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Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................ xiii
Acknowledgments...................................................................................................................... xvii
1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................1
1.1 What is Statistics?...........................................................................................................1
1.2 What This Book Is About..............................................................................................2
1.3 Summary Tables and Graphical Displays..................................................................2
1.4 Descriptive Representations of Data...........................................................................3
1.5 Inferential Statistics.......................................................................................................4
1.6 Populations.....................................................................................................................5
1.7 Different Ways of Collecting Data...............................................................................5
1.8 Types of Variables..........................................................................................................6
1.9 Scales of Variables..........................................................................................................7
1.10 Types of Analyses..........................................................................................................9
1.11 Entering Data into Minitab......................................................................................... 10
1.12 Best Practices................................................................................................................ 11
Exercises................................................................................................................................... 12
vii
viii Contents
What a difference a decade makes! It’s hard to believe that it has been more than 10 years
since I began writing the first edition of Applied Statistical Inference with Minitab. And
while the core motivations for writing the first edition still remain, there have been a
significant number of changes incorporated throughout the second edition. Some of the
most significant changes were guided by my experience teaching statistics to students
who are not mathematics or statistics majors, but who apply statistics in their discipline.
My primary objective was and still remains to write a book that does not lack mathemati-
cal rigor, but provides readers with the tools and techniques to apply statistics in their
given fields. Not only does the second edition expand on the core motivations of the first
edition but it is also a reflection of my own growth as a teacher.
Many statistics books are written for readers learning statistics for the first time. But
what distinguishes this book from others is the focus on the applications of statistics
without compromising on mathematical rigor. The intent is to present the material in a
seamless step-by-step approach so that readers are first introduced to a topic, given the
details of the underlying mathematical foundations along with a detailed description of
how to interpret the findings, and are shown an illustration of how to use the statistical
software program Minitab to perform the same analysis.
Throughout my many years of teaching, I have found that readers often find it easier
to learn statistics by being exposed to the underlying distributions and calculations and
then understanding how the software essentially performs all of the same calculations.
Presenting the details on sampling distributions in addition to how the calculations are
done gives readers a solid foundation in applying the many different statistical methods
and techniques on their own while also increasing their confidence in interpreting the
output that is generated by a statistical software program such as Minitab. I deliberately
avoided including any computational formulas because I want readers to be able to
see what the formulas are actually calculating. For instance, in calculating the sample
variance, while computational formulas are often perceived as “easier” to calculate, the
more formal calculations do give readers the opportunity to see the underlying details
of such a c alculation, as the “average” squared difference between the actual data values
and the sample mean. In my opinion, computational formulas only distract readers from
gaining a deeper understanding of what the statistic is calculating only for the sake of
simplicity.
This book is written to be user-friendly for readers and practitioners who are not experts
in statistics, but who want to gain a solid understanding of basic statistical inference.
While the presentation does not lack in the mathematics that underlies statistics, this book
is oriented toward the practical use of statistics. The audience for this book may come
from diverse disciplines, the examples, discussions, and exercises are based on data and
scenarios that are common to readers in their everyday lives.
Most of the exercises in the second edition are new, where much of the focus is to give the
reader some exposure to the many different types of questions that can be answered using
statistics. However, the use of “big data” is not considered in this book because it is assumed
that most of the methods described herein are focused on data obtained through e mpirical
and/or experimental studies, not exhaustive data mining or data science t echniques.
However, many of the topics covered in this book can be extended to big data sets.
xiii
xiv Preface
The second edition includes many new topics such as one- and two-sample variances,
one- and two-sample Poisson rates, and more nonparametric statistics. There is also the
addition of Best Practices sections that describe some common pitfalls and provide p ractical
advice on statistical inference.
One of the challenges that I faced as a student learning statistics came from the many
different perspectives that various disciplines have about statistics. And although such
differences are often a source of tension, such disconnection motivated me to think more
deeply about learning statistics and how to best present applied statistical inference in
a general and understandable way so that readers can build on what is covered in this
book and apply their knowledge to more advanced courses. It is for this reason that the
underlying theory of random variables and sampling distributions remain as the primary
foundation for the different inferential techniques that are emphasized throughout.
I have always been a big advocate for learning one single statistical software package at
a time. Not only does focusing on a single statistical software package allow the reader
to obtain a much more in-depth understanding of the given package, but I also believe
that gaining a strong foundation with one statistical software package allows the reader
to be able to easily adapt to other statistics programs with only a minimal amount of
effort. Minitab was and still remains a natural choice for a first course in applied inference.
Minitab has very intuitive menus and informative dialog boxes, as well as very clear and
in-depth help menus. These help menus provide everything from the formulas used, to
specific examples, to how to interpret the findings in a clear and meaningful way. In addi-
tion to being user-friendly for the beginner, Minitab also has some very advanced statisti-
cal methods and techniques.
Chapter 1 provides a basic introduction to some of the more common terminologies that
one may likely encounter when learning statistics for the first time. And while conventions
and definitions do differ across disciplines, I tried to stay consistent with the terminol-
ogies and notations used in Minitab. In the second edition, I added a discussion about
physical and conceptual populations.
Chapter 2 gives a basic description of some of the more common graphs and charts that
are used in applied inference such as histograms, stem-and-leaf plots, bar charts, boxplots,
scatterplots, and marginal plots. I have tried to keep the presentation aligned with the
conventions that are used in Minitab.
Chapter 3 presents basic descriptive statistics as well as a discussion of random variables
and sampling distributions. The calculations for descriptive statistics have been carried
out in great detail using the notations and symbols of a more traditional statistics course.
The second edition also presents some of the more common discrete distributions such as
the binomial and Poisson, as well as continuous distributions such as the t, Chi-Square,
and F. I have also added a detailed discussion about the use of Minitab to graph probability
distributions as well as finding probabilities.
Chapter 4 provides a first look at basic statistical inference. This chapter describes
inference for one sample, such as the mean, proportion, variance, and count. Confidence
intervals are described in addition to providing a detailed discussion of their inter
pretation. Hypothesis tests are introduced for a single mean, proportion, variance, and
count. I have elaborated on how inferences can be made with both confidence intervals
and hypothesis tests by continually referring back to the sampling distribution. There
is also an initial discussion and conceptual introduction to conducting a power analysis
for all the different one-sample tests in addition to detailed descriptions on how to use
Minitab throughout.
Preface xv
Over the course of the last decade, I am very fortunate to have met so many extremely
talented and dedicated students who helped guide most of the revisions in the revised
book.
I am grateful to my friends and colleagues, Frank Bensics and Zbigniew Prusak, who
provided suggestions and comments on the first edition and their input still remains a
core component of the second edition. I am also grateful to my friend and colleague Daniel
Miller, who has always been an advocate for being true to the discipline of statistics. I will
always cherish his words of wisdom and admire his dedication to the profession.
I am fortunate to have wonderful colleagues who have always been supportive: Roger
Bilisoly, Robert Crouse, Darius Dziuda, Chun Jin, Daniel Larose, Krishna Saha, and
Gurbakhshash Singh. They are a remarkable group of people and a joy to work with.
David Grubbs, Sherry Thomas, Emeline Jarvie, and the entire staff at Taylor and Francis
have always been very helpful and supportive throughout the process of this revision.
Special thanks to Jay Margolis and Kevin Craig from CRC, Christine Bayley and Denise
Macafee from Minitab®, and to the previous adopters who provided feedback. I will
always be grateful that I was given the opportunity to work on this project that was based
solely on my experience as a teacher.
Correspondence
Although a large amount of effort has gone into making this text clear and accurate, if you
have any suggestions regarding errors or content, or feel that some clarification is needed,
please contact me at [email protected]. I would be interested in hearing your f eedback and
comments.
Portions of the input and output contained in this publication/book are printed with
permission of Minitab Inc. All such material remains the exclusive property and copyright
of Minitab Inc. All rights reserved.
Minitab® and all other trademarks and logos for the Company’s products and services
are the exclusive property of Minitab Inc. All other marks referenced remain the property
of their respective owners. See minitab.com for more information.
xvii
1
Introduction
1.1 What is Statistics?
Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals with collecting, analyzing, presenting, and
interpreting data. Many different fields use statistics as a way to understand complex
relationships by collecting and analyzing data and presenting the results in a meaningful
way. For instance, a researcher in education may want to know if using computers in an
algebra classroom can be effective in helping students build their mathematical skills. To
answer this question, the researcher could collect data about computer usage and math-
ematical skills and try to extract information in a meaningful way. A marketing manager
for a luxury car manufacturer may want to know whether or not customers are satisfied
with their luxury car purchase. The manager may collect data for a sample of their custom-
ers and then use this data to make a generalization to the larger group of all their luxury
car buyers. In other fields, such as environmental science, researchers may want to figure
out the factors that may contribute to global warming by collecting data about the makes
and models of automobiles emitting larger amounts of greenhouse gas.
Since statistics deals with collecting, analyzing, presenting, and interpreting data, we
first need to develop an idea about what data is. Generally speaking, data is information,
characteristics, or attributes about some observation of interest or a set of observations of
interest. A set of data represents a collection of variables that represent information about
characteristics or attributes for a number of different observations. Data sets usually con-
sist of a collection of observations and each observation can have measures of a variable
or variables of interest. For instance, Table 1.1 gives an example of a small data set that
describes the number of credits attempted, the number of hours worked each week, major,
and gender for a random sample of five university freshmen. The rows of the data set rep-
resent each observation consisting of an individual student. The columns of the data set
represent the different variables, and each student has measures for each of the four dif-
ferent variables that represent the number of credits, number of hours worked each week,
major, and gender.
There are two basic types of data that can be collected, quantitative data and qualitative data.
Quantitative data is data that is numeric in form. The main purpose of collecting q uantitative
data is to describe some characteristic or attribute using numbers. For example, quantita-
tive data that represent the number of credits taken by students in a semester or the num-
ber of hours that students work each week can be collected. On the other hand, qualitative
data is data that is categorical in nature and describes some characteristic or attribute with
words or descriptions. For instance, qualitative data can be used to describe a student’s
major or their gender.
1
2 Applied Statistical Inference with MINITAB®
TABLE 1.1
Data Set Showing Different Characteristics for Five University Freshmen
Observation Number of Number of Hours
Number Credits Worked Each Week Major Gender
1 15 22 Business Male
2 12 20 Engineering Male
3 9 0 Education Female
4 18 18 Business Female
5 15 9 Science Male
The data set in Table 1.1 contains both quantitative and qualitative variables. The number
of credits and the number of hours worked each week are examples of quantitative data
since these variables are numeric in form, whereas major and gender are examples of
qualitative data since these variables describe different categories or characteristics.
Determining whether to collect quantitative or qualitative data is driven by the
characteristic or relationship that is being studied and the type of data that is available.
»Hii hei, jos pääset edellä sinä kävynpurija, niin kyllä ponnistan
perässä minä rukiisen leivän syöjä!» huusi akka ja yritti hypätä
oravan jäljessä toisen puun latvaan, mutta pudota mätkähti maahan
kuoliaaksi. Siihen jäi kankaalle makaamaan, ikenet irvellään.
»Eipä nyt, äijäseni, varpaitasi enää yöllä viluta, minä näät tänään
peitteesi jatkoin!»
Muuan akka nouti aitasta kolme mertaa ja lähti niitä yöksi järveen
laskemaan. Hän ei kuitenkaan ollut muistanut lähtiessään sitoa
mertoihin polonuoria, joten hänen täytyi tarkasti panna merkille
paikka, mihin kulloinkin mertansa upotti.
No, kun hän sitten aamulla lähti mertojaan kokemaan, olivat kaikki
merkit tyyten hävinneet. Pilvenhaituva oli haihtunut näkymättömiin,
ruohonhelpeen oli tuuli vienyt, ja kun akka yritti soutaa sille kohtaa
järveä, mistä oli merkki ruuhen laidassa, ei sitäkään löytynyt, merkki
kun aina siirtyi ruuhen mukana toiseen paikkaan.
»Ei ole», sanoivat toiset, »kuinka tämä sama saattaisi olla, kun
rekemme majaa paikan pihalla tarkasti laitoimme oikeaan
suuntaan!»
Toiset sanoivat:
»Neuvo, hyvä mies, mitä meidän olisi tehtävä, jotta jokainen tässä
joukossa pääsisi keskelle maata. Äärelle jää aina joku, vaikka kuinka
muuttautuisimme!»
»Et sinä mikään tietäjä ole, että minun putoamiseni tietää voisit!»
huusi mies puusta. Hakkasi nakutteli vaan edelleen. Siinä samassa jo
oksa katkesi ja mies oksan kera maahan rysähti.
»Hoi mies, älähän vielä mene! Kaihen kun tiedät, kerro samaan
hintaan vielä, milloin minä kuolen?»
»Silloin sinä kuolet», mies sanoi, »kun talvella hevosen reen eteen
valjastat, halkometsään ajat, halkoja panet kuorman täyteen ja itse
heittäydyt hangolle.»
Hölmöläinen sen tiedon saatuaan jäi talvea odottamaan
kuollakseen pois maailman vaivoista.
Kun sitten talvi oli tullut, valjasti hölmöläinen hevosen reen eteen
ja lähti halkometsään. Sinne tultuaan ajatteli itsekseen että
ajanpahan vielä yhden halkokuorman kotiin, ennenkuin kuolen.
»Jos kerran tuon halon jaksat vetää, niin kyllä tuonkin jaksat!»
Vihdoin viimein ei sitä tekoa tehden jäänyt enää muuta kuin yksi
ainoa halko rekeen. Ettei hevoselle kävisi vetäminen raskaaksi, otti
mies sen viimeisenkin halon olalleen, kävi halko olalla rekeen
istumaan ja ajeli kotiin.
No, loikoi siinä lumessa vielä jonkun aikaa, kunnes tuli niin ankara
nälkä ja vilu, että täytyi nousta jälleen jalkeille ja juosta kotiin
hevositta, kuormitta.
»Myytävänä on.»
Kun takaa-ajaja näki, ettei hän poikaa saavuta, niin huusi matkan
takaa:
»Mitä se syö!»
LOPPU
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HÖLMÖLÄISET ***
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