SC.912.P.12.12, SC.912.N.1.

1
EXPERIENCE 1

Rates of Reaction
GO ONLINE to Explore and Explain the relationships among particle
collisions, temperature, concentration, and reaction rates.

Expressing Rates of Change

A rate is the ratio between two related quantities expressed in different
units. Many rates describe how much something changes within a specified
amount of time. Such rates can have time intervals ranging from less than a
second to centuries or even longer. Average speed is an example of a rate.
It is a change in distance over a given interval of time, or Δt.
change in distance
________________
Average speed = ​​    ​  Δd
  ​​ = _________
Δt
 ​
change in time

For example, you can measure the average speed of a car in meters
per second or in miles per hour. The measured speed is the same, just
expressed in different units. The rates of chemical changes are usually
described in terms of changes in concentration over time, although changes
in mass, volume, and pressure over time are also used.

Changes Over Time You could measure the area of a banana’s skin
that turns from yellow to brown as it ripens over several days. That
information would allow you to calculate a rate. By weighing it, you
might also find that the mass of the banana changes, giving you
another rate. As the banana begins to spoil, the change in color tells
you that chemical changes are taking place.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time (days)

360 Investigation 10 Reaction Rates and Equilibrium

Calculating Reaction Rates
The reaction rate is the rate at which the and can be determined from any reactant or
reactants of a chemical reaction form the product. It is based on the stoichiometry of
products. Reactions are commonly described the reaction.
in terms of concentration, written as [X] for
For a typical reaction with reactants A and B
a reactant or product X. Over a time interval
and product C, the equation aA + bB → cC tells
from t1 to t2, the average rate of change of
you that a moles of reactant A and b moles of
concentration of X can be determined from
reactant B are consumed to produce c moles of
this relationship:
product C. Using the stoichiometric equation,
[X] − [X]
you can determine the reaction rate in terms of
∆[X]
Rate = ____
​​  ∆t ​​ = ​​  ________
2
t − t  ​​
1
any reactant or product:
2 1
∆[A] ∆[B] ∆[C]
​​  −1
  Rate = ___ ____ ___ −1 ____ __ 1 ____
a ​​ × ​​  ∆t ​​ = ​​  ​​ × ​​  ∆t ​​ = ​​  c ​​ × ​​  ∆t ​​
The calculated average rate can be negative, b
for a reactant, or positive, for a product. In Note that in the equation, each reactant has a
order to avoid confusion, chemists define a factor of −1 to ensure the calculated reaction
single rate for a reaction that is always positive rate is positive.

Concentration Changes Over Time The purple gas iodine (I2) reacts
with hydrogen gas (H2) to form the colorless gas hydrogen iodide (HI):
I2(g) + H2(g) → 2HI(g). The graph shows the reaction rate by showing
how [HI] and [I2] change over time.

The blue dashed line shows how

[HI] [HI] changes over time. The line
mostly I2
shows that the initial reaction rate
is fast ([HI] increases quickly) and
then becomes slower over time
([HI] increases slowly).
Concentration

I2 and HI mostly HI

The purple solid line conveys the

[I2] same information about reaction
The reaction mixture rate: the initial rate is fast ([I2]
changes from purple decreases quickly) and later is
to colorless as I2 is slow ([I2] decreases slowly).
converted to HI.

Time

3 Construct an Explanation Why do you think a reaction might start

off fast and then slow down as time passes? Hint: Recall what you
learned about collision theory in previous Investigations.

The reactant concentrations are usually high at first, so there are many collisions

between reactant particles, and the reaction rate is fast. Later, reactant concentrations

drop, and there are fewer collisions. Fewer collisions cause the reaction rate to slow.

1 Rates of Reaction    361

SAMPLE PROBLEM

Calculating Reaction Rates

Hydrogen and iodine gas react to form hydrogen iodide, as shown in the
equation H2(g) + I2(g) → 2HI(g). Suppose you are given a time interval from
t1 = 10 seconds to t2 = 20 seconds and a change in H2 concentration from
0.210 mol/L to 0.185 mol/L. Use the reaction rate equation to calculate the
average reaction rate during that time period.

ANALYZE List the knowns and the unknown.

Knowns Unknown
[H2]1 = 0.210 mol/L Reaction rate = ? mol/L·s
[H2]2 = 0.185 mol/L

t1 = 10 s

t2 = 20 s

CALCULATE Solve for the unknown.

Write the equation for Δ[H ] [H ] − [H ]

​​  −1 ​​ × _____
Reaction rate = ___ ​​  Δt 2 ​​ = __________
​​  2t 2 − t ​​ 2 1
average reaction rate. 1 2 1

0.185 mol/L − 0.210 mol/L

Reaction rate = −1 × ​​  _____________________
        ​​
20 s − 10 s
Substitute the knowns into 0.025 mol/L
__________
= ​​   ​​
the equation and solve. 10 s
= 0.0025 mol/L·s

EVALUATE Does the result make sense?

The calculated rate, 0.0025 mol/L·s, is slow. That makes sense
because the concentration of hydrogen gas changed very little
(only 0.025 mol/L) in 10 seconds.

4 
For the same reaction between hydrogen and iodine, suppose
you have a product concentration of 0.180 mol/L at time t1 = 15 s
and a concentration of 0.205 mol/L at time t2 = 20 s. Calculate
the average reaction rate for the time interval with respect to the
product, HI.

∆[HI] [HI] − [HI] 0.205 mol/L − 0.180 mol/L

​​  1 ​​ × _____
Reaction rate = __ ​​  1 ​​ × __________
​​  ∆t ​​ = __ ​​  1 ​​ × _____________________
​​  t2 − t 1 ​​ = __ ​​ 
        ​​
2 2 2 1 2 20 s − 15 s
0.025 mol/L
1 __________
= ​​ __ ​​ × ​​   ​​
2 5s

= 0.0025 mol/(L·s)

GO ONLINE for more practice problems.

362 Investigation 10 Reaction Rates and Equilibrium
Collision Theory—a Review
Collisions between molecules drive chemical kinetic energy to break the necessary bonds
reactions. Recall that collision theory is a in the reactants. They must also collide with
model that is used to relate the properties of the right orientation to form the bonds that
the colliding particles to the rates of chemical make the products. The probability of bonds
reactions. According to collision theory, in breaking in a collision depends on the kinetic
order for a collision to be effective, reactant energy of the collision being sufficient to break
particles must possess a sufficient amount of the necessary bond or bonds in the reactants.

Understanding Reactant Collisions

How must reactant particles collide to react and form products?

Incorrect Orientation When The carbon atom is too far from

reactant particles such as NO3 an oxygen atom on the NO3
and CO collide with the wrong molecule during the collision.
orientation, they bounce apart
unchanged. The molecules
are not oriented in a way
that allows the required
new bonds to form.

Too Little Energy Many

collisions with the molecules
oriented correctly are
not energetic enough to
break the bonds in the
reactant molecules.

Reaction May Occur Some

collisions of reactant
particles are energetic Even after a successful collision,
enough to break the either product or reactant
bonds, and the orientation molecules may emerge.
of molecules allows new
bonds to form.

5 Patterns For reacting gases, what effect do you think reducing the
reaction vessel’s volume has on the probability of reactant particles
colliding and forming products?

Decreasing the volume increases the density of particles, so there is a greater

probability of reactant particles colliding and forming products.

1 Rates of Reaction    363

 Concentrated vs. Dilute Reactant Sulfuric acid reacts with the metal zinc to
produce hydrogen gas. On the left is a test tube with zinc and concentrated
sulfuric acid. The reaction quickly produces a large volume of hydrogen gas
bubbles. On the right is a test tube with zinc and dilute sulfuric acid. The
reaction goes slowly, producing a small amount of hydrogen gas bubbles.

Effect of Concentration on
Reaction Rates
From studying collision theory, you know that the rates of many reactions
are dependent on reactant concentrations. In such cases, a higher
concentration of reactants means a greater number of reactant molecules in
a given volume. The result is more collisions per unit of time and, therefore,
more collisions that are likely to lead to a reaction. Increasing concentration
produces an increase in reaction rate for those cases. For reacting gases,
notice you can increase the concentration by decreasing the volume of the
reaction vessel.

6 Develop Models Develop a molecular-level model that demonstrates

what generally happens to particle collisions and reaction rates when
higher concentrations of reactants are used. Refer to the reaction of zinc
and sulfuric acid in the photo as an example.

Models should show that increasing the concentration of a

reactant (in this case, sulfuric acid) increases the number of
particles in a given volume and, consequently, increases the
number of collisions between reactants. Models should show
that a greater number of collisions means more collisions are
likely to form products, and so the reaction rate increases.

364 Investigation 10 Reaction Rates and Equilibrium

Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rates
As the temperature of a reaction system greater force. The increased kinetic energy
increases, the average kinetic energy of the also means the molecules collide more often.
reactant molecules increases. The increased Raising the temperature thus usually has a
kinetic energy usually means that molecular strong effect in increasing a reaction rate.
collisions have a higher probability of breaking Similarly, a decrease in temperature causes less
bonds and forming new bonds because the frequent collisions, each one with lower energy,
molecules are moving faster and collide with usually resulting in a decreased reaction rate.

Warm vs. Cool Reaction Conditions The reaction between magnesium and
water produces magnesium hydroxide, which is colorless. In order to make the
increasing concentration of magnesium hydroxide visible, an indicator that turns
purple is added to the test tubes. The two test tubes have the same amounts of
all components; the only difference is the temperature of the contents.

Warm water reacts rapidly Cool water reacts

with magnesium to produce with magnesium
magnesium hydroxide. much more slowly.

7 Cause and Effect Food stored in a refrigerator can stay fresh for long
periods. However, the same food stored at room temperature quickly
spoils. How can you explain the difference in terms of collision theory?

Food spoils due to molecules in the food colliding with and reacting with other

molecules. At lower temperatures in the refrigerator, the collisions are less

frequent and less forceful. Thus, fewer molecules react to carry out the spoiling

process. The reaction rate is slower at lower temperatures.

1 Rates of Reaction    365

Effect of Particle Size on Reaction Rates
You probably know that crushed ice melts Increasing a reactant’s
faster than ice cubes, or that a spoonful of
surface area causes an
granulated sugar dissolves more quickly than
a sugar cube. Breaking up the ice or the sugar increase in the reaction rate.
exposes more surface area, and the increase
Many chemical manufacturing processes
in surface area means that there is more area
reduce the particle size of the reactants to
available for collisions. The increased surface
increase reaction rates. In mining applications,
area leads to an increase in the frequency of
for example, ore is crushed to expose more
collisions and therefore speeds up the physical
surface area and optimize the metal extraction
processes of melting and dissolving. The same
process.
is true for chemical reactions.

Small vs. Large Surface Area When heated in a flame in the presence
of oxygen, the iron in steel can combust to form iron oxide. The rate of
the reaction differs greatly as a result of the surface area of the metal
that is available for collisions with oxygen molecules.

A steel nail, which has a small surface Steel wool is composed of small strands
area, glows when it is heated. A tiny of steel, which have a large surface area. It
amount of iron on the surface of the reacts with oxygen more readily than the
nail reacts with oxygen to form iron nail, producing a self-sustaining reaction that
oxide, but there are no sparks. glows and sparks as the iron combusts.

8 Cause and Effect You may not think of wood as a dangerous material,
but sawdust in the air of a woodworking shop can produce an
explosion. Explain why sawdust is such a danger.

Decreasing the particle size of a reactant increases the surface area available for

a reaction. For fine sawdust particles, the combustion reaction rate can be high

enough to produce an explosion.

366 Investigation 10 Reaction Rates and Equilibrium

Revisit

INVESTIGATIVE 
GO ONLINE to Elaborate on and Evaluate what
you learned about reaction rates by completing
PHENOMENON the peer review and writing activities.

In the CER worksheet you completed at the beginning of the investigation,

you suggested a possible explanation for the formation of limestone caves.
With a partner, reevaluate the evidence and the explanation you presented.

9 Cause and Effect Suppose changes in climate raised the

temperature of the limestone rock in a cave by a small amount.
What do you think would be the effect on the reactions that form
the cave and the structures within it? Cave formation involves many
processes, so you only need to discuss the processes you are sure
take place.

Caves are formed by groundwater that dissolves limestone. Increasing the

temperature of the stone would increase the amount of stone dissolved, so the

cave would probably grow faster. Stalactites and stalagmites form when water

evaporates and limestone is precipitated. If the stone were warmer, the water

would probably evaporate faster, so stalactites and stalagmites would probably

form more quickly.

   367