a conveniently operated, low temperature electronic refrigeration system, for the hot
electron thermal sensor (HETS).All thermal sensors basically, have to be cooled. This is to
keep their noise equivalent power, NEP (the minimum power of a signal that can be detected,
below which it is dominated by the noise), very low, and the responsively (voltage or current
output / power of the input signal) very high. A sensor based on an LTSC (e.g. Al, NbN, etc),
enjoys a very good performance. But the price paid, in terms of cryogenics, is very high. They
need to be operated at mK temperatures. Semiconductor Ge, has equivalent performance, but
requires close to 1K, as the operating temperature.
The III-V strain tuned, super lattice semiconductors, HgCdTe, InGaAs, have limited
performance capabilities. This is due to their narrow band gap, resulting in easy generation of
thermal noise.But the conveniently operated, thermoelectric temperature control, over the
range, 300K and 200K, makes them commercially, very popular at present.Semiconductors,
4 M.M. Kaila
in general, due to their band gap restriction, are not suitable for the THz band of radiation.
HTSC thermal sensors operate, over the achievable electronic cooling range of 50-140K. The
new materials (Zr,Hf pentatellurides) are a suitable candidate, for developing, HTSC-
integrated or otherwise, electronic cooling devices, over this range. The liquid helium,
mechanical cryo-coolers, etc. are an option to use milli Kelvin temperatures. But they require
a large infrastructure and involve noisy equipment. Thermoelectric cooling, is a solid-state
phenomena. It offers the technology, with potential of developing, miniaturized cooling
devices. Micro, Peltier coolers, can be in integrated with the sensors. These coolers can be
designed, using quantum wells, wires and dots. LTSC materials, have a much sharper
resistive transition, as compared to the HTSC materials, and thus are much faster in operation.
But the added complication of the cryogenics involved, makes them less attractive.
The possible extension of thermnoelectric cooling down to 50K, using the old (Bi-Sb-Te
compounds) and or the new (Zr, Hf pentatellurides) materials, using low dimensional designs,
is challenging, as much as tempting. Electrons used, in the hot electron thermal sensing
technique,in HTSC materials, are derived, from the top end, of the superconductor- normal
state transition, close to the critical temperature Tc.They require, a very small excitation (nW-
μW) power and are capable of performing same function as a normal electron does, in a
semiconductor. Their ability to revert back to the cold state (cooper pairs), makes them more
efficient and less susceptible, to thermal noise. Thus they are more suitable as thermal
sensors.Some information, in preparing this work, has been used from other sources. The
author gratefully acknowledges those sources.Information, in some cases, is reproduced, in
the appendices, at the end, as an illustration. I express my highest gratitude, to those origins of
information. This work, I am sure would be very valuable to young scientists, who wish to
pursue research and development career, in he area of thermal sensors. It will be equally
valuable, I am sure, to the scientific community at large.
I Introduction
The semiconductors so far, e.g. GaAS[1], have provided, as a suitable class of materials, for
the development of the THz radiation sources and sensors. But over the last decade, the
attention has shifted to the HTSCs, as a better alternative[2-5]. In order to be able to make the
THz radiation sources or sensors, using HTSCs, it is essential to understand first, the basics of
the physical processes involved, i.e., the electron and lattice (phonon) interactions, band gap,
quasi particle excitations, etc., etc[Appendix A1]. There results, a rapid increase in the
electrical resistance, of a superconducting thin film, when it is irradiated by a
femtosecond,optical or thermal laser pulses. A suitable choice of current or voltage bias, can
be used to operate the superconductor, near the upper end of the resistive transition
(superconductor to normal) width, in a hot electron mixerarrangement[ Appendix A2. A3].
When the superconductor is biased, to operate, at a temperature, much below the critical
temperature, the sensing is in a different mode of operation. In that case, the excitation of the
supercurrents (circulating electrical currents over small areas) are used for sensing.
These currents can be externally initiated in the superconductor, by a momentary
application, of a small magnetic field, and then removed. What results is a mixed
(superconducting electrons and normal electrons) state. This is the familiar Meissner effect
state. A cooper pair, is a bound state of two electrons, with zero spin and momentum. Large
Hot Electron non Eqilibrium High Temperature Superconductor Thz Radiation... 5
number of these pairs, constitute, the supercurrents. Some paired electrons, can be made to
oscillate, between free and bound state, by cyclic heating, of the pairs. The result is a in an
oscillatory electric filed, being generated in the film. The superconductor in this way, can be
so devised, as to have, a beam of THz electromagnetic waves emanating, from the back of, a
suitable thin film superconductor/substrate system[2]. In this case, the electron-phonon
thermal dynamic processes happening, in an HTSC, can be read, by means, other than the
usual, I-V heterodyne electronic read out system.This is the time Domain Terahertz
Transmission Spectroscopy (TDTTS) technique [3]. Here the transmitted beam through the
superconductor, provides a convenient tool to study the electron-phonon thermal
dynamics.This transmission, if modulated by the signatures of an unknown THz signal, can
be unscrambled, by a video technique[Appendix A4, A5].
The TDRTS (time domain reflection THz spectroscopy), uses reflection from the
superconductor surface instead, and has been found equally valuable[4].Thus one can use, the
electron-phonon dynamics, via the reflected beam, for thermal imaging. The readout may be
through a low temperature grown Gallium Arsenide sensor or an another HTSC sensor. Other
useful superconducting properties of the HTSC thin films, e.g., the penetration of the
electromagnetic waves through the surface, which leads to a change its surface resistance, the
kinetic inductance (resulting from the oscillations of the super current carriers), etc., etc., can
be used to design a THz radiation sensor. The hot electron phenomena, has already been
extensively and successfully used, in the design of THz thermal sensors. In the hot electron
technique, the heated electrons, being more mobile, can be manipulated easily, for a desired
operation.High performance THz sensors, have been produced, among the HTSC
materials[5]. At present the LTSCs e.g. Nbn (response time ~ ps, responsivity~ 104 V/W) are
the materials, considered up to the mark, for designing fast and sensitive, hot electron thermal
sensors. An efficient LTSC nano structure thermal sensor, with integrated
Peltier cooling has already been developed. This is the S(Superconductor)
I(Insulator) N(Normal Metal) I S (SINIS) pair junction, operated at 300mK
One can effectively realize, the self thermoelectric (Peltier) cooling, of the metal
electrode, which is, the sensing element. This is achieved, provided one uses, a bias voltage
across the sensor, close to the band gap energy, of the superconductor.A temperature drop
from 300mK to 100 mK, was easy to produce[6].Peltier cooling is only current controlled.
This simple factor makes it an ideal technique, of temperature control, particularly, when a
small wattage of heat, and a small area is involved. The nano-engineering design, of the
thermoelectric cooling materials, is now gaining a fast momentum world wide.
It is anticipated, this will lead to the development of fast and efficient, much needed
cooling devices. The low dimensional space, could be, the quantum wells, where the space is
a two dimensional plane in which electrons and phonons move. The other structures are,
quantum wires, the one dimensional structure and the quantum dots, providing the zero
dimensional space. Electronic cooling, using semiconductors, so far has provided a very
beneficial technique for the range of temperatures, 300K-200K. The materials developed for
this purpose were, Bi2Te3 - Sb2Te3 alloys. Commercial cooling devices based on these
materials have found applications in medicine, infrared sensors, etc.
The efficiency of a thermoelectric material, cooling or generation, is measured, through
the coefficient of performance, called as the thermoelectric figure of merit (TEFM).In its
simplicity, one can writ, for a single material leg, the TEFM, as ZT = (α2 σ / K). Here Z is
the dimensional figure of merit, ZT the dimensional less figure of merit, T the temperature in
6 M.M. Kaila
degrees Kelvin, α the thermoelectric power (Seebeck coefficient) and σ and K are the
electrical and thermal conductivity respectively.of the leg. The thermal conductivity, K = Ke
+ Kph, where Ke and Kph, are respectively the electronic and thermal (phonon) parts of the
thermal conductivity. In any material suitable for applications, one need to optimize, α, σ and
K. in such a way that ZT >>1.It is now possible, to engineer, the phonon-electron
propagation through a material, so as to achieve the highest TEFM. Recently, there have
been extensive studies for the design of thermoelectric nano structures. These studies have
been performed, towards the materials previously well known,in the bulk form[Appendices
B1-B4]. It is due to the easy access, to the experimental data available on those materials.
These studies can equally well be applied to the Zr, Hf pentatelurides[Appendix B5].
The typical low dimensional structures studied are, quantum wells, PbTe/PbEuTe[7,
Appendix B6, B7], quantum wires, PbTe, GaAs[8], Bi2Te3[9, Appendix B8], Bi[10,
Appendix B9], quantum dots, Ge on Si[11, Appendix B10]. Detailed experimental studies on
these new devices, have yet to be performed. The new class of thermoelectric materials, e.g.
the quasi-crystals AlPdMn[12], the Skutterudites CoAs3, etc[13], etc., may develop into
efficient thermal sensors, when designed as low dimensional structures. The penta-tellurides
Hf,Zr(Ti)Te(Se), on the other hand, need special mention, due to their efficient performanceas
cooling materials, over the temperature interval 200-50K[14]. One can engineer quantum
wells, wires, etc. of the Zr/Hf pentatellurides, and develop thermoelectric cooling devices,
with an efficient operation. An HTSC/ Zr/HfTe5/HTSC, heterostructure, could be developed
as a self cooling thermal sensor. The non equilibrium dynamic superconductivity in HTSCs,
has electron-phonon relaxation times of 10-12-10-15s. The HTSCs and the new thermoelectric
materials, have a strong potential to develop THz radiation sensors with integrated
cooling[15].
It has been recently demonstrated, that one can use femtosecond laser pulses to excite
thermally, the bound antiferromagnetic (anti parallel) spins in a rare earth, e.g. theorthoferrite
TmFeO3. The iron moments order antiferromagnetically, but with a small canting of the spins
on different sublattices. This small anisotropy is very sensitive to temperature. It can oscillate,
through a maximum and minimum, over the temperature interval, 80-90K, in a
picosecond[16].Spin oscillation phenomena, in conjunction with an HTSC,can be an
incentive for developing, a THz radiation sensor. The study of dynamic superconducting-
antiferromagnetic interface, on the time scale[17], would provide a good base to understand,
spin-lattice relaxations, in HTSCs.In the area of ultra high density magnetic recording media,
the nano structures of the ferromagnetic materials[18, 19], present good candidates, for the
study of optical and thermal phonon-spin relaxations. The study of antiferromagnetic-
ferromagnetic phase in conjunction with HTSC materials, may open, another interesting area
of exploration, in the field of THz radiation[20].
Hot Electron non Eqilibrium High Temperature Superconductor Thz Radiation... 7
cph vs dtp / dt = lep vs(te3 - tp3) - (sflm / rb) (tp-ts) - 8 Kph vs (tp-ts) / lb2 (2)
The diffusion term, i.e. the third on the right hand side of the equation (2),is taken as
negligible in this study. This is what happens, if the sensorlength lb, is greater than, the
diffusion length; this is the distance traveled by an electron before scattered by a phonon. A
normal meander (length >> lb)sensor, would automatically satisfy this condition. In order to
keep the length of the analytic equations, within limit, one should reduce the number of
independent variables, in the equations. In the heat transfer by the phonons in the sensor, to
the substrate, in the equation (2), for the second term on the RHS, I have replaced,ts (substrate
temperature) by the electron temperature te. This means, electrons and phonons maintain, a
8 M.M. Kaila
Carrying out the solution of the equations (1) and (2) simultaneously,and retaining terms
to the order of ω4 only, one leads to the following analytical result, for the responsivity
vrspf[15].
vrspf = { √[{(cel2 sflm2 te12 tflm2) + (cel2sflm2te12tflm2) tmes2ω2 }ω2 ]/(i0 prad1)
/√ [(6(lep / cph) tmes tp02 + 9 (lep / cph)2 tmes2 tp04 + (1 + tmes2 ω2) ] (3)
Hot Electron non Eqilibrium High Temperature Superconductor Thz Radiation... 9
The conversion gain gcnvrsn, in the THz dynamic case, is evaluated from the equation (3) by
using, the following expression[15].
The resulting expression is long, and it would be out of space to reproduce here. I feel, the
simplifications below, under the extreme conditions, ωtmes >> 1 and ωtmes << 1, for the
responsivity, will provide the reader, with an interesting overview, of the importance of the
various processes involved.
In the approximation, tmes ω << 1, equation (3) would reduce to
In this simplification process, the first and second term in the denominator within the
square brackets, have been taken as << 1, and thus neglected. Various outputs can be
achieved by suitably choosing the material properties, cph, tmes, etc., and the operating
parameters, to a desired effect. The above simplified voltage responsivity, can be expressed as
follows.
The equation (6), exposes, the physics of the THz sensing, in a much clearer manner. USP
can be regarded as, useful sensing power, per unit increase, of the electron temperature, te1.
Change in the electron temperature alone, would then drive the sensing technique. This is
exactly, one is trying to do, by taking an easier path, i.e. going to mK temperatures. A tacit
assumption has been made, about the thermal resistance, between the electrons and the
phonons, in the sensor film, in this model.It is realized, through the second term on the RHS,
in the equation (2). Electron-phonon thermal resistance within the sensor film, is taken as the
highest limit rb; this is the thermal resistance (phonon-phonon)between the sensor and the
substrate.
A suitable insulating layer over the substrate, makes the substrate relatively unimportant.
In actual practice however, there will always be some heat transferred to the substrate.
One can consider, this as a limiting case, where heat transfer within the film, is just little
bit better, than the heat transfer to the substrate. The following simplifications are included
for a useful insight.
vrspf = [ cel sflm te1 tflm tmes ω2 ] / (i0 prad1) / [√(6(lep / cph) tmes tp02 + tmes2 ω2)]
The various parametric manipulations, of the responivity in the above equations, provides
the designer, with a wide range of possibilities, those can be achieved.In the equation (11),
one sees that, the responsivity is inversely proportional to (√tmes). This is a character,
particularly exhibited, in this chosen model. An improvement (a decrease)in tmes, also
improves the responsivity.This is just opposite to what is observed in a normal static
superconductivity sensor i.e. a bolometer. In that situation, tmes, is the response time of the
device.It would be interesting to fabricate, a THz sensor, using one lobe of the bow tie
antenna (normally used in THz source, sensor technology), as a thermoelectric material. This,
will result in, addition of a Peltier heat term in the equation (1). This term will be – I (Π ). I is
the current bias and Π the Peltier coefficient.
In order to be able to cope with the high speed of the response of the sensor, the
thermoelectric materials should provide for the electrons an easiercooling route of
transport[7-11]. This may just be possible, by using the nano fabrication technology. In the
above analysis, it is found that the term 6(lep/cph)tmes tp02) plays a very crucial role. Solving
this term for tmes, by putting it = 1, taking cph = 106 J/K/m3, tp0 = 85K, and lep = 1010
W/m3K3(the case of a YBCO sensor), one gets tmes ~ 10-9s. The time of escape of the phonons
to the substrate (tmes = rb cph tflm)should be interpreted as the upper limit on the electron-
phonon relaxation time.The lower limit, which will extend the frequency band, towards the
higher THz frequencies, will come from, the quickest possible removal, of the electrons for
conduction. One should realize that the thermal resistance rb ~5x10-8K m2 / W, between the
YBaCuO sensor and the MgO substrate, should be higher than that, between the electron-
phonon cooling process, within the film. If the speed of transmission of the electrons, to the
readout system, is fast enough, then this model can be realized in practice. How fast the
electrons are transported, is limited, by the low dimensional structure designed, through
which the electrons move. In the limit, however, the speed of the sensor, is controlled by the
speed of the read out system.
II Figures 1 and 2 (below), included here are from a more detailed study [15]. They are
reproduced here for the sake of illustration.Figure 1, depicts, the variation of the conversion
gain vs intermediate frequency (IF), and the electron specific heat. One can notice, that ωtmes
is between 1 and 10. Under this condition, the rate of change of the electron temperature, due
to the incident radiation, is much faster, than, the rate of heat transfer, from electrons to the
phonons in the film. One should note, the phonon specific heat, is much higher (by 102), than
the electron specific heat. This results in a slower heat exchange between electrons and
phonons,thus, a quicker saturation, in the conversion gain vs ω (Figure 1). Figure 2 is another
interesting illustration. Here the conversion gain is plotted vs lep and cph. The higher the
phonon specific heat, the greater the thermal mass of the phonons, the slower the heat
exchange between the electrons and the phonons. One can see that the effect, starts around cph
Hot Electron non Eqilibrium High Temperature Superconductor Thz Radiation... 11
~ 104 J/K/m3. From here on, the conversion gain is independent of lep (Figure 2). Thus
electron-phonon cooling (lep), in an HTSC sensor, is much less effective, than in an LTSC.
Not much change in conversion gain is observed for cph > 104 J/K/m3.One should compare
this cph, with that for an LTSC i.e., 102 J/K/m3.The theory of the thermal sensing remains
practically the same, whether it is the LTSC or the HTSC. It is the magnitude of the specific
heats of the electrons and the phonons in these materials, which makes them so different.
II A Figure 1. Plot of Conversion Gain gcnvrsn (dB) vs, Intermediate Frequency ω (Hz) and Electron
Specific Heat Cel (J/K/m3). The Fixed parameters are Cph = 1x106 J/K/m3, lep = 1x104 (W/K3/m3), tmes =
1x10-9 s, tflm = 1x10-6 m, sflm = 1x10-6 m2, te1 = 5K, te0 = tp0 = 77 K, abs = 0.5, prad1 = 1x10-6 W, i0 = 1x10-6
A, i1 =1x10-9 A, vb0 = 1x10-5 V, vb1 = 1x10-6 V.
II A Figure 2. Plot of Conversion Gain gcnvrsn (dB) vs Electron-Phonon Interaction Parameter lep(W/K3/
m3) and Phonon Specific Heat. Cph (J/K/m3). The Fixed parameters are tmes = 1x10-9 s, tflm = 1x10-6 m,
sflm = 1x10-6 m2, i0 = 1x10-6 A, te1 = 5K, te0 = tp0 = 77 K, abs = 0.5, prad1 = 1x10-6 W, ω = 1x109 Hz, vb1 =
1x10-6 V, Cel = 1x104 (J/K/m3).
12 M.M. Kaila
The thermo junction is reverse biased by an electrical current. The electrons (in n leg) and
holes (in p leg), carry heat away from the junction, and thus the cooling produced. The hotter
ends of the legs are electrically insulated from, a thermally conducting heat sink. An
equilibrium temperature difference ΔT = T2 (temperature of the hot end) -T1 (temperature of
the cold end) will ultimatelybe established, between the cold end and the heat
sink.Thermoelectric refrigerators, are designed to operate at the maximum heat pumping. The
coefficient of performance of the heat pump (COP), can be written as follows.
COP = Cooling Power (Heat Extracted)/Input Power (Electrical Energy Consumed) (1)
Here Tav = (T1 + T2) / 2, is the average temperature of the pump,λ = is the average
thermal conductance (in parallel) of the two leg across cooler-sink interface.
αnp = (αn - αp), αn and αp being the thermoelectric power of the n and p leg respectively. ZcT
= the dimensionless thermoelectric figure of merit of the couple. The maximum possible
value for the COP is
COPmax = η γ (3)
is the thermoelectric efficiency. ZcT for a couple, in terms of the material properties of the
two legs of the couple can be written as follows
Z = (α2 σ) / K (6)
II B.3 Optimization of ZT
II B.3.1 Single Band (Conduction) Approach
A more realistic approach to the theory of optimization of ZT requires,a two band conduction
model, for carrier (electrons and holes) transport. The two bands are conduction(CB), where
14 M.M. Kaila
electrons freely move and valence bands(VB), where holes freely move. Consideration of the
carriers within a single band over simplifies the calculation for the transport parameters.
This may be the ideal model for the design of an efficient electronic cooler. It will
provide for the beginner, a smoother transition, to adapt oneself later, to the understanding
required for the more complex physics involved, in real models. In a single band approach,
the conduction band, considered here, only electrons (no holes) participate in the transport.
For a complete mathematical treatment, i.e. taking into account, multi valley (more than one
electron energy ellipsoid participating), multiple types of electron scattering, the reader
should follow a more rigorous text. The following, is only an outline for, a single valley
conduction, acoustic, ionized impurity and optic phonon scattering. The calculation of charge
and heat transport, in any device,involves first finding, the density (number per unit volume)
of the free carriers (electrons here) in a band. This is done by multiplying the density of states
D(E) (energy states available per unit energy and per unit volume of the material, in the
band), within a small interval of energy, dE, the probability, of occupation (f ) of the energy
levels E, and integrating over various energies.The statistics controlling the occupation of
energy levels, is the familiar Fermi Dirac statistics f.
The important mathematical expressions involved in the transport processes are.
D(E) = (4π / h3)(2 m *e)3/2 E1/2 (E > 0) (conduction band edge) (7)
f = 1 / (E - Ef / kT) (9)
Eg = the gap of energy, which the electrons have to overcome,before being in the
conduction state. Refer to adjacent IIB.3 Figure 1, below, for the positions of the various
energy levels, in the two band perspective.When the material is pure (intrinsic), the Fermi
level (FL) (with respect to which the electron energy is measured) is in the middle of the gap.
While when the material is impure (doped), the FL, is closer to the conduction ban edge, for
the electron, and to the valence band edge, for the holes, if present[Appendix B14].E is the
spread of energy levels, available in a band, which the carriers can occupy. The above D(E) is
peculiar to a bulk material.
In a low dimensional situation, it would have a different expression and a discrete
structure. The reader is referred to a standard text on Solid State Physics e.g. [29] for a good
understanding of the Band Theory of Solids and the scattering dynamics of the electrons.The
evaluation of the transport parameters, α (Seebeck Coefficient), σ (electrical conductivity)
and K (thermal conductivity), is first carried out.
Then on substitution in the equation (6) one gets ZT, as follows. II B.3 Figure 1 . Energy
Levels in a Semiconductor Model, showing Valence and Conduction Bands, separated by an
Energy Gap
Hot Electron non Eqilibrium High Temperature Superconductor Thz Radiation... 15
II B.3 Figure 1. Energy Levels in a Semiconductor Model, showing Valence and Conduction Bands,
separated by an Energy Gap
α(Seebeck Coefficient) = -/+ (k / e) (δ - ξ), - for electrons and + for holes (14)
The calculations for the transport parameters, can based on the relaxation time
approximation approach.What it means is that as the carriers move through the solid, various
scattering processes, modify the occupation of the higher energy levels,for the electrons. The
electrons move, between the excited and the groundstates of energy, according to a resultant
relaxation time. This relaxation time corresponds to the various scattering mechanisms
16 M.M. Kaila
τ(E) = a Es (15)
σ = n e μ = σ0 ε (16)
σ0 = 2 (2 π m* k T / h2)3/2 e μc (17)
Here μc = carrier mobility, n = the carrier density and m* = the density of states effective
mass
τ(E) would have different energy dependence for different scatterings.Taking various
scattering mechanisms, as independent of each other, one can write (1 / < τ >) > = 1 / < τac
(acoustic phonon) > + 1 / < τ I (ionized impurity) > + etc. Detailed mathematical expressions
for τac (acoustic or lattice scattering), τI (impurity scattering), etc., can be found in a standard
text. In the literature a special material parameter, has been used to gauge, the effects of
various material properties, on ZT (Appendix B2). The parameter can be written as follows.
The above mathematical summary is only an oversimplified picture.One need to take the
following into account for a complete treatment.Non parabolic, multiple valley carrier
conduction pockets. This leads to higher carrier concentration and is in favor of ZT.2. Mixed
scattering mechanisms rather than one or tow, dominant ones. This will reduce the mobility of
the carriers and thus the conductivity. It may however enhance kinetic energy transport in a
particular situation. The material parameter , depends upon the basic material properties
e.g. the effective mass of the carriers, mobility, etc. 3. The two band approach (including
minority carriers, bipolar conduction, etc.)
The higher ZT values will be found in materials, with (s) deep in the band gap Eg, ((s) <
0), smaller carrier effective masses, higher carrier mobility, small KL, etc. There is no single
material which will meet all the optimization requirements. It is by performing experiments
on selected materials, comparing with their theoretical modeling, one really can find, what
exactly is in favor of ZT. This was done for the materials in their bulk form, during sixties
and seventies. Extensive data is available for materials like S-Ge alloys, Bi-Sb-Te
compounds, etc. A summary of the results can be seen in the literature [Appendices B3-B4].
Mathematical description of the phenomenology, of the two band approach, is included
below, for the sake of completion.
The suffix i runs over N extrema (energy ellipsoids) in the conduction (I = 1) and
valence (I = 2) band. The total electrical conductivity is
where Ne and Nh are the number of equivalent extrema in the conduction and valence bands
(non degenerate) and σ1 is the contribution to electrical conductivity from one extrema. The
other relations, as part of the ZT formulation are
For simplicity one assumes, that the electrons obey classical statisticsand that equal
contribution from scattering parameters,are in operation, for the electrons and holes i.e. re =
rh = (s + 1/2). Here r comes from the energy dependence of the mean free path (l)approach
for the transport of the carriers, i.e. l = l0 Er. The relaxation time, equation (15), and the mean
free path approaches, are equivalent.
On substitution of the respective electrical conductivities, one gets
Here μc, represents the mobility in the low carrier (classical) limit. m*e, m*h are the
density of sates effective mass for electrons and holes respectively.
m*1 , m*2, m*3 are the masses along the principal directions of ellipsoids of energy.
Information on the upper bound of ZT can be more easily worked out from the model
Ai = [ r + 2 - ξi ] (33)
⎢i = (r + 1/2) (34)
Here ξg = Eg / kT, is the reduced energy gap. From these equations, it is apparent that in
this model, the Lorentz number, Ke / (σ T), i.e. ⎢i, is independent of ξ, ξg and γ, and therefore
the variation in these parameters will affect ZT, only through the Seebeck coefficient α
(equation (27)). It is worth noting in this model, that the upper bound in ZT, crucially
depends upon γ. For lattice (acoustic) scattering
χL = (Ne / Nh)5/6 (σh / σe)1/2 (εh / εe) (ε refers to the deformation potentials) (37)
One finds that for higher ZT, a high value for the ratio m*h / m*e is required and a small m*e /
m*0 (m*0 = the free electron mass). In addition, acoustic lattice scattering should be the
dominant scattering process in the negative branch of the thermocouple and impurity
Hot Electron non Eqilibrium High Temperature Superconductor Thz Radiation... 19
scattering in the positive branch. The conduction band should also have a largenumber of
extrema with a small number in the valence band. A large mass anisotropy for the electrons,
but not for the holes, is another requirement for a large ZT. The energy gap also matters. For
a reduced energy gap (Eg / kT) of 4, ZTmax = 8, while for energy gap of 16, a value = 70 is
predicted, assuming a solubility of 1027m-3.
dQP ~ I dt (1)
Here Πa,b is called as the Peltier coefficient, or the Peltier voltage, and (de/dt)is the rate of
charge transported. It is positive, if the current flows from a to b (Appendix B14). dQP > 0
means, that the heat is absorbed, at the junction.From the reversible thermodynamic
consideration, one can also write,the effect, in reverse to (1), i.e. the thermoelectric power, as
Here, αa,b is the Thermolectric power (or the Seebeck coefficient), and is the Voltage
generated per unit temperature difference, across the junction (material a and b), as a result of
the heat absorbed at the hot junction. A third effect, called the Thomson effect, is also part of
the heat equilibrium in the circuit. There will also be an evolution or absorption of heat,
whenever, an electric current, passes through a single homogenous conductor, along which a
temperature gradient is maintained. This, is called as the Thomson heat, is generated or
absorbed (throughout the length of a single conductor)and is in proportion to the current I
passing, for a time dt i.e.
dQT ~ I dt dT (5)
= τ I dt dT (6)
= τ e dT (7)
20 M.M. Kaila
τ is referred to as the Thomson coefficient. It is positive, if the heat is absorbed, when current
flows to the hotter region.All the three, thermoelectric effects, are expressed as the reversible
effects,In the equations (1) - (7).
The Joule heat, which forms a part of the thermal effects in the circuit,is irreversible and
is not included in the equations, just for the sake of simplicity. As a result, of the temperature
gradient between the hot and cold the junction, an irreversible loss of heat (conduction,
radiation, etc.) also occurs.Disregarding, the irreversible effects, one can write, the net rate of
absorption of heat, required to maintain equilibrium, in the ab circuit as follows.
l = l 0 Er (11)
α = (k / e) (A + ξ*) (12)
■ is the electric field and v is the velocity of the charge carrierA = r + 2, is referred to as the
average kinetic energy transported by the carriers. One can view, that Seebeck voltage arises,
from two sources, thermo EMF, Π, at the junction, and a distributed array of sources
(Thomson), along each of the conductors, = [ d (τ) / dx ] dx. The total Seebeck voltage arises,
solely from the change with temperature, of the continuous Fermi level Ef (electrochemical
potential, Appendix B14).
It would be a nice illustration, to see the meaning, of the equation (1 4), in terms of the
application of the new low temperature materials, ZrHf tellurides[ appendix B5], to
thermoelectric refrigeration.The two stationary values of α, with respect to temperature,
Hot Electron non Eqilibrium High Temperature Superconductor Thz Radiation... 21
Happen to be at 80 and 200K respectively. These two d(Ef)/dT values, produce the highest
values, of the power factor.
The calculations, amount to, Pf = 0.5 (W/mK) at 80K and 1.5 (W/mK) at 250K.In between
these two limits, Pf, is higher than that of Bi2Te3, over 150 to 200K, and less than that of
Bi2Te3, over 80 to 100K. The ZT magnitude, would be the same as Pf, as the thermal
conductivity is around 1W/mK, in these materials. This is the situation, for the case of,a bulk
material. In the case of low dimensional materials, the situation is expected to be much more
favorable[Appendices B6-B11]. It is important to pint out, the difference between the Fermi
energy and the Fermi level. The Fermi energy is measured from the conducting band edge,
whereas, the Fermi level, is measured from some arbitrary fixed energy level (Appendix
B14). One can express, the Peltier voltage as
Here the first term, is the change in potential energy, when a charge crossesthe junction, and
the second term is the average kinetic energy transported.The Thomson coefficient can be
similarly expressed as
Π=αT (20)
When no external heat is present (Jh,x = 0), from (19), one gets
Π = (K / Jex) ∇Tx (Jhx = 0, adiabatic condition, no external heat input) (21)
22 M.M. Kaila
In order to measure the Peltier coefficient (Π), one has to determine, the temperature gradient
∇Tx (no external heat, Jhx = 0), induced by the electric current, Jex. This is a difficult task,
trying to do directly.An indirect approach is considered more convenient. First the
measurement of ΔT; this is done by finding, the thermal voltage generated, across the sample,
for each direction (reversal), of the electric current. The two voltage values, will have
opposite (+ and -) signs. Subtracting and dividing by two gives the Peltier voltage.
This is then converted into temperature difference using the Seebeck coefficient, of the
HTSC, measured in the normal state. Also there is need to,measure the thermal conductivity
K. This done by an independent, exclusive thermal (Jex = 0) experiment. In the thermal
conductivity experiment, a differential thermocouple, connected across two points, little away
from the ends of the sample (to avoid contact effect), is used to measure the temperature
difference and hence the gradient, across the sample, using, the length of the sample. The
thermal conductivity is then calculated, from the familiar relation, Q (External Heat Input) =
(K A (ΔT/ΔX)]. Then from the equation (20), the Peltier voltage for an HTSC- metal junction,
can be found.
increase. At large d (> 2 nm), the ZT depends on QW orientation and its maximum value o.4
is achieved at carrier concentration ~ 1018cm-3, as in bulk. For small d (~ 2 nm) the optimal
carrier concentration is higher. ~ 1019cm-3 and ZT ~ 0.8 is achieved.
III B.3 Quantum Dots, Ge Dots on Si, Ref[11, ZT Results : Appendix B10 ]
Special Features : A configuration of regimented quantum dots, with strong coupling among
the dots, the carrier transport is facilitated by the extended 3D mini band formation, rather
than the localized QD states,the analysis is restricted to heavy holes, the single valley
effective mass approximation thus becomes valid, since a single energy maximum in the
valence band is located in Γ point, the light hole subband in compressed (superlattice) Ge is
well separated from the heavy hole subband, and have much smaller effective mass, the
curves show ZT for p type Ge/Si QDS, normalized to the Si values,the constant relaxation
time of 10-12 s is used, there is relatively large region of Fermi energies where ZT, is one or
two orders of magnitude larger than the bulk Si value.experimental value for bulk Si is 0.05 at
300K and of the bulk p type Si 0.95 Ge0.05 ~ 0.06.
24 M.M. Kaila
IV Conclusion
IV A General Considerations
Thermoelectric cooling, at the low dimensional material level, is the much wanted
temperature control, for the nano HTSC, THz devices. The ultimate speed of the of the device
is determined by the fastest possible heat dissipation by the electrons, without a back
flow.Self cooling of the electrons by the Peltier technique, in the HTSC sensorsis the right
approach to follow. Making a junction between Zr,Hf Te5 and YBCO, as a nano structure
would,make a good sensor-cooler to investigate. In a hot electron situation, a full description
of the electron-phonon thermal dynamics, in an HTSC, requires inclusion of coexisting
systems, i.e. cooper pairs, quasiparticles (electrons from broken cooper pairs), phonons in the
film, and phonons in the substrate, etc. When there is, thermal equilibrium, all of these can be
described by equilibrium functions with same temperature.That is the case, of a bolometer. If
a distribution does not satisfy these conditions, the situation is considered as nonequilibrium.
That is what an HETS is about. A treatment of a nonequilibrium state requires, a solution of
the space and time dependent,thermal distribution functions equations..
The assumption of a uniform non equilibrium state, spread over the entire volume of the
film, is applicable only, when the sensor is operated close to the critical temperature Tc.
Below Tc, the electron specific heat exhibits an exponential temperature dependence. That
requires non linear heat transfer equation for even small deviations from the equilibrium.
Near Tc, the superconducting energy gap is strongly suppressed. The concentration of cooper
pairs is very small, and the unpaired electrons exhibit no significant superconduting
peculiarities. They are regarded as normal electrons, and obey the normal Fermi distribution
function. One should notice that there are a wide varieties, of similarities and dissimilarities,
among the LTSCs (e.g. NbN) and the HTSCs (e.g. YBaCuo), [Appendices A1-A3]. The
thermalization dynamics, in the case of an HTSC is an order of magnitude faster. In YBaCuO,
Cp/Ce ~40, while in NbN, it is ~10. On the femtosecond time scale, the non-thermal (hot
electron), and thermal, bolometric (phonon) processes are practically, de-coupled in an
HTSC. Thus the former, totally dominates the early stages of electron relaxation. In a case,
when an HTSC is operated much below Tc,the hot electron approximation is not adequate.
Several alternative models, of using the non equilibrium state of electron and phonons, in
an HTSC, for thermal sensing, have been suggested in the literature. It is worth mentioning
the virtues of, a hot spot HETS.In this approach, a particular selected area on the film, under
irradiation, evolves as a hot spot in the film. What this hot spot means is, that the material
within the hot spot behaves like a normal material,surrounded by superconducting volume all
around. The spatial extent of the spot, increases with the energy received in the spot. The
spot, which is in the normal state, thus has a variable interface with the surrounding
superconducting phase. The ratio of the normal electrons, inside the spot, as compared to the
supreconducting cooper pairs, outside, can be adjusted, by using a suitable bias current and
the power of the laser pump. A study can be carried out on the response of the sensor, by
gradually reducing the photon flux, to almost zero. The response for a single photon, can thus
be manipulated. There may be a one spot, or several sots, working in coherence. A practical
device has been developed, as a single photon, hot electron thermal sensor[5]. It is possible to
design a low dimensional structure e.g. a regiment of quantum dots, of a thermoelectric
Hot Electron non Eqilibrium High Temperature Superconductor Thz Radiation... 25
IV C Achievements HTSCs
Electronic Cooling : Mixed State : Bi 1.7Pb 0.24Sr2 ca2Cu3Oδ (BSCO,Tc = 120K), (Bulk
Material) Ref[30 ]
Thermoelectric-thermomagnetic phenomena in the mixed state of the HTSC materials has
been extensively studied. The BSCO-Cu junction, is good example to consider[30]. In a bulk
material superconductor situation, a direct measurement of the Peltier coefficient (due to its
small magnitude), is very difficult. There is need to take into account, effects of both the
electrical and thermal currents, across the junction.The mixed state of the superconductor, has
a fraction of the volume,where electrons are free and behave like normal electrons.When heat
26 M.M. Kaila
IV D Detectivity
D = 1 / NEP (1)
Hot Electron non Eqilibrium High Temperature Superconductor Thz Radiation... 27
Here NEV is the noise equivalent voltage and Vrsp(ω) is the frequency dependent voltage
responsivity of the sensor.In a particular, the open circuit (no current bias) case, for the
YBCO-BiSb junction, a specific detectivity, D*, of 1011 Cm Hz1/2/W was estimated [34]. A
detailed noise performance analysis for the YBaCuO-HETS case, has been carried out
before[35]. Noise equivalent temperature, NET, rather than NEP, is considered as more
appropriate parameter. The following mathematical expressions, involved in the noise
analysis ofan HETS, are worth reproducing here[35, 36, Appendices C3, C4].
Here a = the coupling facto between the incident radiation and the sensor,kB = the
Boltzmn constnt, RL = the external (to sensor) load resistance and gcnvrsn(ω) = the frequency
dependent conversion gain of the sensor. In a single side band (SSB) situation, for the case of
thermal noise TN, the noise equivalent temperature, NET can be written as
Here te1, is the electron temperature the substrate temperature, atcr, is the dimensionaless
temperature coefficient of resistance of the sensor, ge is the thermal conductance between
electrons and phonons. In a complete treatment, noises due to, the thermal resistance between
sensorand the substrate, electrical resistance or the JN noise, etc, should all be taken into
account.
In the case of a model where electro-phonon thermal conductance,is the dominant one in
the heat transfer process, the ge, is expressed as follows
where Vs is the volume of the sensor, te1 is the amplitude of the electron temperature pulse, lep
= γ / (3 tmep ts),ts is the temperature of the substrate, tmep is the electron phonon temperature
relaxation time and γ is the Somerfield constant. For a 10 nm thin and a 0.1 μ wide, YBaCuO
sensor, a NET of 3000K is obtained. An optimum bias of PLO (local laser pump boost power)
~ 10 μW and I = 50 μA, makes JN much less than the TN noise.Where phonon are in
equilibrium with the substrate, so that the electrons,can easily diffuse to the end electrical
contacts, is called as the diffusion limit.In this limit, one can write
28 M.M. Kaila
Here Kp = is the phonon thermal conductivity and LD = the diffusion length of the
electrons. The phonon diffusivity cab be written as
Dp = kp / Cp (10)
In order to make the device operate under this condition, the lengthof the sensor has to be
< 70 nm and need to be < 2 nm across.The electron temperature relaxation time, tme, is
limited by the electron-phonon relaxation time, tmep and the phonon escape time tmes, as
follows
When a detector can not operate under the diffusion limit, but rather involve, the
substrate, then tmeshas to be small enough, so that, tmep > tmes (ce / cph). Then the band width
of the sensor will be[36]. In the lowest noise temperature limit, one can write[36, Appendix
C4].
This is he case when the substrate is highly thermally conducting, with conductance
much better than between electrons and phonons. With Tc = 100K and ΔTc = 10K (HTSC),
Δf = √11 THz (tmep ~ 10-12s). In an LTSC, on the other hand, Tc = 10K, ΔTc = 1K, one gets
Δf = √11 THz.
Thus in the low noise limit, the HTSC results in the sane possible band width, as the
LTSC. One should notice however that the restrictions on the dimensions of an HTSC sensor,
are much more critical, to achieve same level of performance. In the HTSCs, the electrons,
have a much shorter mean free path, and thus have to be collected over a much shorter space,
for conduction. I feel, a, S (superconductor)I (insulator) T (thermoelectric material) – I S, i.e.
a SITIS, pair junction, as a sensor, analogous to the LTSC, SINIS sensor, should form a good
study, for an experimental and theoretical analysis. This should lead. to the much desired
design, of an HTSC junction sensor, with an integrated electronic cooling[Appendix B13].
One can then extend it, to a hot electron HTSC-Peltier cooling,integrated THz thermal sensor.
This can be done by using both, old[Appendices, B3, B4] and new [Appendix B5], class of
thermoelectric materials.
Hot Electron non Eqilibrium High Temperature Superconductor Thz Radiation... 29
Acknowledgements
Family
This work is written in respect of the sufferings of my mother Mrs P.W. Kaila, late, father Dr.
M. R. Kaila, brother Dr. K. L. Kaila, and many millions, living or dead, who became innocent
victims, least to mention, as refugees, at the independence of India, in 1947.This carnage,
resulted from the division of India, which accompanied the freedom.Our family, and many
other millions, during 1947-1948, were made refugees twice. We first moved from our home
at Lahore, and created another one at Jammu (Kashmir). Then later due to the unsettled fate
of Kashmir, moved from Jammu to Delhi. I ma grateful to my wife Mrs Veena Kaila, for her
interest and encouragement.My gratitude also goes to my daughter, Dr. Rakhi Kaila. She
showed lot of interest in my research work, during her stay at,the University of New South
Wales (UNSW), while completing her studies, towards her MBBS degree. I am also thankful
to my son, Rohit Kaila, for his support, during family movements, interstate within Australia,
and also overseas. The movements became an unnecessary evil, to keep myself, in job and my
profession.
Scientific Community
I am grateful to the authors of the publications, both virtual and real, from where some of the
information has been used, to prepare this work. The information available, at present is from
the specialists in the area.This is disseminated, at isolated spots, and intelligible, by non
specialists.I am grateful to those who have made available such publications.This has enabled
me to prepare this work. The preparation is in a in a manner, so that a beginner, in the field,
has a good starting point. On the other hand, scientific community, at large, would have, at
their disposal, a directed information, for research,development, education and training. The
research community, realizes, that it there is need for a thermal sensor, which will have an
integrated cooling, for its best performance. Thermeolectric cooling, by the researchers in
field,is believed, to be the right direction to follow. The way the information is as available at
present, is beyond the comprehension, of many non specialist members of the community.
There has been, little research and development effort, in creating a suitable knowledge bank,
over the last three decades, particularlyin the area of thin film themoelectrics.
The inspiration to take up this task has, originated from the research experience, I
gathered, in the area of high temperature superconductors, while working,in association with
late A/ Professor, G, J. Russell, at the UNSW, during the nineties.Useful research articles, by
several workers in the field, at isolated locations, have been very useful to me. They have
helped me to prepare this work, in comprehensible format. I hope this work will stimulate
participation, in the development, from a much wider section, of the scientific community.
The small step I have endeavored here, I feel, will become a giant step, with the enthusiasm,
of the community at large.My association with Emeritus Professor H. J. Goldsmid, during
seventies,and part of eighties, at the UNSW, provided me with training, in the area of
thermoelectric materials and devices, which helped me to make,this work, a modest one. I
much appreciate that association.I am also grateful to Professor J. W. V. Storey, for his
continuous support andinterest, including, in the field of thermal sensors. The best ‘ present ‘
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“There must be a dozen or more!” gasped Frank, in amazement.
CHAPTER XII
A NEW “U-13” APPEARS
Eagerly the lads gazed at the strange sights before them. On their
right rose several huge buildings; evidently workshops. On the left
they could see a field devoted to the erection and testing of several
gigantic dirigibles. Everywhere they saw bustling activity on the part
of the numerous workmen. Sentries paced about with arms in
readiness.
“That fleet of submarines looks to me as if Germany were
preparing to destroy every ship in the world!” stated Jack presently,
as the destroyer on which they stood passed the undersea craft.
“The workmen seem to be fitting out some of the divers, too!”
ventured Jimmie. “See them carrying packages aboard that outside
one!”
“Maybe the grocer is coming to deliver the goods in the rear!”
laughed Ned. “Those packages look like groceries in disguise!”
“I’ll bet Mackinder would like to see those submarines!” Harry
said. “He’d give his eyes almost for one good long look at them!”
“Mackinder won’t see enough to carry any news back home from
this place!” declared Frank. “Didn’t you see the officer take him
below?”
“Yes, I did! I also saw the black look he gave us as he was being
taken away from this deck house. He likes us a lot—nit!”
“I believe the commander of this craft is favorably disposed
toward us,” put in Ned. “He probably realizes that we want to be
neutral and that our presence in this neighborhood is due to our
misfortune and not to our fault. I do wish, though,” the lad added,
“that we could leave!”
“How much would you give to get away?” questioned Jimmie.
“I’d give a good deal!” replied Ned. “I don’t like the idea of
remaining on this island a prisoner for any length of time!”
“Well, if you’ll make it worth while,” Jimmie offered, “I’ll take you
along as a passenger. You must behave, though!”
“Ah!” smiled Ned, thinking Jimmie was indulging in another of his
jokes. “May I ask when your ship leaves?”
“I’m thinking of leaving about midnight or a little after,” stated
Jimmie, gravely. “It will depend somewhat on the wind and weather.
If it comes on to blow and the sea is rough I believe we’ll get out on
time. However, if this breeze should die away, we may not go!”
“You’re rather reversing the order of things,” commented Ned.
“Most captains want clear weather and smooth seas for their
departure!”
“Well, if it remains stormy, as it has every prospect of doing and
you want a swift ride, you just keep watch of your uncle!”
“Thanks!” laughed Ned. “You may surely count on me!”
“May we go along, too, Jimmie?” asked Harry.
“Sure, you may all go!” answered the lad. “But I warn you right
now,” he added, “that you’ll have to work your passage!”
“That suits me!” returned Harry, greatly amused at carrying on
what he considered as a pleasant joke to while away the time.
But to Jimmie, at least, the matter was not by any means to be
regarded as anything but a serious proposition. The lad had quickly
formulated a plan of escape. The very daring of his intended action
was its best guarantee of success. Failure meant disaster, but Jimmie
was prepared to risk all in the attempt.
For a time the lad said no more. His tightly shut jaws showed the
determination that possessed him. The others became absorbed in
observing and discussing the monster Zeppelin dirigibles, hence they
said nothing more upon the subject. There was much to attract their
attention.
Directly they were summoned before the commander. As they
entered the cabin the Sturmvogel drew up alongside a dock.
“Young men,” the officer began as the lads entered the cabin, “I
regret keenly the circumstances that seem to make it necessary for
us to detain you. I understand how anxious you must be to reach
your homes, but it is not possible to permit you to depart at this
time. You will be given every consideration during your stay at this
place.”
“Can’t we go with you when you leave here?” asked Frank.
“No, that is impossible!” the other replied, shaking his head.
“Then maybe some other vessel will call and we can get passage
on it? We are not particular about the class of accommodations!”
“You forget that for some distance in every direction the sea is
mined. No vessels approach this island unless they know the
channels.”
“Then I guess we’ll have to be contented,” sighed the lad.
“Is Mackinder going to remain here also?” questioned Ned.
“I am very sure of it!” smiled the commander. “I believe that
several members of the guard are quite prepared to insist upon his
staying here until the knowledge he now possesses would be of no
use to his own country. Yes,” he added, “Mackinder will remain!”
“I hope matters will be arranged so that we shall soon be able to
leave for home,” stated Ned. “We are not anxious to leave good
company, but we would like to get away from the scene of so much
trouble. We want to remain strictly neutral, and think the best place
for that is at home!”
“I haven’t a doubt of your neutrality!” declared the officer heartily.
“You may be assured that I shall do everything to help you. I believe
I can arrange so that certain privileges will be granted. It will not be
necessary, I am sure, to confine you to one of the buildings.”
“Thank you!” replied Ned, gratefully. “You are most kind.”
“And now, if you please, we will go ashore to meet the officer in
charge of this place,” stated the other. “You will like him, I’m sure.”
Congratulating themselves on the kindness shown in their behalf
the boys prepared to leave the Sturmvogel. They collected the kits of
the four who had left Amsterdam on the Lena Knobloch. As they
gained the dock they found the small boat in which they had left the
schooner. It was evidently being preserved as evidence of the
circumstance of the rescue.
Already the work of provisioning and fitting the vessel was in
progress. The wireless had been busily used during the last few
hours of their voyage to the end that just the supplies needed were
waiting at the wharf. A huge coal barge fitted with a “whirlie” had
drawn up alongside. Great buckets of coal were pouring into the
bunkers, while porters carried all sorts of stores and supplies aboard.
Cases of ammunition were being hoisted aboard and stowed in their
proper compartments.
Stepping along the dock, dodging wagons loaded with fresh
provisions and stores, the boys kept pace with their friend, the
commander.
Presently they reached one of the buildings given over to the use
of offices. Here they were admitted into a room, where they found
the officer in command of the island.
A short conversation in German served to inform this gentleman of
the situation so far as the commander of the destroyer could report.
At the end of the recital the boys were addressed by the one they
had been brought to visit, who had been introduced as General
Gruenwold.
“I understand that you young gentlemen lost an airship when the
schooner sank?” he inquired of Ned, motioning the boys to chairs.
“Yes, sir!” replied Ned. “It was, of course, a complete loss.”
“Then you understand machinery pretty well?”
“We have always thought so,” was the modest reply.
“And electricity?”
“Yes, sir. We understand wireless, also.”
“Then I am fortunate. Perhaps you would consent to assist us in
some difficult technical tasks we have on hand.”
“We shall be glad to do what we may to reimburse you for our
keep if you will be good enough to assist us to return to the United
States!”
“Let us discuss that at another time, if you please,” replied
Gruenwold. “Just now we are short of practical electricians. If you
will offer your services in that direction we shall be very grateful. You
may be sure that we shall not be forgetful when it is possible to
reciprocate.”
“Thank you,” replied Ned in acknowledgment of the indirect
promise. “Now, if you will show us what you want done we shall be
most happy to proceed. I believe we have nothing else to do.”
“Here are some plans,” stated the other, opening a cabinet at one
side of the room. “In these compartments are plans of certain
vessels. You will observe on these sheets marked ‘elek.’ complete
diagrams of the plan of wiring. Take this one, for instance. Do you
think you could understand what is meant by these tracings?”
Ned studied the diagram for a few moments. The other boys
leaned over his shoulder. Presently, after conferring with his friends,
the lad announced that he understood the drawings perfectly, even
though he was unable to read the explanations which were in the
German language.
A smile lighted the face of Gruenwold as this statement was made.
Evidently the need for completing the work was urgent.
“In that case, we will ask you to accompany this orderly on board
the vessel and proceed with the work. I will write an order directing
the ones in charge of the vessel to admit you and render such aid as
may be necessary. Later I will send a man who can speak English.”
While the general was writing the necessary order to the ones in
charge of the vessel to which he had referred the boys were busy
communicating with each other by means of the mute language, in
which they were quite adept. By supreme efforts they were able to
suppress the excitement under which they were laboring.
“What a piece of luck!” rapidly signalled Jimmie to Ned.
“Keep cool!” cautioned Ned in reply. “Don’t give it away!”
“Insist that we stay together on the job,” returned Jimmie.
“You may be sure I shall do that!” came the answer instantly.
“I hope the storm increases!” was Jack’s contribution.
“Now, gentlemen,” announced the general, “if you are ready to
proceed you may accompany this man. He will direct you to the
work.”
Ned bowed in acknowledgment and the party turned to
accompany the orderly, who appeared in answer to the summons of
his superior.
They were led away from the dock at which the Sturmvogel lay. In
a short time they had traversed a goodly distance toward the mouth
of the harbor. Their destination proved to be the building adjacent to
the group of submarine vessels. By inquiries both direct and indirect
Ned and his companions decided that the orderly was unable to
comprehend English, but for the sake of absolute safety they
continued to use the sign language largely in their conversation as
they proceeded.
In a short time they had been admitted to the outermost craft,
which lay moored to its fellows. Communication had been
established between the vessels by means of a row of planks laid
from deck to deck.
Once inside the submarine the boys made a hurried yet thorough
examination of every part, taking a complete inventory of the exact
state of affairs. Frank and Jimmie managed to overhaul the stores.
Harry and Jack looked over the mechanical equipment. Ned, with the
plans in his hands, went carefully over every detail of the electric
system.
“I say, fellows,” announced Ned at length, as all the lads met
beneath the hatch, “this wagon is nearly complete. It looks a lot like
the ‘U-13’!”
“That’s what it does!” agreed Jimmie. “What more is needed?”
“A few pieces of wire and about an hour’s work for me.”
“Frank and I have found enough food to last a couple of months if
we can count hard-tack, sausage, and the supply of canned goods.”
“Jack and I,” announced Harry, “have found the engines and
pumps apparently ready for duty in a moment. My idea is that they
are trying to get this vessel ready for a cruise at the first possible
moment.”
“It looks as if they are expecting a crew from some place and
want the boat ready for duty as soon as the crew arrives!” stated
Ned.
Further conversation was cut short by the arrival of the orderly.
“Essen?” he inquired, pointing at his mouth and rubbing his belt.
“Don’t say it twice!” cried Jimmie. “We heard you the first time!”
The boys prepared to follow the orderly, who evidently intended to
escort them to the mess hall, where they would secure dinner.
As they turned toward the iron ladder leading to the hatch Jimmie,
who had followed close upon the orderly’s heels, cried out:
“Hello, Mackinder, where you from?”
CHAPTER XIII
A THREATENING SITUATION