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Mathematics and Visualization

Hamish Carr · Christoph Garth

Tino Weinkauf Editors

Topological
Methods in Data
Analysis and
Visualization IV
Theory, Algorithms, and Applications
Mathematics and Visualization

Series Editors
Hans-Christian Hege
David Hoffman
Christopher R. Johnson
Konrad Polthier
Martin Rumpf
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/4562
Hamish Carr • Christoph Garth • Tino Weinkauf
Editors

Topological Methods
in Data Analysis
and Visualization IV
Theory, Algorithms, and Applications

123
Editors
Hamish Carr Christoph Garth
University of Leeds Department of Computer Science
Leeds, United Kingdom Technical University of Kaiserslautern
Kaiserslautern, Germany

Tino Weinkauf
School of Computer Science
and Communication
KTH Royal Institute of Technology
Stockholm, Sweden

ISSN 1612-3786 ISSN 2197-666X (electronic)

Mathematics and Visualization
ISBN 978-3-319-44682-0 ISBN 978-3-319-44684-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-44684-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011944972

Mathematics Subject Classification (2010): 00A66, 57-04, 54-04

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
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errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration from Morse-Smale Analysis of Ion Diffusion in Ab Initio Battery Materials Simula-
tions by A. Gyulassy, A. Knoll, K. Chun Lau, B. Wang, P.-T. Bremer, M. E. Papka, L. A. Curtiss and
V. Pascucci. By courtesy of the authors.

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Preface

Since Helman and Hesselink’s landmark paper on vector topology in 1989, topolog-
ical analysis has formed an increasingly important part of scientific visualization.
This is not only because it opens up novel forms of understanding but also because
as our data has increased past terascale, machine analysis necessarily substitutes
for laborious human inspection of visualizations. More and more, one can argue
that data analysis precedes rather than succeeds visualization and that topological
analysis is one of the key approaches given its strong mathematical underpinnings,
precise answers and verifiable outcomes.
From its early starts in vector field topology, topological visualization has
expanded to embrace analysis of scalar fields in the form of contour trees,
Reeb graphs and Morse-Smale complexes, analysis of abstract graphs and high-
dimensional data and, most recently, analysis of multivariate fields through Jacobi
sets, Reeb spaces and the joint contour net, linking with the mathematical field of
fibre topology in the process.
Topological visualization is, however, not concerned only with the topological
computation per se. One of the strongest features of the community is its focus on
the full range of theoretical understanding, algorithmic advances and application
work, all of which are represented in this volume.
Starting in 2005, biennial workshops have been held on topological visualization
in Budmerice (2005), Grimma (2007), Snowbird (2009), Zürich (2011), Davis
(2013) and Annweiler (2015), where informal discussions supplement formal
presentations and knit the community together. Notably, these workshops have
consistently resulted in quality publications under the Springer imprint which form
a significant part of the working knowledge in the area.
In the most recent workshop (2015), at Kurhaus Trifels in Annweiler, Germany,
bivariate analysis, Reeb spaces and fibre topology increased in importance, anchored
by keynotes from Professor Osamu Saeki (Kyushu), one of the leaders in fibre topol-
ogy, and Professor Kathrin Padberg-Gehle (Lüneburg), who works on computational
methods for nonlinear dynamical systems.
Of the 23 papers presented at TopoInVis 2015, 20 passed a second-round review
process for this volume. In addition, Professor Saeki contributed a survey of the

v
vi Preface

relevant fibre topology to this volume for the benefit of the community, which we
expect to shape approaches to data visualization in future years, and a further paper
was contributed directly to this volume.
We have grouped this paper in Part I with the two most closely related papers.
Of these, one deals with multi-modal analysis in a particular application domain
(atmospheric impacts of volcanic eruptions). The other deals with joint contour nets
(a quantized approximation of fibre topology) and their relation to analysis based on
Pareto set analysis.
We have then collected papers relating to high-dimensional data in Part II. Here,
the first paper applies scalar field topology to optimization problems, based on the
common description of optimization as a search landscape. In contrast, the second
paper discusses algorithms for computing and visualizing merge trees (one of the
principal forms of scalar analysis) in high-dimensional data. These are grouped with
a paper that considers the relative quality of different measures applied to reduce the
dimensionality of the data.
Part III then collects papers that use scalar topology in relatively low-dimensional
spaces (i.e. three-dimensional space). Here, the first paper compares similarity
between scalar fields, using histograms as summaries of geometric information
to supplement the underlying topological analysis. The second paper is more
applied in nature, as it addresses a practical domain problem—how to track
diffusion of ions into a battery material, using Morse-Smale analysis, to identify the
potential diffusion channels. Lastly, the third paper addresses the inverse problem
of (re-)constructing a scalar field from a known Morse-Smale complex.
Where Part III deals with scalar fields, Part IV considers vector and tensor
fields. Here, while the broad strokes of the analysis are well-understood, actual
computation of topological invariants has a number of practical problems. At the
heart of these is the tension between formal mathematical expression of continuous
models and practical numerical computation. The papers in this part therefore
primarily address issues of discontinuity and degeneracy in the analysis process.
Of these, the first paper deals with issues at the boundary of flow fields through
computation of escape maps, while the second computes similarity measures
between nearby integral curves to detect regions of shared behaviour. A third paper
extends existing ideas for decomposition of vector fields, in order to underpin
a future generation of algorithmic approaches, while a fourth paper extends
existing mathematical analysis of tensor fields as a preliminary to developing new
techniques.
Part V then considers a theme common to many of the newest approaches—
indirect detection of topological features to avoid the numerical problems of early
methods. Here, the goal is to detect coherent structures in a variety of contexts and
use them as the basis of the visualization. The best known techniques for this use
finite time Lyapunov exponents (FTLEs), and three of these papers extend these
techniques, while the fourth considers related computations.
In the first paper on FTLEs, they are used to detect regions of topological change
as a scalar field, which is then subjected to a second round of topological analysis
to detect ridge features. The second paper builds on the observation that not all
Preface vii

topological boundaries are equally important and maps secondary evaluations to

these boundaries to aid in interpretation. The third paper considers an orthogonal
but crucial issue—the effect of approximation on this form of analysis. Lastly, the
remaining paper considers alternate measures of topological importance, replacing
FTLEs with stochastic computations based on transfer operators.
The last part, Part VI, is devoted to papers that are more explicitly about
algorithms or software engineering. Here, the first paper is about the selection
of thresholds for topological analysis, while the second considers the software
instruction necessary for practical deployment of topological techniques. A third
paper looks at improving the computation of merge trees in a distributed setting,
while the last paper considers knotted graphs, an area of topology not previously
represented in the TopoInVis community.
We note that these areas have followed a common pattern in development—
initially, there were only one or two papers published on flow topology, but over
time, they expanded and triggered the development of the TopoInVis workshop.
Later, new techniques were introduced, in particular the detection of coherent
structures using finite-time Lyapunov exponents, and we now see this separating
as a related but different topic.
Equally, the first TopoInVis workshop did not involve a significant amount of
scalar topology, but this area has increased over time and is represented primarily
in Parts I and II, since Reeb and Morse analyses are sufficiently well-developed to
justify two distinct areas. This growth then triggered developments in analysis of
high-dimensional data: hence Part V.
It is therefore encouraging to see the development of fibre topology and
multivariate analysis as an emerging theme in topological visualization, as it shows
that the pattern continues. Equally, we have started to see work submitted on the
peculiar software engineering challenges of topology, and we expect this theme to
develop further in future.
As with any workshop, however, the measure of quality is not the breadth of
the papers, nor the number of people attending, but whether new ground is being
broken. Here, the pattern of development is clear, and we confidently look forward
to additional themes emerging in future TopoInVis workshops.
We would like to thank all of the participants in TopoInVis 2015, as well as
Springer, for their continued support and look forward to further developments in
all of these areas.

Leeds, UK Hamish Carr

Kaiserslautern, Germany Christoph Garth
Stockholm, Sweden Tino Weinkauf
Contents

Part I Topology-Based Analysis of Multi-Variate Data Sets

Theory of Singular Fibers and Reeb Spaces for Visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Osamu Saeki
Topology-Based Analysis for Multimodal Atmospheric Data
of Volcano Eruptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Alexander Kuhn, Wito Engelke, Markus Flatken,
Hans-Christian Hege, and Ingrid Hotz
A Comparison of Joint Contour Nets and Pareto Sets . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Lars Huettenberger, Christian Heine, and Christoph Garth

Part II Topological Techniques for High-Dimensional Data

Visualizing Topological Properties of the Search Landscape
of Combinatorial Optimization Problems .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Sebastian Volke, Dirk Zeckzer, Martin Middendorf,
and Gerik Scheuermann
Computing and Visualizing Time-Varying Merge Trees
for High-Dimensional Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Patrick Oesterling, Christian Heine, Gunther H. Weber,
Dmitriy Morozov, and Gerik Scheuermann
Agreement Analysis of Quality Measures for Dimensionality
Reduction . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Bastian Rieck and Heike Leitte

Part III Scalar Field Topology

Fast Similarity Search in Scalar Fields using Merging Histograms .. . . . . . . 121
Himangshu Saikia, Hans-Peter Seidel, and Tino Weinkauf

ix
x Contents

Morse-Smale Analysis of Ion Diffusion in Ab Initio Battery

Materials Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Attila Gyulassy, Aaron Knoll, Kah Chun Lau, Bei Wang,
Peer-Timo Bremer, Michael E. Papka, Larry A. Curtiss,
and Valerio Pascucci
Piecewise Polynomial Reconstruction of Scalar Fields
from Simplified Morse-Smale Complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Léo Allemand-Giorgis, Georges-Pierre Bonneau,
and Stefanie Hahmann

Part IV Vector and Tensor Field Topology

Topological Extraction of Escape Maps in Divergence-Free
Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Ronald Peikert, Gustavo Machado, and Filip Sadlo
Compute and Visualize Discontinuity Among Neighboring
Integral Curves of 2D Vector Fields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Lei Zhang, Robert S. Laramee, David Thompson, Adrian Sescu,
and Guoning Chen
Decomposition of Vector Fields Beyond Problems of First
Order and Their Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Wieland Reich, Mario Hlawitschka, and Gerik Scheuermann
Maximum Number of Degenerate Curves in 3D Linear
Tensor Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Yue Zhang, Yu-Jong Tzeng, and Eugene Zhang

Part V Coherent Structures

Hierarchical Watershed Ridges for Visualizing Lagrangian
Coherent Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Mingcheng Chen, John C. Hart, and Shawn C. Shadden
Finite Time Steady 2D Vector Field Topology . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Anke Friederici, Christian Rössl, and Holger Theisel
Comparing Finite-Time Lyapunov Exponents in Approximated
Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Stefan Koch, Sebastian Volke, Gerik Scheuermann, Hans Hagen,
and Mario Hlawitschka
Transfer Operator-Based Extraction of Coherent Features
on Surfaces . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Kathrin Padberg-Gehle, Sebastian Reuther, Simon Praetorius,
and Axel Voigt
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Contents xi

Part VI Software and Algorithms

ADAPT: Adaptive Thresholds for Feature Extraction .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Peer-Timo Bremer
Efficient Software for Programmable Visual Analysis Using
Morse-Smale Complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Nithin Shivashankar and Vijay Natarajan
Notes on the Distributed Computation of Merge Trees
on CW-Complexes .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Aaditya G. Landge, Peer-Timo Bremer, Attila Gyulassy,
and Valerio Pascucci
Computing Invariants of Knotted Graphs Given by Sequences
of Points in 3-Dimensional Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Vitaliy Kurlin
 Part I
Topology-Based Analysis of Multi-Variate
Data Sets
Theory of Singular Fibers and Reeb Spaces
for Visualization

Osamu Saeki

Abstract This is a survey article on singularity theory of differentiable maps with

applications to visualization of scientific data in mind. Special emphasis is put on
Morse theory on manifolds with boundary, singular fibers of multi-fields, their Reeb
spaces, and their topological transitions.

2000 Mathematics Subject Classification (MSC): Primary 57R45; Secondary

57R35, 58K15, 68U05, 65D18

1 Introduction

This is a survey article on singularity theory of differentiable maps, which focuses

on their singular fibers and Reeb spaces. The author will try to explain those
materials which may help researchers in the visualization community to use them
for their own purposes. Therefore, for many of the statements, theorems, etc.,
their rigorous proofs are not given in this article, and instead the author will try
to give appropriate references. Furthermore, some of the results might have little
importance from a mathematical point of view, basically because they are classical
and/or well known to mathematicians in general. However, the author will try to
include them as long as they can play important roles in visualization of scientific
data. Surprisingly, many of the important results that will be explored in this article
are quite new in singularity theory. Some of the problems treated in this article are
being investigated in singularity theory as central issues. This means that problems
in the visualization community may lead to interesting problems or sometimes
essential solutions in singularity theory.
The contents of the article are as follows. In Sect. 2, we review the theory of
generic scalar fields, namely, Morse functions. As this is widely known to the

O. Saeki ()
Institute of Mathematics for Industry, Kyushu University, Motooka 744, Nishi-ku,
Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 3

H. Carr et al. (eds.), Topological Methods in Data Analysis and Visualization IV,
Mathematics and Visualization, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-44684-4_1
4 O. Saeki

visualization community in general, we will try to cover issues which might not be
so popular. Special attention is paid to Morse functions on manifolds with boundary,
since in many situations, data sets are given on a bounded domain in Euclidean
spaces which have boundary. We also describe the deformation of Morse functions,
from the view point of the simplification of the Reeb graph.
In Sect. 3, we review the singularity theory for generic multi-fields, which are
called stable maps in singularity theory. We will see that Morse theory can be
extended naturally to some dimension pairs, but not to all cases, at least theoretically.
In Sect. 4, the theory of singular fibers of differentiable maps is explained.
Mathematically, a fiber is a map around a given pre-image and it contains the
information of nearby pre-images. This is why it is important for grasping the
topological transitions of pre-images, which is essential in visualization.
In Sect. 5, we explain the concept of Reeb space of a given multi-field. This is
the straightforward generalization of Reeb graph for a scalar field. We will see that
several structure theorems are already known in singularity theory. In fact, once
you have a classification of singular fibers, a structure theorem then follows. Some
topological transitions of Reeb spaces are also presented with the simplification of
Reeb spaces in mind.
In Sect. 6, we will give several open problems related to singularity theory
and visualization of singular fibers. We will also explain how the visualization
techniques can be useful in singularity theory itself. We will give several examples
of ongoing projects in this direction as well. We end this paper by summarizing
the impact of such singularity theoretical results and techniques on computational
topology and visualization.
Throughout this paper, all manifolds and maps between them are differentiable
of class C1 unless otherwise indicated. A manifold is closed if it is compact and
has no boundary. The symbol Dk denotes the unit disk in Rk .

2 Morse Functions

2.1 Functions on Manifolds Without Boundary

Let us first consider scalar functions on manifolds without boundary. Let N be a

closed manifold of dimension n, n  1, and consider a smooth scalar function
f W N ! R. For a point p, let dfp W Tp N ! R denote the differential of f at p, where
Tp N denotes the tangent space of N at p. This is a linear map defined as follows. For
a tangent vector v 2 Tp N, the value dfp .v/ is the derivative of f in the direction of v
at p. We say that p is a critical point of f if dfp is the zero map. This is equivalent to
the following: for local coordinates .x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn / of N around p, we have

@f @f @f
. p/ D . p/ D    D . p/ D 0:
@x1 @x2 @xn
Theory of Singular Fibers and Reeb Spaces for Visualization 5

For example, if p attains a local minimum or maximum of f , then it is a critical

point, since the partial derivatives of f at such a point necessarily vanish.
Definition 2.1 For a critical point p 2 N of f , let us take local coordinates
.x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn / around p. Then the n  n symmetric matrix
 
@2 f
Hf . p/ D . p/
@xi @xj 1i;jn

is called the Hessian of f at p. We say that the critical point p is non-degenerate if

det Hf .p/ ¤ 0. It is not difficult to see that this is independent of a choice of local
coordinates.
The following lemma is fundamental (for example, see [24, 25]).
Theorem 2.2 (Morse Lemma) If p 2 N is a non-degenerate critical point of f ,
then there exist local coordinates .x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn / of N around p such that f is locally
expressed as

f .x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn / D ˙x21 ˙ x22 ˙    ˙ x2n C c; (1)

where c D f .p/ is a constant.

In the above theorem, the number of negative signs appearing in (1) is called
the index of the critical point p. The Morse Lemma implies that the differential
topological behavior of f around a non-degenerate critical point is completely
determined by its index.
Definition 2.3 A smooth function f W N ! R is a Morse function if its critical
points are all non-degenerate, and their f -values are all distinct.
As a corollary to the Morse Lemma, we see that a non-degenerate critical point
is isolated in the set of all critical points. In particular, if N is closed, then a Morse
function has only finitely many critical points.
Theorem 2.4 Any smooth function f W N ! R can be approximated arbitrarily
well, including partial derivatives, by a Morse function.
Thus, in many situations, we may assume, at least theoretically, that a given
function is a Morse function. Even if it is not, we can approximate it by a Morse
function by perturbing it arbitrarily slightly. For a computational technique for
perturbation which is very useful in practical situations, called the simulation of
simplicity, the reader is referred to [10].
Definition 2.5 Let f W N ! R be a smooth function. For a real number r 2 R, we
say that it is a critical value of f if there exists a critical point p 2 N of f such that
r D f .p/; otherwise, a regular value.
6 O. Saeki

N R

Fig. 1 Example of level sets: one can observe a topological change of level sets as the value in R
passes through a critical value

By the implicit function theorem, we see easily that for a regular value r, the
pre-image f 1 .r/ is a smooth submanifold of dimension n  1 of N, as long as it
is non-empty (for example, see [26]). Based on this observation, we introduce the
following notion.
Definition 2.6 For a real number r 2 R, the set

f 1 .r/ D fp 2 N j f .p/ D rg

is called a level set of f .

An example of level sets is depicted in Fig. 1.
The following theorem implies that a topological transition of level sets never
occurs around a regular value.
Theorem 2.7 Let f W N ! R be a smooth function on a closed manifold N. Suppose
that the closed interval Œa; b  f .N/  R contains no critical value of f . Then, there
exists a diffeomorphism h W f 1 .Œa; b/ ! f 1 .a/  Œa; b such that h.x/ D .x; a/ for
all x 2 f 1 .a/, and that the following diagram is commutative:
h
f 1 .Œa; b/ ! f 1 .a/  Œa; b
f & .p2
Œa; b;

where p2 is the projection to the second factor.

Furthermore, the topological transitions of level sets of a Morse function can be
described by using the Morse Lemma. If p is a non-degenerate critical point of index
, then the transition of level sets is locally described around p by

x21  x22      x2 C x2C1 C x2C2 C    C x2n D "

Theory of Singular Fibers and Reeb Spaces for Visualization 7

Fig. 2 Example of local level set changes for dimension 3: the top half corresponds to the case of
a critical point of index 1 or 2, while the bottom half corresponds to the case of index 0 or 3

for " 2 R with j"j sufficiently small. The other parts which sit outside of a
neighborhood of p do not change topologically in a sense similar to that in
Theorem 2.7. Examples for the case n D 3 are depicted in Fig. 2.
Definition 2.8 For a real number r 2 R, we call the set

Nr D fp 2 N j f .p/  rg

a sub-level set of f .
Note that if r is a regular value, then the corresponding sub-level set is a smooth
manifold whose boundary is the level set.
Suppose that a Morse function f is given. Starting from a real number r0 strictly
less than the minimum of f , let us consider the topological transition of the sub-
level sets Nr . Then, according to Theorem 2.7, its topological transition occurs near
a real number r only if r is a critical value of f . Furthermore, if p is a critical point
with value r, then by using the Morse Lemma, we can show that NrC" , with " >
0 sufficiently small, is obtained by attaching a -handle to Nr" , where  is the
index of the critical point p. A -handle is an n-dimensional disk of the form D 
Dn attached to @Nr" along @D  Dn . In this way, we get a so-called handle
decomposition of the manifold N [24].
On the other hand, if we look at the transitions of the homotopy types of the
sub-level sets, then we get a decomposition of N as a CW complex [25].
For more details about handles, the reader is referred also to [12, Chap. 6]. An
application of handle decompositions for morphing 3D shapes has been explored in
[35].
Let us now define the Reeb graph of a Morse function.
Definition 2.9 Let f W N ! R be a Morse function on a closed manifold. Then,
each level set of f has finitely many connected components. Contracting each such
component to a point, we get a space Rf . More precisely, two points x; x0 2 N are
equivalent if they lie in the same component of a level set. This is an equivalence
relation, and the quotient space of N with respect to this equivalence relation is
8 O. Saeki

N R

qf f¯

Rf

Fig. 3 Reeb graph of the height function f on the torus: the original function is decomposed into
the composition of the quotient map qf and the function fN defined on the Reeb graph. The vertices
of Rf are the qf -images of the critical points of f

denoted by Rf , which is endowed with the quotient topology of N. Let qf W N ! Rf

denote the quotient map. By definition, we have a natural map fN W Rf ! R such that
f D fN ı qf . Such a decomposition of f is sometimes called a Stein factorization [20].
Please note that, by definition, the quotient space Rf is a topological space.
In fact, it is not difficult to show, with the help of Theorem 2.7, that Rf is a 1-
dimensional cell complex, or a graph: for each critical point p, its image qf .p/ is a
vertex of Rf . For this reason, the space Rf is very often called the Reeb graph [28].
An example of a Reeb graph is depicted in Fig. 3. We warn the reader that a vertex of
Rf may have degree two if the manifold is non-orientable or has dimension greater
than or equal to three.

2.2 Functions on Manifolds with Boundary

So far, we have considered Morse functions on manifolds without boundary.

However, in many practical situations, scalar functions are defined on a manifold
with non-empty boundary, such as a region in Rn with smooth boundary. In this
subsection, we review the theory of Morse functions on manifolds with boundary.
For details, the reader is referred to [14, Sect. 3] or [2].
Let N be a compact manifold with boundary and f W N ! R a smooth function.
There are two types of critical points. One is a usual critical point, i.e., a point p 2 N
Theory of Singular Fibers and Reeb Spaces for Visualization 9

such that the differential dfp W Tp N ! R vanishes. We call such a point p a (usual)
critical point of f . Note that such a point p may lie in the interior as well as the
boundary of N in general. The other is a critical point of the restricted function
f@ D f j@N W @N ! R. Such a point is called a boundary critical point of f . Note that
a critical point of the second type necessarily lies on the boundary @N. Note also
that a usual critical point on @N is a boundary critical point, while the converse is
not true in general.
The following lemma is well-known.
Theorem 2.10 (Morse Lemma along Boundary) Let f W N ! R be a smooth
function defined on a manifold with boundary. If p 2 @N is not a usual critical point
of f , but is a non-degenerate critical point of f@ , then there exist local coordinates
.x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn / of N around p such that
(1) fxn  0g corresponds to N, and fxn D 0g corresponds to @N,
(2) f is locally expressed as

f .x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn / D ˙x21 ˙ x22 ˙    ˙ x2n1 ˙ xn C c; (2)

where c D f .p/ is a constant.

Examples for the case n D 2 are depicted in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4 Boundary critical points of functions defined on surfaces with boundary: the top half
represents x21 C x2 , while the bottom half represents x21 C x2
10 O. Saeki

Definition 2.11 A smooth function f W N ! R defined on a manifold with

boundary is a Morse function if
(1) it does not have a usual critical point on the boundary,
(2) every critical point of f in Int N is non-degenerate,
(3) every critical point of f@ D f j@N is non-degenerate, and
(4) the critical values of f and f@ are all distinct.
It is easy to verify that the critical points and the boundary critical points of a
Morse function f are all isolated. As we are assuming that N is compact, f has only
finitely many critical and boundary critical points.
Then, the same approximation theorem as Theorem 2.4 holds also for functions
on compact manifolds with boundary.
A real number r is a critical value of f if there exists a critical point or a boundary
critical point p of f such that r D f .p/. Otherwise, it is called a regular value. Note
that if r is a regular value, then the level set f 1 .r/ is a smooth submanifold of N
of dimension n  1 with boundary [26]. In this case, we can also show that f 1 .r/
intersects @N transversely along the boundary and that @. f 1 .r// D f 1 .r/ \ @N.
Then, the same product theorem as Theorem 2.7 for functions on compact
manifolds with boundary also holds.
Such a theorem implies that a topological transition of level sets or sub-level
sets occurs only around critical values. Note that these values may be the critical
values of the function f@ D f j@N . Therefore, in practical applications, one needs to
look for boundary critical points, or sometimes one may need to distinguish usual
critical values from boundary critical values. This should be carefully treated, since
a topological transition merely implies that the relevant value is either a critical
value or a boundary critical value, and in some cases, a boundary critical value may
have no importance.
Remark 2.12 As in the case where N has no boundary, if we pass through a usual
critical value of a Morse function, then the topology of the sub-level set necessarily
changes. On the other hand, if we pass through the value of a boundary critical point,
then the topology of the sub-level set changes if and only if the gradient vector of f
at the boundary critical point points “inward” [14]. See Fig. 5.
With the help of the product theorem (cf. Theorem 2.7), we can show that the
space Rf of a Morse function f defined on a compact manifold with boundary is
again a 1-dimensional cell complex, or a graph, which is called the Reeb graph of
f . The vertices are the qf -images of critical points and boundary critical points. The
structure of such Reeb graphs for scalar functions defined on compact surfaces with
boundary is studied in [5, 33].
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Theory of Singular Fibers and Reeb Spaces for Visualization 11

Fig. 5 Topological transition R

of sub-level sets may not N
occur even if we pass through
a boundary critical value. In
inward
this example, f 1 ..1; a/
is diffeomorphic to
f 1 ..1; b/, while
c
f 1 ..1; b/ is not
diffeomorphic to f
f 1 ..1; c/
b

outward a

2.3 Deformations of Morse Functions

The following deformations of Morse functions are well known: birth-death of a

pair of (usual) critical points, and birth-death of a pair of boundary critical points.
We also have a birth-death of a usual critical point near the boundary.
The first one refers to a 1-parameter family ft W N ! R, t 2 I, of smooth
functions, where I D ."; "/ and " > 0 is very small, with the following
properties:
1. ft is a Morse function for t ¤ 0,
2. there exists a coordinate neighborhood U in N such that ft does not depend on t
on a neighborhood of N n U,
3. on a smaller open set V with V  U, ft is given by

ft .x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn / D x31 ˙ tx1 ˙ x22 ˙    ˙ x2n

with respect to some local coordinates .x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn /.

Mathematically, this can be regarded as a path in the space of functions C1 .N; R/
which crosses a “codimension 1 non-Morse stratum” transversely at one point. Note
that this transition creates a pair of critical points of adjacent indices, or eliminates
such a pair.
A birth-death of a pair of boundary critical points is described in a similar
fashion. This is locally described by

ft .x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn / D x31 ˙ tx1 ˙ x22 ˙    ˙ x2n1 ˙ xn ;

where fxn  0g corresponds to N and fxn D 0g corresponds to @N.

12 O. Saeki

Fig. 6 Birth-death of a usual critical point near the boundary: in the middle figures, the encircled
dots are usual critical points and are, at the same time, boundary critical points. The two functions
on the left have only a boundary critical point, while the two on the right have both a boundary
critical point and a usual critical point in the interior

A birth-death of a usual critical point near the boundary is locally described by

ft .x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn / D ˙x21 ˙ x22 ˙    ˙ x2n1 C txn ˙ x2n :

For n D 2, this deformation is locally depicted in Fig. 6.

We have other types of generic transitions: crossings of critical values. These
deformations do not create nor eliminate critical points, but they interchange the
values of two (usual or boundary) critical points.
In the course of the above deformations, a topological transition of Reeb graphs
may occur as follows if the manifold has no boundary (see also [7]).
Theorem 2.13 If a topological transition of the Reeb graphs for a generic defor-
mation of Morse functions on a closed manifold of dimension n  2 occurs, then it
is one of the transitions locally described in Fig. 7 (or their upside down versions).
Note that in Fig. 7, (1) and (2) correspond to birth-death of a pair of critical
points, where in (1), one of the critical points is a local minimum or a local
maximum. The other three correspond to crossings of critical values. Note also that
the indices of the relevant critical points have certain restrictions. For example, for
(1) and (2), their indices are adjacent, while for (4), they must be 1 and n  1.
The reader should be careful, since not all transitions are realizable. For example,
the transition (2) from the right to left is always possible if n  3. More precisely,
given a Morse function whose Reeb graph has a subgraph as in the right hand side of
(2), then one can construct a generic 1-parameter deformation of the given function
Theory of Singular Fibers and Reeb Spaces for Visualization 13

(1) (2)

(3) (4)

(5)
Fig. 7 Possible transitions of Reeb graphs for generic 1-parameter deformations of Morse
functions on closed manifolds near a given parameter: these are local descriptions, and the part
lying outside of these graphs does not change during the deformation

to another Morse function whose Reeb graph is locally of the form as in the left hand
side of (2). However, for the resulting graph, the transition (4) from the right to left
cannot be applied. This is because after the birth of a pair of critical points, they
are so involved with each other that their values cannot be interchanged to make a
crossing of critical values.
We can also prove that the transition of Fig. 7 (1) is always possible. More
precisely, if the Reeb graph of a Morse function contains one of the two graphs
in the figure as a subgraph, then we can deform the given Morse function by passing
through a birth-death exactly once so that the resulting Morse function has the Reeb
graph obtained from the original one by replacing the subgraph with the other graph
in the figure. This gives a theoretical justification for simplification of a Reeb graph
for visualization purposes that uses the topological transition described in Fig. 7 (1).
The above theorem can be proved by using a result on local structures of Reeb
spaces of generic maps into the plane [19]. (For the definition of a Reeb space, refer
to Sect. 5.1.)
14 O. Saeki

3 Stable Maps

3.1 Notion of Stable Maps

Let N be a smooth manifold and f W N ! Rm a multi-field: in other words, we have

a set of m scalar functions fi W N ! R, i D 1; 2; : : : ; m, such that f D .f1 ; f2 ; : : : ; fm /.
In this section, we survey the singularity theory which studies such a set of m smooth
functions at the same time, and not individually.
For a straightforward generalization of the theory of Morse functions to the
case of smooth maps into Rm , we need a theorem similar to the Morse Lemma.
However, in singularity theory of differentiable maps, it is known to be very difficult
in general. Therefore, we adopt the following definition.
Definition 3.1 Denote by C1 .N; Rm / the set of C1 maps N ! Rm equipped with
the Whitney C1 topology (for details, see [13]). A smooth map f W N ! Rm is
called a C1 stable map, or a stable map for short, if there exists a neighborhood
U.f /  C1 .N; Rm / of f such that every map g 2 U.f / is C1 equivalent to f
[13], where two maps f and g 2 C1 .N; Rm / are C1 equivalent if there exist
diffeomorphisms  W N ! N and W Rm ! Rm such that f ı  D ı g.
This means that even if one perturbs a stable map slightly, we end up with a map
which behaves exactly the same as the original map up to diffeomorphisms of the
domain and the range. This is the origin of the terminology “stable”.
We can also define the notion of a C0 stable map by replacing diffeomorphisms
by homeomorphisms in the above definition.
Let S1 .N; Rm / (or S0 .N; Rm /) be the subspace of C1 .N; Rm / that consists of
all C1 (resp. C0 ) stable maps. By definition, both of them form open subsets of
C1 .N; Rm /. Mather [22] showed that if N is compact, then S1 .N; Rm / is dense in
C1 .N; Rm / if and only if the dimension pair .n; m/ lies in the so-called nice range.
In other words, if .n; m/ is in the nice range, then every smooth map N ! Rm can
be approximated arbitrarily well by a C1 stable map. On the other hand, Mather
[23] showed that if N is compact, S0 .N; Rm / is always dense in C1 .N; Rm /. Hence,
every map can always be approximated by a C0 stable map.
For example, for .n; m/ D .8; 6/, S1 .N; Rm / is never dense in C1 .N; Rm /.
Remarkably, for the 4-dimensional complex projective space CP4 viewed as a real
8-dimensional manifold, there exists no C1 stable map CP4 ! R6 [1]. In fact,
there are uncountably many equivalence classes of “generic” singularities for these
dimensions, and a theorem like the Morse Lemma cannot be expected.
On the other hand, it is known that every dimension pair .n; m/ with m  5 or
m  2n  1 is in the nice range (see [13, 22]).
Theory of Singular Fibers and Reeb Spaces for Visualization 15

In the following, for a smooth map f W N ! Rm , we denote by S.f / the set of

points p 2 N such that the differential dfp W Tp N ! Tf .p/ Rm has rank strictly less
than minfn; mg, where the differential is the linear map associated with the m  n
Jacobian matrix of f at p with respect to some local coordinates around p and f .p/.
The set S.f / is called the singular point set or the Jacobi set of f , and a point in
S.f / is called a singular point of f . The singular point set S.f / is often denoted by
J.f / in the visualization community (see [6]). Note that when n  m, the notation
J.f / encodes the behavior of multiple Morse functions in the sense that it collects
the points where the gradient of the m Morse functions are linearly dependent.

3.2 Characterization of Stable Maps for Specific Cases

Although theorems like the Morse Lemma do not exist in general for multi-
fields, for some specific dimension pairs .n; m/, we do have such theorems. In the
following, if we say that a map is stable, then it means that it is C1 stable.
In the function case, the following is known.
Theorem 3.2 Let N be a closed n-dimensional manifold, n  1. Then a smooth
function f W N ! R is stable if and only if it is a Morse function. In particular, the
dimension pair .n; 1/ is always in the nice range.
The above theorem means that the notion of a stable map generalizes the notion
of a Morse function in a reasonable sense.
Let us introduce the following notion.
Definition 3.3 Let fi W Ni ! Rm , i D 0; 1, be smooth maps with dim N0 D
dim N1 D n. For singular points pi 2 Ni of fi , i D 0; 1, we define that they have
the same singularity type if for some open neighborhoods Ui of pi and Vi of fi .pi /
and diffeomorphisms  W U0 ! U1 and W V0 ! V1 with  .p0 / D p1 and
.f0 .p0 // D f1 .p1 / such that the following diagram is commutative:

Note that the Morse Lemma claims that a non-degenerate critical point of a
function has the same singularity type as the critical point of a quadratic function
˙x21 ˙ x22 ˙    ˙ x2n .
Let us now consider the case m D 2. Let f W N ! R2 be a smooth map of a
closed n-dimensional manifold, n  2.
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by the Press which he had done nothing to conciliate, he
continued on his headlong course, and at the end of January,
1908, he signed a decree practically amounting to a suspension
of civil liberties."

Lisbon Correspondence,
London Times.

A tragedy followed quickly. On the 1st day of February, 1908,

the King, Dom Carlos, and the Crown Prince, Luiz Felipe, as
they rode through the streets of Lisbon, with the Queen and a
younger son in the same carriage, and attended by an escort,
were attacked by a throng of assassins and killed. The younger
prince was wounded; the Queen escaped by a miracle, one of the
assassins having been shot at the instant his pistol was aimed
at her. The two princes fought bravely, and the Queen threw
herself in front of her husband, attempting vainly to shield
him.

Prince Manuel, whose wound was not serious, succeeded to the

throne; but "the shots that killed Dom Carlos and Dom Luiz on
February 1 swept away the dictatorship of Senhor Franco and
the whole fabric which he had built up at so much cost during
18 months. Within a few hours of the murder Senhor Franco
resigned, under pressure, it is said, and left the country,
declaring that he had done with politics for ever. From being
the saviour of his country, the admiration of all enlightened
men, both at home and abroad, he became a pariah. His
supporters became mute and his system vanished. From that day
to this his followers have had no more than three or four
seats in the Chamber, where they have remained voiceless and
without influence on the course of events.

"That a seemingly vulgar crime should have so disproportionate

an effect was strange, and no less strange was the attitude of
the country. Whether owing to the widely entertained suspicion
that the murderers of the King were the tools of more
important personages whom it would not be safe to discover, or
to the fear of a Republican rising felt by the moderate and
respectable members of the community, is still a matter of
opinion; the fact remains that society lost its nerve. No
burst of indignation, no adequate expression of sympathy for
the Royal Family was heard; no steps were taken to trace the
authors of the crime. … The disappearance of Senhor Franco
left the two old ‘rotativist’ parties in presence, the
Progressistas under Senhor Luciano de Castro, and the
Regeneradores under Senhor Vilhena, the recently elected
successor of the veteran Hintze Ribeiro. Compared to these,
neither the Republicans, whose strength was supposed to be
considerable in the country, nor the ‘dissident’
Progressistas, under Senhor Alpoim, were of any account as
Parliamentary factors. A coalition Government was formed on
March 4, under Admiral Ferreira do Amaral, consisting of two
Regeneradores, two Progressistas, and two so-called
Independents, personal adherents of the Premier, who resembled
him in having no marked political ideals or convictions. The
elections, which took place in April, returned 62
Regeneradores and 59 Progressistas, thus starting the
Government on its career with the handsome following of 121 in
a House of 155. The matters with which the Government had to
deal were mainly three—namely, the revision of the decrees
issued by Senhor Franco as Dictator, the question of the Civil
List and of the advances made by the nation to the Royal
Family, and electoral reform. The Civil List was successfully
settled, but little progress had been made with the remainder
of the programme when the first serious defection occurred.
During the recess the Government announced that the municipal
elections, which had been suspended by Senhor Franco in favour
of nominated councils, would be held again in November, a
decision bitterly attacked by Senhor Vilhena, who announced
that the Regeneradores could no longer support the Government.
The elections were duly held, and, owing to the deliberate
abstention of the Monarchist parties, the Republicans captured
unopposed every seat on the Lisbon council. The unpopularity
incurred by the Government on account of this unnecessary gift
to the common enemy brought about a Government crisis. Admiral
Amaral referred the matter to the Council of State, who, to
his great surprise and annoyance, advised the resignation of
the Government. The Premier and his two independents
accordingly retired, and the Cabinet was reconstituted under
Senhor Campos Henriques, who together with Senhor Wenceslao de
Lima, Minister of Foreign Affairs, continued to represent the
Regenerador party. The late Premier’s ‘Independents’ made way
for the Progressistas, who thus held five seats in the Cabinet
to two held by the Regeneradores. Senhor Vilhena, who had
brought about the fall of the late Government, was not offered
a seat in the new one, and he immediately resumed his
opposition; but on this occasion he only carried two-thirds of
his party with him, 22 members deciding to support the
Government. This defection of the Regeneradores under Senhor
Vilhena, the first serious indication of a return to the old
system of ‘rotativism,’ was shortly followed by that of the
late Premier and his ‘Independents,’ so that when the Cortes
met on March 1, [1909], the imposing Government majority of a
year before had dwindled to 10 or 15."

Then followed daily scenes of disorder and obstruction in

Parliament until Senhor Campos Henriques surrendered, at the
end of March. As The Times correspondent expressed it,
"as soon as the Opposition in the Lower House expressed its
impatience by a banging of desks, while its leader in the
House of Peers solemnly affirmed the ‘incompatibility’ of his
party with the Government, Ministers determined to avoid all
further unpleasantness by resigning." The resignation was
accepted by the King, and three party leaders in succession
made attempts in the next month to conduct the Government,
without success. Senhor Sebastiäo Telles held the reins for
three weeks, and then passed them to Senhor Wenceslao de Lima,
who framed up a nominally non-party Ministry on the 13th of
May. Senhor De Lima conducted the Government until the
following December, when, on the 19th, he resigned, and a
 "Progressist Ministry" was formed, under Senhor Beirao.

London Times Correspondence of various Dates.

{507}

Writing from Lisbon on the 5th of January, 1910, the

Times correspondent said:

"It is the Republicans who alone seem to be making progress.

Their activities are unceasing, their newspapers the best
informed and most ably conducted, their meetings, held all
over the land, the most largely attended and most
enthusiastic. At the same hour as that of the Royal reception
on New Year’s Day the Republican municipality of Lisbon held a
like function, not only largely and most influentially
attended, but to the distinct diminution of the attendance in
the Royal Palace."

PORTUGAL: A. D. 1909.
Demonstration against the Religious Orders.

The following despatch to the Press was sent from Lisbon

August 3, 1909:

"Freethinkers from all political parties in Portugal,

represented by a Liberal committee, to-day presented to the
Cortes a petition for the suppression of the religious orders
in Portugal and the abrogation of the existing laws against
freedom of conscience. This step was an outcome of the meeting
held in this city yesterday.

"The committee was accompanied to the Houses of Parliament by

an immense crowd, and some wild scenes ensued. Among other
things the petitioners asked for the abrogation of the recent
law permitting religious associations to acquire landed
property, a procedure which up to the present time has been
 illegal. Senhor Camacho moved the consideration of the
subject, and when the motion was voted down the galleries
broke out in protestation. There was considerable violence on
the floor of the House. The Deputies engaged in a struggle in
which desks and chairs were overturned, and the Chamber had to
be cleared twice. The tumult was continued in the streets, but
without serious results."

PORTUGAL: A. D. 1909.
Offer of Dom Miguel to renounce his Claim to the Throne.

Dom Miguel, son of the Dom Miguel who, from 1828 to 1833 held
the throne of Portugal in defiance of the rights of Maria da
Gloria, his elder brother’s daughter (see, in Volume IV.,
PORTUGAL: A. D. 1824-1889), had kept up his father’s
pretensions to the crown until the spring of 1909, when he
offered to renounce it, if permitted to live in Portugal as a
citizen. The permission was refused, for the reason that his
return, with that of a number of nobles of his party, "would
be regarded as a challenge to the rising tide of Liberalism."

PORTUGAL: A. D. 1909 (April).

Earthquake in and around Lisbon.

See (in this Volume)

EARTHQUAKES: PORTUGAL.

PORTUGUESE AFRICA.

See (in this Volume)

AFRICA: PORTUGUESE.

POSTAGE, BEGINNING OF INTERNATIONAL PENNY.

The postal treaty establishing two-cent or penny postage on

letters between Great Britain and the United States went into
effect October 1, 1909.
POSTAL SERVICE, IN CHINA.

See (in this Volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1908.

POSTAL SERVICE STRIKE, IN FRANCE.

See (in this Volume)

LABOR ORGANIZATION: FRANCE: A. D. 1909 (MARCH-MAY).

POSTAL AND TELEGRAPHIC STRIKE, IN RUSSIA.

See (in this Volume)

RUSSIA: A. D. 1904-1905.

----------POVERTY AND UNEMPLOYMENT: THEIR PROBLEMS:

Start---

POVERTY AND UNEMPLOYMENT:

Old Age Homes, in Vienna.

"In most towns there is a tendency, in this our day, to deal

more generously with destitute children than with destitute
men and women. In Berlin and New York, for instance, both
money and thought are lavished on the young whom the community
supports; while as for the aged, what is given to them is
given only of necessity. In Vienna it is otherwise; there the
arrangements for the relief of the old people are better—both
more carefully considered and more liberal—than those for the
relief of children, a fact that says more, perhaps, for the
hearts than for the heads of the authorities.

"If a man—or a woman—above 60 is without money wherewith to

provide for himself, or the strength to earn the money, he
applies to the Guardian of his ward for help. Then, if he has
a home to live in, and someone to take care of him, or is able
to take care of himself, he is granted out relief, a money
allowance if he can be trusted to spend it wisely, otherwise
relief in kind. Supposing, however, he is homeless, feeble and
‘alone-standing,’ he is sent to a Versorgungshaus, or old-age
home, if there is a vacant place there; and, if not, to a
small poor-house until there is.

"Versorgungshäuser are the distinctive feature of the Austrian

Poor Relief system so far as the aged are concerned. Already
in the days of Joseph II. Vienna had two if not more of these
homes, and at the present time it has six. One of them is
reserved exclusively for Citizens; another, that at Mauerbach,
is reserved for persons who, owing to their perverted notions
as to what is seemly, cannot be accorded the full liberty the
old people in the other homes enjoy. In all the six together
there is space for more than 6,000 inmates. As the
Versorgungshäuser are looked upon by classes and masses alike
as the homes of the aged poor, the place where they have a
right to be, no disgrace is attached to going there. …

"Although in Vienna much is done for the poor, the burden

entailed by Poor Relief is by no means overwhelming. In 1903
the full cost of indoor relief, outdoor relief and sick
relief, together with the cost of administration, was only
£942,870, and of this £250,672 was obtained from private
sources. At that time the town was providing 31,000 adults—old
men and women for the most part—with allowances ranging in
amount from 30 kronen to 6 kronen a month; it was maintaining
6,790 more in old-age homes and other institutions; and was
defraying the cost of the Asyl and workhouse. It was
supporting, or contributing to the support of, 10,260 children
who were either with their own relatives or were boarded out;
and was maintaining 3,246 in orphanages, etc. It defrayed the
cost of the 27,000 babies who passed through the Foundling
Hospital, and of the 19,085 children who were temporarily in
institutions. It also provided 77,000 boys and girls with
school books, and contributed generously to many private
 philanthropic societies. Roughly speaking, the cost to the
town of Poor Relief in Vienna per head of the population is
8s. 4d."

Edith Sellers,
Poor Relief in Vienna
(Contemporary Review, December, 1900).

{508}

POVERTY AND UNEMPLOYMENT:

Pensions, &c.: Denmark: A. D. 1907.
Old Age Pensions.

Some interesting details of the working of the Danish old-age

pensions system are contained in a British Consular report
issued in May, 1909. The latest available statistics show that
on March 31, 1907, 70,445 persons over 60 years of age were in
receipt of pensions, which amounted in the aggregate to
£451,000 [$2,255,000] for the financial year 1906-1907. The
number of pensioners on March 31, 1906, was 68,800, and the
amount distributed in the financial year 1905-1906, £420,444.
Both the number of pensioners and the average amount of the
pensions are increasing. The ages of the "principal"
pensioners (i. e., of the actual recipients of pensions
apart from wives and children dependent on them) were, on
March 31st, 1906, as follows:
60 to 65 years of age—3,173 men, 4,239 women;
65 to 70 years—5,831 men, 6,756 women;
70 years and over—13,974 men and 17,037 women.

About a quarter of the population over 60 years of age is in

receipt of pensions, the women especially availing themselves
of their benefits. The average amount distributed to each
"principal" recipient was £6 5s. in 1905-1906 and £6 11s. in
1906-1907.
POVERTY AND UNEMPLOYMENT: England: A. D. 1908.
Old Age Pensions Act.
The Working of the Law.
Its Pitiful and Appalling Disclosures.

The Act of the British Parliament, "to Provide for Old Age
Pensions" (August 1, 1908), declares in its first section that
"the receipt of an old age pension under this Act shall not
deprive the pensioner of any franchise, right, or privilege,
or subject him to any disability." The second section defines
the "statutory conditions for the receipt of an old age
pension by any person" to be: the person must have attained
the age of seventy; must satisfy the pension authorities that
he has been a British subject and resident in the United
Kingdom for at least twenty years; that his yearly means, as
calculated under the stipulations of the Act, do not exceed
thirty-one pounds ten shillings. But, notwithstanding the
fulfilment of these statutory conditions, a person is
disqualified while he is in receipt of any poor relief, other
than medical or surgical assistance on the recommendation of a
medical officer, or relief rendered by means of the
maintenance of a dependent in an asylum, infirmary, or
hospital, or any relief that by law is expressly declared not
to be a disqualification for any franchise, right, or
privilege. Furthermore, any person is disqualified for the
receipt of an old age pension "if, before he becomes entitled
to a pension, he has habitually failed to work according to
his ability, opportunity, and need, for the maintenance or
benefit of himself and those legally dependent upon him:
Provided that a person shall not be disqualified under this
paragraph if he has continuously for ten years up to attaining
the age of sixty, by means of payments to friendly, provident,
or other societies, or trade unions, or other approved steps,
made such provision against old age, sickness, infirmity, or
want or loss of employment as may be recognized as proper
provision for the purpose by regulations under this Act, and
any such provision, when made by the husband in the case of a
married couple living together, shall, as respects any right
of the wife to a pension, be treated as provision made by the
wife as well as by the husband."

Disqualification exists, also, during detention in a lunatic

asylum; and not only during any penal imprisonment that has
been ordered "without the option fine," but for ten years
thereafter.

Specific rules are given in the Act for "calculating the means
of a person" who seeks the pension; and the rate of weekly
pension to be paid is proportioned inversely to such
ascertained means, as follows: "Where the yearly means of the
pensioner as calculated under this Act:
Do not exceed £21.,—5s. 0d.;
exceed £21, but do not exceed £23, 12s. 6d.,—4s. 0d.;
exceed £23 12s. 6d., but do not exceed £26 5s.,—3s. 0d.;
exceed £26 5s., but do not exceed £28 17s. 6d.,—2s. 0c2.;
exceed £28 17s. 6d., but do not exceed £31 10s.,—1s. 0d.;
exceed £31 10s., no pension."

The Act became operative on the 1st of January, 1909. At that

time the persons recommended for pensions, throughout the
Kingdom, numbered 490,028, with somewhat over 148,000 pending
claims. The original estimate, on the discussion of the
measure, had been that the eligible pensioners would not
exceed 500,000, and that the cost of the undertaking, to begin
with, would be about £6,000,000. It was evident, therefore,
before pension payments began, that these estimates were much
too low.

From Ireland it was reported by the Press on the opening day

of pension payments that "more than 4,000 persons will to-day
receive old-age pensions in the city of Dublin. Claims
continue to be received in large numbers, and the pension
authorities estimate that, inasmuch as the last census of the
city showed that there were 6,800 persons over 70 years of age
 then alive, at least 1,200 eligible persons have not yet made
application. Yesterday afternoon it was stated that in all
5,600 claims had been lodged.

"Of the 209,000 claims lodged altogether in Ireland, it is

estimated that 50,000 will be disallowed, and that £30,000
weekly will be required to satisfy those which have been held
to be good. So far as Dublin is concerned, less than 90 per
cent, of the inhabitants who are over 70 years of age have
claimed pensions, so that the rural districts are responsible
for the larger percentage of claimants in Ireland as compared
with England and Scotland."

From Scotland it was reported that "in Glasgow, the number of

persons of 70 years and over is 13,160, and fully half of
those made claims. A rough estimate places the number of full
pensions granted at about 5,550. In addition, a number of
allowances of the smaller amounts, ranging from 4s. to 1s.,
have been made."

In London, on the 1st of January, 1908, there had been 39,043

claims considered, of which 36,108 were allowed. Of these,
31,327 were for 5s., 1,701 for 4s., 1,827 for 3s., 797 for
2s., and 456 for 1s.

{509}

Speaking in Parliament on the 1st of March, with deep feeling,

of the working of the Pension Act and of the revelation of
poverty it had made, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr.
Lloyd-George, said: "The pension officers, especially in
Ireland, had been appalled at the amount of undisclosed
poverty, and that was why he was not disposed to criticize too
harshly the administration of the Act in that country, even if
it had resulted in addition of a considerable sum to the
estimate of the Government. The details of poverty in Ireland
were perfectly horrifying. It was a disgrace to any civilized
 country that reasonable human beings should be allowed to live
under such conditions. But the same condition of things was
found in Great Britain also in many cases. He made a special
point of investigating the matter, and pension committees and
pension officers all told the same story of people facing
poverty and privation for years with resignation, fortitude,
and uncomplaining patience, and all asked the same question
and asked it in vain—How on earth could those poor people have
managed to keep body and soul together on such slender
resources? They had not understated their resources; on the
contrary, there were cases in which they had overstated them
from a feeling of pride.

"What struck one in such cases was how the people had fought
against the horror of the Poor Law. There were 270,000 people
over 70 years of age in receipt of Poor Law relief. The
Old-Age Pensions Act had disclosed the presence in the
community of over 600,000 people the vast majority of whom
were living in circumstances of great poverty, and yet
disdained the charity of the Poor Law."

In the report of the Local Government Board for 1908, the

inspector of poor-law administration in the eastern counties
of England reported a substantial decrease in pauperism during
the year, and attributed this mainly to the passing of the
Old-Age Pensions Act. Persons verging on the age of 70 were
doing everything possible to preserve their qualifications for
pensions, and their sons and daughters, in the hope that the
old folk will be able to stand alone, are maintaining them
till the pensions are due in order that they may not be
forfeited by parish relief.

POVERTY AND UNEMPLOYMENT: France: A. D. 1909.

State Railway Servants Pensions.

In July, 1909, the Chamber of Deputies adopted a Bill for

pensioning the railway employees of the State which had
 already passed the Senate. It applies to some 308,000 persons,
who will be pensioned in several classes at ages ranging from
50 to 60 years, and the estimated annual cost will exceed
$5,000,000. The Minister of Public Works, M. Barthou,
described the measure as an acknowledgment on the part of the
country of a debt which it owed to a deserving body of public
servants, who for the last 11 years had waited patiently for
the fulfilment of a promise and upon various trying occasions
during that period had not abused the confidence which had
been reposed in their good sense and public spirit.

POVERTY AND UNEMPLOYMENT: France: A. D. 1910.

General Old-Age Pension Law.

A general measure for the pensioning of workmen in old age,

which had been pending in the French Parliament for nearly
three years, became law in April, 1910. Passed in the first
instance by the Chamber of Deputies in 1907, it was held in
the Senate, undergoing an extensive remodeling, until the 12th
of February, 1910, when that body gave it an unanimous vote.
In the Chamber of Deputies its exaction of compulsory
contributions from the wages of workmen to the pension fund
was opposed by a section of the Socialists, but supported by
the Socialist leader Jaures, as well as by the Briand
Ministry, and carried by a decisive vote on April 1st.
"Workingmen, domestic servants, clerks, and farm laborers to
the number of nearly 12,000,000, whose annual earnings are
below 3,000 francs, are placed under a system of compulsory
insurance. For the farmer and small proprietor whose income
ranges between 3,000 and 5,000 francs, an optional form of
insurance is provided. Of this class there are nearly six
million men and women in the country." In all, about
18,000,000 of the population of France are beneficiaries of
the Act.

POVERTY AND UNEMPLOYMENT:

The German System of State-aided Pensions,
compared with other systems.

The following is from the report of a lecture on State-aided

Pensions for the Poor, given in London, on the 3d of February,
1909, by the Honourable W. P. Reeves, Director of the London
School of Economics and Political Science. It is an admirable
summary of facts that exhibit the working, down to the present
time, of the German system of working men’s insurance adopted
between 1883-1889.

See (in Volume IV. of this work)

SOCIAL MOVEMENTS: A. D. 1883-1889.

See (in Volume VI. of this work)

GERMANY: A. D. 1897-1900, in Volume VI.):

"The subject, said the lecturer, fell into three

groups—contributory pensions, free State universal pensions,
and free State limited pensions. Germany, France, and Belgium
afforded examples of the contributory pensions, and Denmark,
Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom of the limited
free pensions. The universal free pensions were likely to
remain an ideal. The Belgian superannuation for the poor,
provided by voluntary contributions on the part of the insurer
and by State bonuses, had encouraged thrift, but it yielded an
average pension of only £3 a year. It could not, therefore, be
pronounced to be a success, and the State had recognized its
failure by inaugurating a system of free old-age pensions for
the utterly destitute. A similar superannuation scheme in
France, also maintained principally by voluntary
contributions, had only attracted 8 per cent. of the class for
which it was intended, and there, too, it had been found
necessary to introduce free old-age pensions. There was also a
voluntary system in Germany, but that was a kind of side show
to the great national system of insurance by compulsory
contributions. This latter system was a gigantic experiment,
and it really did deserve the name of national. Professor
 Ashley had shown that of the 10,700,000 men who were insurable
under this scheme 8,857,000 actually were insured; and of the
5,800,000 women who were qualified to provide for pensions
4,524,000 were actually paying their contributions. The system
had been in operation for 26 years, and the amount paid out in
that time must have exceeded £300,000,000, while 70 or 80
million persons had been benefited by it from first to last.
The number of persons affected yearly by the system was
25,000,000; and in 1907 nearly £30,000,000 was spent in the
three divisions of the triple system—old age, sickness, and
accidents. He had only to deal with one division—old age and
infirmity. The accumulated funds in this division amounted to
about £70,000,000; and the amount paid out to the insurers in
1906 was nearly £8,300,000, and in 1907 £8,400,000. The
population liable to insure was about 14¼ millions, and the
number of pensions in force at the end of 1907 was 979,000.

{510}

"Under this German scheme the class compulsorily insured

consisted of men and single women earning less than £100 a
year. The funds were provided in equal contributions by
employers and employed—the principle underlying the system
being that of deferred wages. It was a question whether it was
encouraging thrift to withhold from such wage-earners 2 per
cent. of their wages. The State bore the cost of management,
and added to every pension a bonus of £2 10s. a year. For the
working of the system the wage-earners were divided into five
grades:

(1) Those who earn up to £17 10s. a year;

(2) those who earn any sum between £17 10s. and £27 10s.;
(3) those who earn any sum between £27 10s. and £42 10s.;
(4) those who earn any sum between £42 10s. and £57; and
(5) those who earn any sum between £57 and £100.

The lowest wage-earners paid seven-eighths of a penny per week

for their old-age pension, and the highest wage-earners about
2¼d. No special consideration was shown for a married man. The
five grades of pensions were:

(1) £5 10s. a year;

(2) £7;
(3) £8 10s.;
(4) £10; and
(5) £11 10s.

If the labourer died after subscribing for 200 weeks his wife
and children were entitled to receive what he had subscribed,
but nothing more.

"The lot of the widows and orphans was one of the black
features of the system. A married woman could not qualify for
an old-age pension. The amount of the weekly contribution was
fixed for ten years. In 1906 the receipts exceeded the
expenditure by £6,000,000; the cost of administration was only
£850,000. But that was only the minor part of the provision
made for elderly people in Germany. The main provision was
made under the head of infirmity or invalidity occurring
before the pension age—70. If the insurers, after having
subscribed for not less than four years, broke down and were
unable to earn wages, they were entitled to more generous
treatment. If curable they were cured in State sanatoriums and
received temporary sickness pensions. If incurable they
received a pension which was regulated by the number of years
they had subscribed, and varied from a minimum of £5
16s. in the lowest grade for four years’ subscriptions to £22
10s. in the highest grade for 50 years’ subscriptions. The
insurer began to pay his contributions at the age of 17, and
for an old-age pension he had to subscribe 50 weeks a year for
24 years—1,200 weeks in all. Though the system had not checked
Socialism or militant trade unionism, it had attained its real
purpose, for it had conferred an enormous boon upon the poor."
At the time when the remark quoted above, touching the
defective provision of the German law for widows and orphans,
was made, the Imperial Government was preparing to amend it.
The London Times of April 17, 1909, gave, in its
correspondence from Berlin, the account of a draft Bill, just
made public, which the Imperial Ministry of the Interior had
prepared for presentation to the Federal Council, the object
being to combine and coordinate "the seven compulsory
insurance laws of 1883 to 1899," together with certain
amendments and additions. "It is understood," wrote the
correspondent, "that the Bill will not reach the Reichstag
before the autumn of this year. Whereas many authorities …
have favored a thorough unification of the three systems of
invalidity and old age, accident, and sick insurance, the
immediate proposals of the Government would leave the three
systems separate and distinct, while codifying the law and the
regulations which are common to all branches of compulsory
insurance, and establishing a joint and threefold system of
higher administration." The main purpose of the bill was to
rectify that lack of proper provision for widows and orphans
which was noted above. "The need of solving this problem,"
said the correspondent, "is really the immediate occasion of
reform, and the proposed solution is the most important
feature of the reform scheme. An essential feature of the
tariff law of 1902 was the ear-marking—by the so-called Lex
Trimborn—for widows and orphans’ insurance of the surplus
revenue from the increased Customs duties on corn and cattle.
The Lex Trimborn takes effect on January 1, 1910, but the
surplus revenue is lacking. For the financial year 1906 there
was no surplus. For 1907 there was a surplus of about
£2,000,000. For the financial year 1908 there will be no
surplus, although £2,650,000 was estimated for. In these
circumstances the Government—while apparently still cherishing
the hope that, upon the average of a long period of years, the
revised tariff will do what was expected of it—proposes to
provide for widows and orphans insurance by a simple all-round
extension of the system of invalidity and old-age insurance.
 That is to say, the ‘contributions’ of employers and employed
are to be raised, and an Imperial subsidy, of fixed amount,
without regard to the annual revenue from Customs, is to be
added to the contributions.

"It is at present proposed that the weekly 'contributions' to

invalidity and old-age insurance shall, in order to provide
funds for widows and orphans’ pensions, be increased—upon the
mean average of the contributions of the five classes of
wage-earners—by one-fourth, and that the Empire shall add a
subsidy of £2 10s. a year to each widow’s pension and a
subsidy of £1 5s. a year to each orphan’s pension."

In February, 1909, a Parliamentary Committee of the British

Trades Union Congress, composed of men representing the Labor
Party in Parliament, reported the results of a visit to
Germany which the Committee had made in the previous November,
to examine conditions in that country, especially with
reference to the operation of the state system of insurance.
In their report they said: "The State assistance has acted as
an incentive and encouragement to workmen to make additional
provision for themselves and families through their trade
unions and private sick clubs. This is especially the case in
invalidity and old age. It has always been the workman’s
complaint, as well as that of the organizations, that the
assistance obtainable under the workman’s insurance system is
quite out of proportion to the subscriptions paid, and quite
insufficient for the maintenance of the pensioner.
{511}
In this connexion, it is interesting to note that in 1907 the
'Free' or Socialist unions, with a membership of 1,866,000,
granted £174,000 in sick pay and £19,000 in invalidity pay;
the State subsidies to invalidity and old-age pensions
amounting in 1906 to £2,437,000. The insurance pensions are
continually increasing; and it is stated that the invalidity
pensions will eventually reach a maximum in the lowest
wages class of £9 5s., and in the highest one of £22 10s. The
 funds accumulated in the hands of the Invalidity Pension
Offices amounted at the end of 1907 to about 70 million
pounds, and the workmen maintain that the time has now arrived
when either the pensions paid should be increased, or the
contributions levied decreased, as provided for by law."

"The members of the deputation were struck by the absence of

slums in the manufacturing quarters of the towns visited.
Nowhere did they see any quarter that could be classified
under the heading ‘slum.’ The cleanliness prevailing
throughout all the towns visited was also remarkable. No
beggars, feeble or emaciated men in tatters and rags were
encountered in the streets. Hundreds upon hundreds of
unemployed were seen by the deputation, but they seemed to
lack that dejection and absolute misery that is so frequently
met with in the streets of English towns.

"Workmen throughout Germany do not complain of any compulsory

deductions made by their employers from their wages for the
purpose of workmen’s insurances. Many of the largest employers
are favourably disposed towards these laws, and pay willingly.
On the other hand, probably the majority do complain of the
cost, although not opposed to the laws in principle."

POVERTY AND UNEMPLOYMENT: Poor Laws: England: A. D. 1896-

1906.
Report of Royal Commission.
Increasing Pauperism.

In December, 1905, a Royal Commission, composed of nineteen

men and women of distinguished ability and of special
qualifications for the service, was appointed in Great
Britain, "to inquire—(1) Into the working of the laws relating
to the relief of poor persons in the United Kingdom; (2) into
the various means which have been adopted outside of the Poor
Laws for meeting distress arising from want of employment,
particularly during periods of severe industrial depression;
and to consider and report whether any, and, if so, what
modification of the Poor Laws or changes in their
administration or fresh legislation for dealing with distress
are advisable."

After three years of laborious investigation, making "more

than 800 personal visits to unions, meetings of boards of
guardians, and institutions in England, Scotland, and
Ireland," as well as examining over 1300 witnesses, the
Commission submitted an elaborate report in February, 1909.
Its findings as to the present working of the poor-laws and
the relief-systems of the United Kingdom, and its
recommendations for reform, cannot be summarized with any
clearness in such space as can be given to the subject here;
but there is a startling significance in what it shows of the
increase of pauperism and of the public cost of poor relief in
late years.

It appears from the returns of the Local Government Board that

the mean number of paupers in 1906, 1907 and 1908, was at a
higher level than it had been for 31 previous years.
Excluding, however, these three especially bad years, it is
found that throughout the period 1896-1906 there were 24,000
more paupers than in the period 1888-1896, and 7000 more than
in the period 1880-1888. In discussing the report the London
Times remarks: "Further examination even diminishes the
meagre consolation these figures afford as to the results of a
generation of effort at reducing pauperism. Comparing the
period 1896-1906 with 1871-1880, there has been a decrease of
3.9 per cent. in the total number of paupers, but this
decrease has been accompanied by a large increase of male
pauperism and is due entirely to the large decrease in the
number of children, whose numbers have decreased by 18 per
cent., and a small reduction in the number of women, whose
numbers have increased by 2 per cent. The decrease in these
two classes so affects the total as entirely to conceal an
absolute increase of 18 per cent, in the number of male
paupers. Even in regard to the children, at any rate during
the last 15 years, the decrease has been almost wholly in
rural unions, and in the children of widows, and there has
been a general increase in the number of children of
able-bodied men.

"Further, so far as figures are available, they show a greater

proportionate increase in the number of paupers during the
working years of life than in the very young or the very old.
Taking only the able-bodied in health, we find that in the
period 1896-1906 in metropolitan unions the indoor paupers
have increased by 38 per cent. and the outdoor by 137 per
cent.; in urban unions the indoor by 24 per cent. and the
outdoor by 133 per cent.; and in the whole of England and
Wales the indoor by 21 per cent. and the outdoor by 49 per
cent. In London alone 15,800 more paupers are being maintained
than in the eighties, and the rate per 1,000 of the
population, which used to be below that for England and Wales,
has risen above it."

As for expenditure, it was some £8,000,000 in the year

1871-1872, and £14,000,000 in the year 1905-1906. Summing up
the general situation with regard to this expenditure, the
Commission says: "We find that, whilst the expenditure per
inhabitant has increased from 7s. ¼d. to 8s. 2£d. since
1871-1872, and is only 7£d. less than it was in 1834, the
expenditure per pauper has increased from £7 12s. 1d. to £15
12s. 6d. in the same period. The country is maintaining a
multitude of paupers not far short of the numbers maintained
in 1871-1902, and is spending more than double the amount upon
each individual. The increased expenditure has done little
towards diminishing the extent of pauperism. Such advance as
the nation has made has been accomplished at an enormous cost,
and absorbs an annual amount which is now equivalent to nearly
one-half of the present expenditure upon the Army. It may be
urged that the rate of pauperism has diminished from 31.2 per
1,000 in 1871-1879 to 22.2 per 1,000 in 1896-1905, and this is
 certainly a matter for congratulation, but it has been the
result of the large increase in the population rather than of
any considerable reduction in the number of paupers."

{512}

This discouraging result has occurred notwithstanding the fact

that the nation is spending £20,000,000 more in education than
in 1831, and £13,000,000 more in sanitation and the prevention
of disease than in 1841; notwithstanding the fact "that money
wages in the nineties were 10 per cent. above those of the
eighties, and 30 per cent, above those of the sixties," and
notwithstanding the fact that "there has been a considerable
flow of the working classes from the lower paid occupations to
the higher paid industries."

The recommendations of the Commission include a scheme for a

permanent system of public assistance for the able-bodied,
which contemplates the establishment in every district of four
coöperating organizations:

(a) An organization for insurance against unemployment, to

develop and secure (with contributions from public funds) the
greatest possible benefits to the workmen from coöperative
insurance against unemployment;

(b) a labor exchange established and maintained by the Board

of Trade to provide efficient machinery for putting those
requiring work and those requiring workers into prompt
communication;

(c) a voluntary aid committee to give advice and aid out of

voluntary funds especially to the better class of workmen
reduced to want through unemployment;

(d) a public assistance authority representing the county or

county borough and acting locally through a public assistance
 committee to assist necessitous workmen under specified
conditions at the public expense. The report adds that it must
be a fundamental principle of the system of public assistance
that the responsibility for the due and effective assistance
of all necessitous persons at the public expense shall be in
the hands of one, and only one, authority in each county and
county borough—viz., the public assistance authority.

POVERTY AND UNEMPLOYMENT:

Small Holdings Act of Great Britain.

See (in this Volume)

ENGLAND: A. D. 1907-1908.

POVERTY AND UNEMPLOYMENT:

Starvation Poverty in India.

See (in this Volume)

INDIA: A. D. 1905-1908.

POVERTY AND UNEMPLOYMENT:

Underfed School Children:
Provision for Meals to them.
How it is done in Various Cities.

In March, 1905, the British Foreign Office undertook, at the

request of the Board of Education, to obtain information
regarding the methods adopted in the great Continental and
American cities for dealing with ill-fed school children. The
facts collected were tabulated and published subsequently in a
Parliamentary Paper (Cd. 2926-1906) from which the following
statements are derived:

Generally, in the larger cities of Western Europe, some system

was found to be in operation for feeding ill-fed children in
the schools. Commonly this is conducted unofficially, by
private charitable organizations, but sometimes in indirect
connection with the municipality, and frequently with help
from municipal funds. In Berlin, however, the municipality
takes on itself the responsibility of not only feeding but
clothing properly the necessitous children attending its
elementary schools. This made one of the functions of a
municipal department, the Städtisrhe Schuldeputation, which is
assisted by a "Society for Feeding Poor Children" in the
supplying of meals at the elementary school buildings of the
city. The committee which conducts the work of that auxiliary
society is appointed by the Government. As a rule, breakfasts
only are given in Berlin, and only during the winter months;
but four meals are supplied to such children as are thought by
the head-masters of the schools to require them. No steps are
taken to collect from parents any part of the cost of meals
furnished in the schools.

In Paris the organization which installs and conducts cantines

scolaires in schools belonging to the city, called the
Caisse des Écoles, is privately constituted, but
presided over by the mayor. This connects it with the
municipality, and in 1905 it had been receiving a municipal
subvention of 1,000,000 francs yearly for three years, but
this was not to be depended on as a permanent grant. It was
necessary for the Caisse des Écoles to seek voluntary
contributions. The City, however, undertakes to supply the
necessary accommodations and all utensils for the school
canteens, which are in operation throughout the year, every
day of the week, but generally for a noon meal only; though
soup is distributed in some arrondissements at the opening and
closing of school. All children are entitled to feed at the
canteen, but the meals are supplied gratis only to the
children of poor families. The others pay a small sum which
does not exceed 15 centimes (about 2 cents). In 1904 the total
cost of meals furnished at the school canteens was 1,461,305
francs, of which 359,093 francs was paid by parents, who buy
tickets for the purpose. All meals are supplied on the
presentation of tickets, and nothing shows whether the tickets
 have been bought or received as gifts.

In Vienna meals for poor school children are provided by a

central Association, indirectly connected with the
municipality, the Burgomaster being its president, and
financial assistance being given to it from both imperial and
municipal funds. Dinners only are provided, on every week day
from November 16 to March 31, partly in the school buildings,
partly in certain restaurants and kitchens. As in Paris,
parents can buy tickets for these meals, but it is said to be
rarely done. The total cost is about $23,000 per year. Once a
year, in the autumn, the Association makes an appeal for
funds, and all classes of people respond, the Emperor giving
4,000 crowns and the Town Council voting 8,000.

Information on the subject was obtained by the British Foreign

Office from thirty-eight cities, in all, of Austria, Belgium,
Denmark, France, Germany, Holland, Italy, Norway, Sweden,
Spain, Switzerland, and the United States. Some systematic
provision, more or less adequate, for securing proper food to
the children of the schools by private or public organization,
was reported from more than thirty. The reports from New York,
Philadelphia, and Chicago, in the United States, showed less
undertakings in this direction than in any other cities of
considerable size.

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POVERTY AND UNEMPLOYMENT: In England:

Provision of Meals Act.

An order from the English Local Government Board on the

subject of providing food for underfed school children was
published on the 29th of April, 1905. It applied only to
children under sixteen who were neither blind, deaf or dumb,
and who were living with a father not in receipt of relief.
Application in each case must be made by school managers, or
 by a teacher empowered by the managers, or by an officer
empowered by the education authorities. The relief might be
granted in the ordinary way or as a loan, the father being
allowed the opportunity of making the needful provision
himself. If he failed to do so, the poor-law guardians were
empowered to make it and to recover the cost, as if it were a
loan. In no case could the relief be given in money, or
continued on a single application for more than a month. Where
possible, arrangements should be made with local charitable
organizations for the issue of tickets for meals.

The above mentioned tentative order was followed, in the next

year, by the passage of an Act which authorizes any "local
education authority" in England and Wales to "take such steps
as they think fit for the provision of meals for children" at
any public elementary school, and for that purpose to
"associate with themselves any committee on which the
authority are represented, who will undertake to provide food
for those children." Such education authority may aid the
committee by furnishing necessary land, buildings, furniture
and apparatus, and necessary officers and servants; but, "save
as hereinafter provided, the authority shall not incur any
expense in respect of the purchase of food to be supplied at
such meals."

POVERTY AND UNEMPLOYMENT: Unemployment: Belgium: A. D.

1900-1904.
Municipal Organizations of Insurance against Unemployment.
The Ghent System.

The following is abridged from a report on "Agencies and

Methods for Dealing with the Unemployed in certain Foreign
Countries," made to the British Board of Trade, in 1904, by
Mr. David F. Schloss:

During the last few years the Public Authorities of certain

Belgian towns and Provinces have organised a system, to which
the name of Insurance against Unemployment is given, and under
which the efforts of workmen to secure for themselves the
means of tiding over periods of unemployment are assisted by
the grant of subsidies provided out of public moneys, which
form a supplement to the sums derived from the contributions
of these work-people. This system is now in force at Ghent,
Brussels, Antwerp, Bruges, Liege, Malines, and Louvain, and in
the Provinces of Liege and Antwerp. In details it has been
varied somewhat in different places, but the general scheme is
the same, and it will be sufficient to give some account of it
as organized in Ghent, where it was first worked out.

The Unemployed Fund at Ghent was initiated as the result of

the recommendations made by a Special Commission on the
question of unemployment, which on April 10, 1900, presented a
Report, advising the creation of a Municipal Unemployed Fund
under the conditions specified in a set of rules, which they
submitted for consideration. The annual subvention to the Fund
by the City was fixed, for three years, at $4000. Expenses of
the administration of the Fund to be borne by the City.
Administration of the Fund to be entrusted to a committee of
ten citizens named by the municipal authority, but one half of
whom must be members of those organizations of workmen which
affiliate themselves with the Fund. The Fund may be augmented
by subscriptions, donations, moneys collected by fêtes, etc.
"The intervention of the Special Fund shall consist either

(a.) in providing a supplement to sums paid to their

members as unemployed benefit by workmen’s organisations, or

(b.) in supplementing any provision made by individual

thrift for the specific case of unemployment. The Special Fund
will supplement the unemployed benefits paid by workmen's
organisations by the payment of a subsidy, which may be equal
to, but shall not be greater than, the amount of such
benefits."
 "Strikes and lock-outs, or the results attendant upon such
disputes, sickness and physical incapacity for labour shall in
no case give rise to the payment of an indemnity out of the
monies of the Unemployed Fund."

"All workmen’s organisations desiring that their members shall

participate in the subsidies provided by the Fund will be
required to send in each month a return showing the number and
amount of all payments on account of benefits made by them,
and to furnish every year their balance-sheet, also their
rules and regulations."

"Workmen not being members of any Trade Union which enjoys

participation in the Fund, are at liberty to join a Thrift
Fund specifically constituted to meet the case of
unemployment." By this rule, it will be seen, the scheme
provides, under distinct branches, for Trade Unionists and
non-Unionists.

POVERTY AND UNEMPLOYMENT: England: A. D. 1905-1909.

Unemployed Workmen Act, and its operation.

In the summer of 1905 a Bill brought into Parliament by the

President of the Local Government Board, to provide for an
organization to assist unemployed workmen, was carried through
both houses with little opposition. It sought to bring about a
careful discrimination between workmen who were accustomed to
regular employment in ordinary circumstances, but temporarily
unemployed through circumstances beyond their control, and the
needy, on the other hand, who were proper objects of ordinary
Poor Law relief. Its provisions were for the former entirely,
and their purpose was to establish both local and central
bodies, which should organize and maintain labor exchanges and
employment bureaus, assist migration and emigration, and
acquire, equip, and maintain farm colonies; the latter to
operate continuously, for the training of persons to
agricultural pursuits, preparing them for emigration or for
 permanent transfer from city to country life. The local bodies
contemplated were not empowered to provide work at public
expense. That power was entrusted discretionally to the
central bodies, which could draw on the rates for the purpose
to a limited extent. Voluntary contributions were to be looked
to in part for the necessary funds. The measure was decidedly
conservative and tentative.

A report on the applications for relief and the relief given

in England and Wales under this Act during the year ending
March 81, 1909, compared with the previous year, shows as
follows: The total number of applications received was
196,757, of which 49,239 were made to 29 committees in London,
and 147,518 to 95 committees in other parts of the country.

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The applicants belonging to the general or casual labour class

(64,773) formed as in previous years by far the largest
section—47.4 per cent.—of the whole number. The building trade
ranked second with 23,047, or 16.9 per cent. of the total. The
engineering, shipbuilding, and metal trades accounted for
17,028, or 12.5 per cent., as compared with only 8.6 per cent,
in the previous year.

A Bill known as the "Right to Work" Bill came before the House
of Commons in April, 1909, with the endorsement of the trade
unions and the Labor Party. It was opposed by John Burns, the
former labor leader, but now speaking as President of the
Local Government Board and member of the Cabinet, who said:
"For three and a half years he had had intimate experience of
relief works, and he could not exaggerate the degradation of
the workmen, the demoralization of the honest labourer, the
extent to which money had been wasted and character impaired
by the relief works which he had had in the name of Parliament
to administer. Any member had only to take up the report of
any one of the distress committees to see that what the
 minority report said had happened would increasingly happen so
long as these means of meeting unemployment were resorted to.
The amount of work would be disproportionate to the wages
paid, the wrong men would get the right work, and the best men
would be excluded, because modesty was a characteristic of
good workmanship and craftsmanship, and the worst men were
always in the front line when relief works were set on foot."

POVERTY AND UNEMPLOYMENT: A. D. 1909.

Report of a Royal Commission.

The Royal Commission on the working of the English Poor Laws,

whose general report is referred to above, issued, in
September, 1909, a supplementary report on Unemployment. The
main ultimate conclusions of the Commission are the following:

"When we consider the remedies proposed for unemployment we

are convinced that they do not lie on the lines proposed by
the Unemployed Workmen’s Act, which has done nothing but
systematize Relief Works. These, whether national or
municipal, appear to us merely to intensify the evil as far as
the ordinary workmen are concerned. The great thing necessary,
we believe, is to obtain a general agreement as to the need of
regularizing labour. In this the Government and municipalities
ought to set a good example.

"It might be better, if any rate or State funds are to be

spent on the unemployed, that such aid should take the form of
supplementing trade union funds and give thereby a bonus on
thrift. Any such supplementation of trade union funds would
involve a Local Government Board audit, the control of the
expenses of management, and a separation of the war and
benefit funds. It is very doubtful whether it would be wise
for trade unions to accept State aid if it involved loss of
independence and an interference with their efforts to improve
wages. There is little doubt, however, that grants of this
kind would enormously increase their membership.