SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY

B. TECH COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

B. TECH COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

(ARTIFICAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING)

(Regulations2024)

UNIT-1 & UNIT-2

NOTES

24ECS3014-OBJECT ORIENTED AND

PROGRAMMING
 24ECS3014 - OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING

Unit – 1: INTRODUCTION TO OOP AND JAVA

Chapter
Topic Page No.
No.
1.1 Overview of OOP 1
1.2 Features/Characteristics of OOP 4
1.3 Java Buzzwords 8
Overview of Java 11
1.4 1.4.1: Basic Java Terminologies 12
1.4.2: Java Source File Structure 14
1.5 Java Data Types 19
1.6 Java Variables 21
1.7 Arrays 24
1.8 Operators 32
1.9 Control Flow Statements 42
1.10 Defining Classes and Objects 57
1.11 Methods 61
Constructors 63
Types of Constructor 63
1.12 ‘this’ Keyword 68
Constructor Overloading 70
Constructor Chaining 71
1.13 Access Specifiers 73
1.14 Static Members 75
1.15 JavaDoc Comments 79
Additional Topics 86
1.16.1: Java Comments 86
1.16.2: Java Constants 87
1.16.3: Java Identifiers 87
1.16
1.16.4: Java Keywords 87
1.16.5: Type Conversions and Casting 88
1.16.6: Garbage Collection 90
1.16.7: Using Command Line Arguments 92

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UNIT 1 INTORDUCTION TO OOP AND JAVA

Overview of OOP – Object Oriented Programming Paradigms – Features of Object

Oriented Programming – Java Buzzwords – Overview of Java – Data Types, Variables
and Arrays – Operators – Control Statements – Programming Structures in Java –
Defining Classes in Java – Constructors – Methods – Access Specifiers – Static Members
– JavaDoc Comments.

: Overview of OOP

 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING (OOP):

Object-Oriented Programming System (OOPs) is a programming paradigm based

onthe concept of ―objects that contain data and methods, instead of just functions
and procedures.

 The primary purpose of object-oriented programming is to increase the

flexibility and maintainability of programs.
 Object oriented programming brings together data and its behavior
(methods) into a single entity (object) which makes it easier to understand
how a program works.

 Features / advantages of Object Oriented Programming :-

1. It emphasis in own data rather than procedure.
2. It is based on the principles of inheritance, polymorphism, encapsulation and
dataabstraction.
3. Programs are divided into objects.
4. Data and the functions are wrapped into a single unit called class so that
data ishidden and is safe from accidental alternation.
5. Objects communicate with each other through functions.
6. New data and functions can be easily added whenever necessary.
7. Employs bottom-up approach in program design.
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 PROCEDURE-ORIENTED PROGRAMMING [POP]:

Procedure-Oriented Programming is a conventional programming which consists
of writing a list of instructions for the computer to follow and organizing these
instructions into groups known as Functions (or) Procedures (or)
subroutines (or)Modules.

Example: A program may involve the following operations:

 Collecting data from user (Reading)
 Calculations on collected data (Calculation)
 Displaying the result to the user (Printing)

Main Program
Global Data

Procedure Procedure
Procedure
3(Printing)
1(Reading) 2(Calculation)
Local Data Local Data Local Data

Characteristics of Procedural oriented programming:-

1. It focuses on process rather than data.
2. It takes a problem as a sequence of things to be done such as reading,
calculating and printing. Hence, a number of functions are written to solve a
problem.
3. A program is divided into a number of functions and each function has
clearly defined purpose.
4. Most of the functions share global data.
5. Data moves openly around the system from function to function.
6. Employs top-down approach in program design.

Drawback of POP
 Procedural languages are difficult to relate with the real world objects.
 Procedural codes are very difficult to maintain, if the code grows larger.
 Procedural languages do not have automatic memory management as like in Java.
Hence, it makes the programmer to concern more about the memory
management of the program.

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program.So, there is no security for the data.

 Examples of Procedural languages :
o BASIC
o C
o Pascal
o FORTRAN

 Difference between POP and OOP:

Procedure Oriented
Object Oriented Programming
Programming
Divided Into In POP, program is divided into In OOP, program is divided into
smallparts called functions. partscalled objects.
In POP, Importance is not given In OOP, Importance is given to the
Importance to data but to functions as well data rather than procedures or
as sequence of actions to be functions because it works as a
done. real world.
Approach POP follows Top Down OOP follows Bottom Up
approach. approach.
Access POP does not have any OOP has access specifiers
Specifiers accessspecifier. named Public, Private,
Protected, etc.
In POP, Data can move freely In OOP, objects can move and
Data Moving fromfunction to function in the communicate with each other
system. throughmember functions.
Expansion To add new data and function OOP provides an easy way toadd
in POPis not so easy. newdata and function.
In POP, Most function uses In OOP, data cannot move easily
Data Access Global data for sharing that can from function to function, it canbe
be accessed freely from kept public or private so we can
function to function in the control the access of data.
system.
Data Hiding POP does not have any OOP provides Data Hiding so
proper wayfor hiding data so it provides more security.
is less secure.
In POP, Overloading is not In OOP, overloading is possible in
Overloading possible. the form of Function Overloading
and Operator Overloading.
Examples Examples of POP are: C,VB, Examples of OOP are: C++, JAVA,
FORTRAN, and Pascal. VB.NET, C#.NET.

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: FEATURES / CHARACHTERISTICS OF OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING

CONCEPTS

OOPs simplify the software development and maintenance by providing some concepts:

1. Class - Blue print of Object

2. Object - Instance of class
3. Encapsulation - Protecting our data
4. Polymorphism - Different behaviors at different instances
5. Abstraction - Hiding irrelevant data
6. Inheritance - An object acquiring the property of another object

1. Class:
A class is a collection of similar objects and it contains data and methods that
operate on that data. In other words ― Class is a blueprint or template for a set
of objects that share a common structure and a common behavior. It is a logical
entity.
A class in Java can contain:
 fields
 methods
 constructors
 blocks
 nested class and interface

Syntax to declare a class:

Example:
class <class_name>
{
field;
method;
}

2. Object:
Any entity that has state and behavior is known as an object. Object is an instance of
a class.
 For example: chair, pen, table, keyboard, bike etc. It can be physical and logical.
 The object of a class can be created by using the new keyword in Java
Programminglanguage.
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class_name object_name = new class_name;

(or)
class_name object_name;
object_name = new class_name();
Syntax to create Object in Java:

An object has three characteristics:

 State: represents data (value) of an object.
 Behavior: represents the behavior (functionality) of an object such as
deposit, withdraw etc.
 Identity: Object identity is an unique ID used internally by the JVM to
identify each object uniquely.
 For Example: Pen is an object. Its name is Reynolds, color is white etc. known
as its state. It is used to write, so writing is its behavior.
Difference between Object and Class
S.No. Object Class
1) Object is an instance of a class. Class is a blueprint or template from
whichobjects are created.
Object is a real world entity
2) such aspen, laptop, mobile, bed, Class is a group of similar objects.
keyboard, mouse, chair etc.
3) Object is a physical entity. Class is a logical entity.
Object is created through new Class is declared using class
4) keyword mainly e.g. keyword
Student s1=new Student(); e.g.class Student{}
5) Object is created many times Class is declared once.
as perrequirement.
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6) Object allocates memory Class doesn't allocated memory

when it iscreated. when it iscreated.
There are many ways to create
7) object in java such as new There is only one way to define class
keyword, newInstance() method, in java using class keyword.
clone() method, factory method
and deserialization.

3. Encapsulation:
Wrapping of data and method together into a single unit is known as
Encapsulation.
For example: capsule, it is wrapped with different medicines.

 In OOP, data and methods operating on that data are combined together
to form a single unit, this is referred to as a Class.
 Encapsulation is the mechanism that binds together code and the data it
manipulates and keeps both safe from outside interference and misuse.
 The insulation of the data from direct access by the program is called
―data hiding. Since the data stored in an object cannot be accessed directly,
the data is safe i.e.,the data is unknown to other methods and objects.

4. Polymorphism:
 Polymorphism is a concept by which we can perform a single action by
different ways. It is the ability of an object to take more than one form.
 The word "poly" means many and "morphs" means forms. So polymorphism
meansmany forms.
 An operation may exhibit different behaviors in different instances. The
behavior depends on the data types used in the operation.
 For Example:- Suppose if you are in a classroom that time you behave like a
student, when you are in the market at that time you behave like a customer,
when you at your home at that time you behave like a son or daughter, Here
one person present in different-different behaviors.
 Two types of polymorphism:
1. Compile time polymorphism / Method Overloading: - In this method,
object is bound to the function call at the compile time itself.
2. Runtime polymorphism / Method Overriding: - In this method, object is
bound to the function call only at the run time

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 In java, we use method overloading and method overriding to

achievepolymorphism.
 Example:
1. draw(int x, int y, int z)
2. draw(int l, int b)
3. draw(int r)

5. Abstraction:
 Abstraction refers to the act of representing essential features without
including the background details or explanations. i.e., Abstraction means
hiding lower-level details and exposing only the essential and relevant
details to the users.
 For Example: - Consider an ATM Machine; All are performing operations on the
ATM machine like cash withdrawal, money transfer, retrieve mini-
statement…etc. but we can't know internal details about ATM.
 Abstraction provides advantage of code reuse.
 Abstraction enables program open for extension.
 In java, abstract classes and interfaces are used to achieve Abstraction.

6. Inheritance:
 Inheritance in java is a mechanism in which one object acquires all the
propertiesand behaviors of another object.
 The idea behind inheritance in java is that we can create new classes that are
built upon existing classes. When we inherit from an existing class, we can
reuse methods and fields of parent class, and we can add new methods and
fields also.
 Inheritance represents the IS-A relationship, also known as parent-
child
relationship.
 For example:- In a child and parent relationship, all the properties of a father
areinherited by his son.
 Syntax of Java Inheritanc
class Subclass-name extends Superclass-name
{
//methods and fields
}
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7. Message Passing:
Message Communication:
 Objects interact and communicate with each other by sending messages to
eachother. This information is passed along with the message as parameters.

 A message for an object is a request for execution of a procedure and

therefore will invoke a method (procedure) in the receiving object that
generates the desired result.
 Message passing involves specifying the name of the object, the name of
themethod (message) and the information to be sent.
 Example:
Employee.getName(name);
Where,
Employee – object name
getName – method name (message)
name - information

Java Buzzwords

The following are the features of the Java language:

1. Object Oriented 7. Architecture Neutral
2. Simple 8. Dynamic
3. Secure 9. Interpreted
4. Platform 10. High Performance
Independent 11. Multithreaded
5. Robust 12. Distri
6. Portable
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1. Object Oriented:
 Java programming is pure object
object-oriented programming language. Like C++,
Javaprovides most of the object oriented features.
 Though C++ is also an object oriented language, we can write programs in C++
without aclass but it is not possible to write a Java program without classes.
 Example: Printing “Hello” Message.
Java – No programs without classes and
C++ ( can be without class)
objects
With Class: With class:
#include<iostream.h> import java.io.*;
class display { class Hello {
public: public static void main(String args[])
void disp() {
{ System.out.println(“Hello!”);
cout<<”Hello!”; }
} }
};
main() Without class is not possible
{
display d;
d.disp();
}

Without class: #include<iostream.h>

void main()
{
clrscr();
cout<<”\n Hello!”;
getch();
}
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2. Simple:
 Java is Easy to write and more readable and eye catching.
 Most of the concepts are drew from C++ thus making Java learning simpler.

3. Secure :
 Since Java is intended to be used in networked/distributed environments, lot of
emphasishas been placed on security.
 Java provides a secure means of creating Internet applications and to access web
applications.
 Java enables the construction of secured, virus-free, tamper-free system.

4. Platform Independent:
 Unlike C, C++, when Java program is compiled, it is not compiled into platform-specific
machine code, rather it is converted into platform independent code called bytecode.
 The Java bytecodes are not specific to any processor. They can be executed in
anycomputer without any error.
 Because of the bytecode, Java is called as Platform Independent.

5. Robust:
 Java encourages error-free programming by being strictly typed and performing run-
time checks.

6. Portable:
 Java bytecode can be distributed over the web and interpreted by Java Virtual
Machine (JVM)
 Java programs can run on any platform (Linux, Window, Mac)
 Java programs can be transferred over world wide web (e.g applets)

7. Architecture Neutral:
 Java is not tied to a specific machine or operating system architecture.
 Machine Independent i.e Java is independent of hardware.
 Bytecode instructions are designed to be both easy to interpret on any machine and
easilytranslated into native machine code.
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8. Dynamic and Extensible:

 Java is a more dynamic language than C or C++. It was developed to adapt to an
evolvingenvironment.
 Java programs carry with them substantial amounts of run-time information that are
usedto verify and resolve accesses to objects at run time.
9. Interpreted:
 Java supports cross-platform code through the use of Java bytecode.
 The Java interpreter can execute Java Bytecodes directly on any machine to which
theinterpreter has been ported.

10. High Performance:

 Bytecodes are highly optimized.
 JVM can execute the bytecodes much faster.
 With the use of Just-In-Time (JIT) compiler, it enables high performance.

11. Multithreaded:
 Java provides integrated support for multithreaded programming.
 Using multithreading capability, we can write programs that can do many tasks
simultaneously.
 The benefits of multithreading are better responsiveness and real-time behavior.

12. Distributed:
 Java is designed for the distributed environment for the Internet because it handles
TCP/IP protocols.
 Java programs can be transmit and run over internet.

: Overview of Java

 Java programming language was originally developed by Sun Microsystems

which was initiated by James Gosling and released in 1995 as core component
of Sun Microsystems' Java platform (Java 1.0 [J2SE]).
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Java is a high-level object-oriented programming language, which provides

developers with the means to create powerful applications, which are very small in
size, platform independent, secure and robust.
 Java runs on a variety of platforms, such as Windows, Mac OS, and the various
versions ofUNIX.
 Java is mainly used for Internet Programming.
 Java is related to the languages C and C++. From C, Java inherits its syntax and from
C++,Java inherits its OOP concepts.
 Ancestors of Java: - C, C++, B, BCPL.

Five primary goals in the creation of the Java language:

1. It should use the object-oriented programming methodology.
2. It should allow the same program to be executed on multiple operating systems.
3. It should contain built-in support for using computer networks.
4. It should be designed to execute code from remote sources securely.
5. It should be easy to use.

: BASIC JAVA TERMINALOGIES:

1. BYTECODE:
Byte code is an intermediate code generated from the source code by java compiler
and it is platform independent.

2. JAVA DEVELOPMENT KIT (JDK):

 The Java Development Kit (JDK) is a software development environment usedfor
developing Java applications and applets.
 It includes the Java Runtime Environment (JRE), an interpreter/loader (java), a
compiler (javac), an archiver (jar), a documentation generator (javadoc) and
other tools needed in Java development.

3. JAVA RUNTIME ENVIRONMENT (JRE):

JRE is used to provide runtime environment for JVM. It contains set of libraries
+other files that JVM uses at runtime.

4. JAVA VIRTUAL MACHINE (JVM):

 JVM is an interpreter that converts a program in Java bytecode (intermediate
language) into native machine code and executes it.
 JVM needs to be implemented for each platform because it will differ from
platform to platform

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 The JVM performs following main tasks:

• Loads code
• Verifies code
• Executes code
• Provides runtime environment

5. JIT (JUST IN TIME) COMPILER:

It is used to improve the performance. JIT compiles parts of the byte
code that have similar functionality at the same time, and hence reduces the
amount of time neededfor compilation.

Types of Java program:

In Java, there are two types of programs namely,
1. Application Program
2. Applet Program
1. Application Programs
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Application programs are stand-alone programs that are written to carry

out certain tasks on local computer such as solving equations, reading and
writing files etc. The application programs can be executed using two steps:
1. Compile source code to generate Byte code using javac compiler.
2. Execute the byte code program using Java interpreter.

2. Applet programs:
Applets are small Java programs developed for Internet applications. An
applet located in distant computer can be downloaded via Internet and executed
on a local computer using Java capable browser. The Java applets can also be
executed in the command line using appletviewer, which is part of the JDK.

: JAVA SOURCE FILE - STRUCTURE – COMPILATION

THE JAVA SOURCE FILE:

A Java source file is a plain text file containing Java source code and having
.java extension. The .java extension means that the file is the Java source file. Java source
code file contains source code for a class, interface, enumeration, or annotation type.
There are some rules associated to Java source file.

Java Program Structure:

Java program may contain many classes of which only one class defines the main
method.
A Java program may contain one or more sections.
Documentation Section
Package Statement
Import Statements
Interface Statements
Class Definitions
main Method Calss
{
Main Method Definition
}

Of the above Sections shown in the figure, the Main Method class is Essential part,
Documentation Section is a suggested part and all the other parts are optional.

Documentation Section
 It Comprises a Set of comment lines giving the name of the program, the authorand
other details.

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 Comments help in Maintaining the Program.

 Java uses a Style of comment called documentation comment.
/* * …… */
 This type of comment helps is generating the documentation automatically.
 Example:
/*
* Title: Conversion of Degrees
* Aim: To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit and vice versa
* Date: 31/08/2000
* Author: tim
*/

Package Statement
 The first statement allowed in a Java file is a package statement.
 It declares the package name and informs the compiler that the classes defined
belong to this package.
 Example :
package student;
package basepackage.subpackage.class;
 It is an optional declaration.

Import Statements
 The statement instructs the interpreter to load a class contained in a particular
package.
 Example :
import student.test;
Where, student is the package and test is the class.

Interface Statements
 An interface is similar to classes which consist of group of method declaration.
 Like classes, interfaces contain methods and variable.
 To link the interface to our program, the keyword implements is used.
 Example:
public class xx extends Applet implements ActionListener
where, xx – class name (subclass of Applet)Applet – Base class name
ActionListener – interface Extends & implements - keywords
 It is used when we want to implement the feature of Multiple Inheritance in Java
 It is an optional declaration.

Class Definitions
 A Java Program can have any number of class declarations.

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 The number of classes depends on the complexity of the program.

Main Method Class

 Every Java Standalone program requires a main method as its starting point.
 A Simple Java Program will contain only the main method class.
 It creates objects of various classes and uses those objects for performing various
operations.
 When the end of main is reached the program terminates and the control
transferred back to the Operating system.
 Syntax for writing main:
public static void main(String arg[])
where,
public – It is an access specifier to control the visibility of class members. main()
must be declared as public, since it must be called by code outside of its class when
the program is started.
static – this keyword allows main() method to be called without having to instantiate
the instance of the class.
void – this keyword tells the compiler that main() does not return any value.
main() – is the method called when a Java application begins.
String arg[] – arg is an string array which receives any command-line arguments
present when the program is executed.

Rules to be followed to write Java Programs:

About Java programs, it is very important to keep in mind the following points.

 Case Sensitivity - Java is case sensitive, which means identifier Hello and hellowould
have different meaning in Java.
 Class Names - For all class names the first letter should be in Upper Case.
If several words are used to form a name of the class, each inner word's first letter should
be in Upper Case.
Example class MyFirstJavaClass
 Method Names - All method names should start with a Lower Case letter.
If several words are used to form the name of the method, then each inner word's first
letter should be in Upper Case.
Example public void myMethodName()
 Program File Name - Name of the program file should exactly match the classname.
When saving the file, you should save it using the class name (Remember Java is case
sensitive) and append '.java' to the end of the name (if the file name and theclass name do
not match your program will not compile).
Example : Assume 'MyFirstJavaProgram' is the class name. Then the file shouldbe saved a

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'MyFirstJavaProgram.java'
 public static void main(String args[]) - Java program processing starts from the
main() method which is a mandatory part of every Java program.

Compiling and running a java program in command promptSTEPS:

1. Set the path of the compiler as follows (type this in command prompt):
Set path=”C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_20\bin”;
2. To create a Java program, ensure that the name of the class in the file is the sameas the
name of the file.
3. Save the file with the extension .java (Example: HelloWorld.java)
4. To compile the java program use the command javac as follows:
javac HelloWorld.java
This will take the source code in the file HelloWorld.java and create the javabytecode in
a file HelloWorld.class
5. To run the compiled program use the command java as follows:
java HelloWorld
(Note that you do not use any file extension in this command.)

At compile time, java file is compiled by Java Compiler (It does not interact with
OS) andconverts the java code into bytecode.

Class Loader : is the subsystem of JVM that is used to load class files.
Bytecode Verifier : checks the code fragments for illegal code that can violate access
right to objects
Interpreter : read bytecode stream then execute the instructions.

Example 1: A First Java Program:

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public class HelloWorld

{
public static void main(String args[])
{
System.out.println("Hello World");
}
}

Save: HelloWorld.java Compile: javac HelloWorld.javaRun: java HelloWorld

Output: Hello World

Program Explanation:
public is the access specifier, class is a keyword and HelloWorld is the class name. {
indicates the start of program block and } indicates the end of the program block.
System.out.println() – is the output statement to print some message on the screen.
Here, System is a predefined class that provides access to the system, out is the output
stream that is connected to the console and println() is method to display the given
string.
Example 2: A Second Java Program:

import java,util.Scanner; // Scanner is a class which contains necessary methods

to provide a user an access to the i/p console.
public class Example2 // class declaration
{ // class definition starts
public static void main(String args[])
{
//main() definition starts
int num=0,res; // declares two integer with initial value 0
Scanner in=new Scanner(System.in); //creating object of Scanner class toaccess the i/p stream.
System.out.println(“Enter a Number : “);
num=in.nextInt(); // to read the next integer value from the i/pstream
res=num*2; // manipulation of the data
System.out.println("The value of "+num+” * 2 = “+res); //displaysresult
}
}
Save: Example2.java Compile: javac Example2.javaRun: java Example2

Output:
Enter a Number: 25
The value of 25 * 2 = 50

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: JAVA – DATA TYPES

Data type is used to allocate sufficient memory space for the data. Data types
specify the different sizes and values that can be stored in the variable.
 Java is a strongly Typed Language.
 Definition: strongly Typed Language:
Java is a strongly typed programming language because every variable must be declared
with a data type. A variable cannot start off life without knowing the range of values it can
hold, and once it is declared, the data type of the variable cannot change.

Data types in Java are of two types:

1. Primitive data types (Intrinsic or built-in types ) :- : The primitive data types
include boolean, char, byte, short, int, long, float and double.
2. Non-primitive data types (Derived or Reference Types): The non-primitive
data types include Classes, Interfaces, Strings and Arrays.

1. Primitive Types:
Primitive data types are those whose variables allow us to store only one value and
neverallow storing multiple values of same type. This is a data type whose variable
can hold maximum one value at a time.
There are eight primitive types in Java:
Integer Types:
1. int
2. short
3. lomg
4. byte

Floating-point Types:
5. float
6. double

Others:
7. char
8. Boolean

 Integer Types:
The integer types are form numbers without fractional parts. Negative values are
allowed.Java provides the four integer types shown below:

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Storage Default
Type Range Example
Requirement Value
-2,147,483,648(-2^31)
int a = 100000,
int 4 bytes to 0
int b = -200000
2,147,483,647 (2^31-1)
short s = 10000,
short 2 bytes -32,768 (-2^15) to 32,767 (2^15-1) 0
short r = -20000
-9,223,372,036,854,775,808 (-2^63)
long a = 100000L,
long 8 bytes to 0L
int b = -200000L
9,223,372,036,854,775,808 (2^63-1)
byte a = 100 ,
byte 1 byte -128 (-2^7) to 127 (2^7-1) 0
byte b = -50

 Floating-point Types:
The floating-point types denote numbers with fractional parts. The
two floating-pointtypes are shown below:
Storage Default
Type Range Example
Requirement Value
Approximately ±3.40282347E+38F
float 4 bytes float f1 =234.5f 0.0f
(6-7 significant decimal digits)
Approximately
double d1 =
double 8 bytes ±1.79769313486231570E+308 0.0d
123.4
(15 significant decimal digits)

 char:
 char data type is a single 16-bit Unicode character.
 Minimum value is '\u0000' (or 0).
 Maximum value is '\uffff' (or 65,535 inclusive).
 Char data type is used to store any character.
 Example: char letterA ='A'

 boolean:
 boolean data type represents one bit of information.
 There are only two possible values: true and false.
 This data type is used for simple flags that track true/false conditions.
 Default value is false.
 Example: boolean one = true

2. Derived Types (Reference Types):

 Derived data types are those whose variables allow us to store multiple
values of same type. But they never allow storing multiple values of
different types.

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 These are the data type whose variable can hold more than one value of similar
type.
 The value of a reference type variable, in contrast to that of a primitive type,
is a reference to (an address of) the value or set of values represented by
the variable.
 Example
int a[] = {10,20,30}; // valid
int b[] = {100, 'A', "ABC"}; // invalid
Animal animal = new Animal("giraffe"); //Object

: JAVA - VARIABLES

 A Variable is a named piece of memory that is used for storing data in java
Program.
 A variable is an identifier used for storing a data value.
 A Variable may take different values at different times during the execution
if the program, unlike the constants.
 The variable's type determines what values it can hold and what
operations can beperformed on it.
 Syntax to declare variables:
datatype identifier [=value][,identifier [ =value] …];

 Example of Variable names:

int average=0.0, height, total height;

 Rules followed for variable names ( consist of alphabets, digits,

underscore anddollar characters)
1. A variable name must begin with a letter and must be a sequence of letter or
digits.
2. They must not begin with digits.
3. Uppercase and lowercase variables are not the same.
a. Example: Total and total are two variables which are distinct.
4. It should not be a keyword.
5. Whitespace is not allowed.
6. Variable names can be of any length.

 Initializing Variables:
 After the declaration of a variable, it must be initialized by means of assignment
statement.
 It is not possible to use the values of uninitialized variables.

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 Two ways to initialize a variable:

1. Initialize after declaration:
Syntax: variablename=value;

int months;
months=1;

2. Declare and initialize on the same line:

Syntax: Datatype variablename=value;

int months=12;
 Dynamic Initialization of a Variable:
Java allows variables to be initialized dynamically using any valid expression at the
timethe variable is declared.

Example: Program that computes the remainder of the division operation:

class FindRemainer
{
public static void main(String arg[]) {int num=5,den=2;
int rem=num%den; System.out.println(―Remainder is ―+rem);
}
}

Output:
Remainder is 1

In the above program there are three variables num, den and rem. num and den ate
initialized by constants whereas rem is initialized dynamically by the modulo division
operation on num and den.

JAVA - VARIABLE TYPES

There are three kinds of variables in Java:
1. Local variables
2. Instance variables
3. Class/static variables

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Local Variables Instance Variable Class / Static Variables

Class variables also known as
static variables are declared
with the static keyword in a
Instance variables are class, but outside a method,
Local variables aredeclared in
declared in a class, but constructor or a block.
methods, constructors, or
outside a method, There would only be one copy
blocks.
constructor or any block. of each class variable per
class, regardless of how many
objects are created from it.

Local variables are created

Instance variables are created
when the method, Static variables are created
when an object is created with
constructor or block is when the program starts and
the use of the keyword 'new'
entered and the variable will destroyed when the program
and destroyed when the
be destroyed once it exits the stops.
object is destroyed.
method, constructor or block.

Access modifiers cannot be Access modifiers can be used Access modifiers can be
used for local variables. forinstance variables. used for class variables.

Local variables are visible The instance variables are

only within the declared visible for all methods, Visibility is similar to
method, constructor or constructors and block in the instance variables.
block. class.
Instance variables have
default values. For numbers
There is no default value for
the default value is 0, for
local variables so local
Booleans it is false and for Default values are same as
variables should be declared
object references it is null. instance variables.
and an initial value should be
Values can be assigned during
assigned before the first use.
the declaration or within the
constructor.
Instance variables can be
accesseddirectly by calling the
variable name inside the class.
Static variables can be
Local variables can only be However within static
accessed by calling with the
access inside the declared methods and different class
class name.
block. should be called using the fully
ClassName.VariableName.
qualified name as follows:
ObjectReference.VariableNa
me.

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Example program illustrating the use of all the above variables:

class area
{
int length=20;
int breadth=30;
static int classvar=2500;void
calc()
{
int areas=length*breadth;
System.out.println(“The area is “+areas+” sq.cms”);
}

public static void main(String args[])

{
area a=new area();
a.calc();
System.out.println(“Static Variable Value : “+classvar);
}
}
Output:
The area is 600
sq.cms Static
Variable Value :
2500

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Program Explanation:
Class name: area
Method names: calc() and main()
Local variables: areas (accessed only in the particular method)
Instance variables: length and breadth (accessed only through the object‘s method)
Static variable: accessed anywhere in the program, without object reference

: ARRAYS

Definition:
An array is a collection of similar type of elements which has contiguous
memory location.
Java array is an object which contains elements of a similar data type.
Additionally, The elements of an array are stored in a contiguous memory location.
It is a data structure where we store similar elements. We can store only a fixed set of
elements in a Java array.
Array in Java is index-based, the first element of the array is stored at the 0th index, 2nd
element is stored on 1st index and so on.
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Advantage of Array:
• Code Optimization: It makes the code optimized; we can retrieve or sort the data
easily.
• Random access: We can get any data located at any index position.

Disadvantage of Array:
 Size Limit: We can store only fixed size of elements in the array. It doesn't growits
size at runtime.

Types of Array:
There are two types of array.
1. One-Dimensional Arrays
2. Multidimensional Arrays

1. One-Dimensional Array:

Definition: One-dimensional array is an array in which the elements are stored

in onevariable name by using only one subscript.

 Creating an array:
Three steps to create an array:
1. Declaration of the array
2. Instantiation of the array
3. Initialization of arrays

1. Declaration of the array:

Declaration of array means the specification of array variable, data_type and
array_name.
Syntax to Declare an Array in java:
dataType[] arrayRefVar; (or)
dataType []arrayRefVar; (or)
dataType arrayRefVar[];

Example:
int[] floppy; (or) int []floppy (or) int floppy[];

2. Instantiation of the array:

Definition:

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Allocating memory spaces for the declared array in memory (RAM) is called as
Instantiation of an array.

Syntax:
arrayRefVar=new datatype[size];

Example: floppy=new int[10];

3. Initialization of arrays:Definition:
Definition:
Storing the values in the array element is called as Initialization of arrays.

Syntax to initialize values to array element:

arrayRefVar[index value]=constant or value;

Example:
floppy[0]=20;

SHORTHAND TO CREATE AN ARRAY OBJECT:

Java has shorthand to create an array object and supply initial values at the
same timewhen it is created.
dataType[] arrayRefVar={list of values};
(or)
dataType []arrayRe
[]arrayRefVar={list of values};
(or)
dataType arrayRefVar[]={list of values};
(or)
dataType arrayRefVar[]=arrayVariable;

Example 1:
int regno[]={101,102,103,104,105,106};
int reg[]=regno;

Example 2: double[] myList = new double[10];

ARRAY LENGTH:
The variable length can identify the length of array in Java. To find the number of
elements of an array, use array.length.
Example1:
int regno[10]; len1=regno.length;
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Example 2:
for(int i=0;i<reno.length;i++)
System.out.println(regno[i]);

Following picture represents array myList. Here, myList holds ten double values and
the indicesare from 0 to 9.

Example: (One-Dimensional Array)

class Array
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int month_days[];
month_days=new int[12];
month_days[0]=31;
month_days[1]=28;
month_days[2]=31;
month_days[3]=30;
month_days[4]=31;
month_days[5]=30;
month_days[6]=31;
month_days[7]=31;
month_days[8]=30;
month_days[9]=31;
month_days[10]=30;
month_days[11]=31;

System.out.println(“April has ”+month_days[3]+ “ days.”);

}
}
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Output:

April has 30 days.

Example 2: Finding sum of the array elements and maximum from the array:

public class TestArray

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
double[] myList = {1.9, 2.9, 3.4, 3.5};

// Print all the array elements

for (double element: myList)
{
System.out.println(element);
}

// Summing all elementsdouble total = 0;

for (int i = 0; i < myList.length; i++)
{
total += myList[i];
}
System.out.println("Total is " + total);

// Finding the largest elementdouble

max = myList[0];
for (int i = 1; i < myList.length; i++)
{
if (myList[i] > max)
max = myList[i];
}
System.out.println("Max is " + max);
}
}

Output:
1.9
2.9
3.4
3.5

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Total is 11.7
Max is 3.5

2. Multidimensional Arrays:

Definition:
Multidimensional arrays are arrays of arrays. It is an array which uses more than
one index to access array elements. In multidimensional arrays, data is stored in
row and column based index (also known as matrix form).

Uses of Multidimensional Arrays:

 Used for table
 Used for more complex arrangements
Syntax to Declare Multidimensional Array in java:

1. dataType[][] arrayRefVar; (or)

2. dataType [][]arrayRefVar; (or)
3. dataType arrayRefVar[][]; (or)
4. dataType []arrayRefVar[];

Example to instantiate Multidimensional Array in java:

int[][] arr=new int[3][3]; //3 row and 3 column - internally this matrix is implemented as arrays of arrays of int.

Example to initialize Multidimensional Array in java:

arr[0][0]=1;
arr[0][1]=2;
arr[0][2]=3;
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arr[1][0]=4;
arr[1][1]=5;
arr[1][2]=6;
arr[2][0]=7;
arr[2][1]=8;
arr[2][2]=9;

Examples to declare, instantiate, initialize and print the 2Dimensional array:

class twoDarray
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int array1[][]=new int[4][5];// declares an 2D array.
int array2[][]={{1,2,3},{2,4,5},{4,4,5}}; //declaring and initializing 2D arrayint i,j,k=0;

// Storing and printing the values of Array1

System.out.println("-------Array 1 ------- " );

for(i=0;i<4;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<5;j++)
{
array1[i][j]=k;k++;
System.out.print(array1[i][j]+ " ");
}
System.out.println();
}

// printing 2D array2
System.out.println("-------Array 2 -------");
for(int i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(int j=0;j<3;j++)
{
System.out.print(array2[i][j]+
}
System.out.println();
}
}
}

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Output:
-------------Array1------------
01234
56789
10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19

-------------Array2------------
123
245
445

In the above program, the statement int array1[][]=new int[4][5]; is interpreted

automatically as follows:
array1[0]=new int[5];array1[1]=new int[5];array1[2]=new int[5];array1[3]=new int[5];

It means that, when we allocate memory for a multidimensional array, we need to only
specify the memory for the first (leftmost) dimension. We can allocate the remaining
dimensions separately with different sizes.

Example: Manually allocate differing size second dimensions:

class twoDarray
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int array1[][]=new int[4][]; // declares an 2D array.

array1[0]=new int[1];
array1[1]=new int[2];
array1[2]=new int[3];
array1[3]=new int[4];
int i,j,k=0;

// Storing and printing the values of Array

for(i=0;i<4;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<i+1;j++)
{
array1[i][j]=k;k++; System.out.print(array1[i][j]+ " ");

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}
System.out.println();
}
}
}

Output:
0
12
345
6789

: OPERATORS

Operators are used to manipulate primitive data types.

Java operators can be classified as unary,binary, or ternary—meaning taking one, two,
or three arguments, respectively.

Java Unary Operator

The Java unary operators require only one operand. Unary operators are used to perform
various operations
i.e.:
o incrementing/decrementing a value by one
o negating an expression
o inverting the value of a boolean

Java Unary Operator Example: ++ and –

1. class OperatorExample
2. {
3. public static void main(String args[])
4. {
5. int x=10;
6. System.out.println(x++); //10 (11)
7. System.out.println(++x); //12
8. System.out.println(x--); //12 (11)
9. System.out.println(--x); //108.
10.}
11.}

Output:

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10
12
12
10

Java Unary Operator Example 2: ++ and –

1. class OperatorExample
2. {
3. public static void main(String args[])
4. {
5. int a=10;
6. int b=10;
7. System.out.println(a++ + ++a); //10+12=22
8. System.out.println(b++ + b++); //10+11=21 7.
9. }
10. }
Output:
22
21

Java Unary Operator Example: ~ and !

1. class OperatorExample{
2. public static void main(String args[]){
3. int a=10;
4. int b=-10;
5. boolean c=true;
6. boolean d=false;
7. System.out.println(~a); //-11 (minus of total positive value which starts from 0)
8. System.out.println(~b); //9 (positive of total minus, positive starts from 0)
9. System.out.println(!c); //false (opposite of boolean value)
10. System.out.println(!d); //true
11. }
12. }

Output:
-11
9
False
true

A binary or ternary operator appears between its arguments. Java operators

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eight different categories:

1. Assignment
2. Arithmetic
3. Relational
4. Logical
5. Bitwise
6. Compound assignment
7. Conditional
8. Type.
Assignment Operators =
Arithmetic Operators - + * / % ++ --
Relational Operators > < >= <= == !=
Logical Operators && || & | ! ^
Bit wise Operator & | ^ >> >>>
Compound Assignment += -= *= /= %=
Operators <<= >>= >>>=
Conditional Operator ?:

1. Java Assignment Operator

The java assignment operator statement has the following syntax:

<variable> = <expression>

If the value already exists in the variable it is overwritten by the assignment operator
(=).

Java Assignment Operator Example

1. class OperatorExample{
2. public static void main(String args[])
3. {
4. int a=10;
5. int b=20;
6. a+=4; //a=a+4 (a=10+4)
7. b-=4; //b=b-4 (b=20-4)
8. System.out.println(a);
9. System.out.println(b);
10. }
11. }

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Output:

14
16

2. Java Arithmetic Operators

Java arithmetic operators are used to perform addition, subtraction, multiplication,

and division.They act as basic mathematical operations.

Assume integer variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then:

Operator Description Example

A + B will give
+ Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator
30
Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand from left hand A - B will give
-
operand -10
A * B will give
* Multiplication - Multiplies values on either side of the operator
200
/ Division - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand B / A will give 2
Modulus - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand B % A will give
%
and returns remainder 0
++ Increment - Increases the value of operand by 1 B++ gives 21
-- Decrement - Decreases the value of operand by 1 B-- gives 19

Java Arithmetic Operator Example: Expression

1. class OperatorExample
2. {
3. public static void main(String args[])
4. {
5. System.out.println(10*10/5+3-1*4/2);4.
6. }
7. }

Output:
21

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3. Relational Operators

Relational operators in Java are used to compare 2 or more objects. Java provides
sixrelational operators: Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then:

Operator Description Example

Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if yes (A == B) is not
==
then condition becomes true. true.
Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, ifvalues
!= (A != B) is true.
are not equal then condition becomes true.
Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value of (A > B) is not
>
right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. true.
Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value ofright
< (A < B) is true.
operand, if yes then condition becomes true.

Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal tothe (A >= B) is not
>= value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to the

<= value of right operand, if yes then condition becomestrue. (A <= B) is true.

Example:

public RelationalOperatorsDemo( )
{
int x = 10, y = 5;
System.out.println("x > y : "+(x > y));
System.out.println("x < y : "+(x < y));
System.out.println("x >= y : "+(x >= y));
System.out.println("x <= y : "+(x <= y));
System.out.println("x == y : "+(x == y));
System.out.println("x != y : "+(x != y));

public static void main(String args[])

{
new RelationalOperatorsDemo();
}
}

Output:
$java RelationalOperatorsDemo

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x > y : true
x < y : false
x >= y : true
x <= y : false
x == y : false
x != y : true

4. Logical Operators

Logical operators return a true or false value based on the state of the Variables. Given
that x and y represent boolean expressions, the boolean logical operators are defined
in the Table below.

x&y x|y
x y !x x && y x || y x^y
true true false true true False
true false false false true true
false true true false true true
false false true false false false

Example:
public class LogicalOperatorsDemo
{
public LogicalOperatorsDemo()
{
boolean x = true;
boolean y = false;
System.out.println("x & y : " + (x & y));
System.out.println("x && y : " + (x && y));
System.out.println("x | y : " + (x | y));
System.out.println("x || y: " + (x || y));
System.out.println("x ^ y : " + (x ^ y));
System.out.println("!x : " + (!x));
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
new LogicalOperatorsDemo();
}
}
Output:
$java LogicalOperatorsDemo

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x & y : false
x && y : false
x | y : true
x || y: true
x ^ y : true
!x : false

5. Bitwise Operators

Java provides Bit wise operators to manipulate the contents of variables at the bit level.
The result of applying bitwise operators between two corresponding bits in the
operandsis shown in the Table below.

A B ~A A&B A|B A^B

1 1 0 1 1 0

1 0 0 0 1 1

0 1 1 0 1 1

0 0 1 0 0 0

public class Test

{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int a = 60; /* 60 = 0011 1100 */
int b = 13; /* 13 = 0000 1101 */int c = 0;
c = a & b; /* 12 = 0000 1100 */
System.out.println("a & b = " + c );
c = a | b; /* 61 = 0011 1101 */
System.out.println("a | b = " + c );
c = a ^ b; /* 49 = 0011 0001 */
System.out.println("a ^ b = " + c );
c = ~a; /*-61 = 1100 0011 */
System.out.println("~a = " + c );
c = a << 2; /* 240 = 1111 0000 */
System.out.println("a << 2 = " + c );
c = a >> 2; /* 215 = 1111 */
System.out.println("a >> 2 = " + c );
c = a >>> 2; /* 215 = 0000 1111 */

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System.out.println("a >>> 2 = " + c );

}
}

Output:
$java Test

a & b = 12
a | b = 61
a ^ b = 49
~a = -61
a << 2 = 240
a >> 2 = 15
a >>> 2 = 15

6. Compound Assignment operators

The compound operators perform shortcuts in common programming operations.

Javahas eleven compound assignment operators.

Syntax: argument1 operator = argument2.

Java Assignment Operator Example

1. class OperatorExample
2. {
3. public static void main(String[] args)
4. {
5. int a=10;
6. a+=3; //10+3
7. System.out.println(a);
8. a-=4; //13-4
9. System.out.println(a);
10. a*=2; //9*2
11. System.out.println(a);
12. a/=2; //18/2
13. System.out.println(a);12.
14. }
15. }

Output:
13

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9
18
9

7. Conditional Operators

The Conditional operator is the only ternary (operator takes three arguments)
operator in Java. The operator evaluates the first argument and, if true, evaluates the
second argument.

If the first argument evaluates to false, then the third argument is evaluated. The
conditional operator is the expression equivalent of the if-else statement.

The conditional expression can be nested and the conditional operator associates from
right to left: (a?b?c?d:e:f:g) evaluates as (a?(b?(c?d:e):f):g)

Example:

public class TernaryOperatorsDemo {

public TernaryOperatorsDemo() {
int x = 10, y = 12, z = 0;
z = x > y ? x : y;
System.out.println("z : " + z);

public static void main(String args[]) {

new TernaryOperatorsDemo();

Output:
$java TernaryOperatorsDemo
z : 12

8. instanceof Operator:

This operator is used only for object reference variables. The operator checks whether
the object is of a particular type(class type or interface type). instanceof operator is
written as:
( Object reference variable ) instanceof (class/interface type)

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If the object referred by the variable on the left side of the operator passes the IS-A
check for the class/interface type on the right side, then the result will be true.
Following is the

Example:
public class Test
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
String name = "James";
// following will return true since name is type of String
boolean result = name instanceof String;
System.out.println( result );
}
}

This would produce the following result:

True

OPERATOR PRECEDENCE:
The order in which operators are applied is known as precedence. Operators with a higher
precedence are applied before operators with a lower precedence.

The operator precedence order of Java is shown below. Operators at the top of the table
are applied before operators lower down in the table.

If two operators have the same precedence, they are applied in the order they appear in a
statement. That is, from left to right. You can use parentheses to override the default
precedence.

Category Operator Associativity

Postfix () [] . (dot operator) Left to right
Unary ++ - - ! ~ Right to left
Multiplicative */% Left to right
Additive +- Left to right
Shift >> >>> << Left to right
Relational > >= < <= Left to right
Equality == != Left to right
Bitwise AND & Left to right
Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right
Bitwise OR | Left to right

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Logical AND && Left to right

Logical OR || Left to right
Conditional ?: Right to left
Assignment = += -= *= /= %= >>= <<= &= ^= |= Right to left
Comma , Left to right

Example:

In an operation such as,

result = 4 + 5 * 3

First (5 * 3) is evaluated and the result is added to 4 giving the Final Result value as 19.
Note that ‗*‘ takes higher precedence than ‗+‘ according to chart shown above. This kindof
precedence of one operator over another applies to all the operators.

: CONTROL-FLOW STATEMENTS

Java Control statements control the order of execution in a java program, based on data
values and conditional logic.

There are three main categories of control flow statements;

· Selection statements: if, if-else and switch.
· Loop statements: while, do-while and for.
· Transfer statements: break, continue, return, try-catch-finally and assert.
We use control statements when we want to change the default sequential order of
execution
1. Selection statements (Decision Making Statement)

There are two types of decision making statements in Java. They are:
 if statements
 if-else statements
 nested if statements
 if-else if-else statements
 switch statements

if Statement:
 An if statement consists of a Boolean expression followed by one or more
statements.
 Block of statement is executed when the condition is true otherwise no
statement will beexecuted.

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Syntax:
if(<conditional expression>)
{
< Statement Action>
}

If the Boolean expression evaluates to true then the block of code inside the if statement
will be executed.
If not the first set of code after the end of the if statement (after the closingcurly brace) will
be executed.
Flowchart:

Example:

public class IfStatementDemo {

public static void main(String[] args)

{
int a = 10, b = 20;
if (a > b)
System.out.println("a > b");
if (a < b)
System.out.println("b > a");
}
}

Output:
$java IfStatementDemo
b>a

if-else Statement:
The if/else statement is an extension of the if statement. If the statements in the
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ifstatement fails, the statements in the else block are executed.

Syntax:
The if-else statement has the following syntax:

if(<conditional expression>)
{
< Statement Action1>
}
else
{
< Statement Action2>
}

Example:
public class IfElseStatementDemo {

public static void main(String[] args)

{
int a = 10, b = 20;
if (a > b) {
System.out.println("a > b");
}
else {
System.out.println("b > a");
}
}
}
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Output:

$java IfElseStatementDemo
b>a

Nested if Statement:
Nested if-else statements, is that using one if or else if statement inside
another if or else ifstatement(s).
Syntax:

if(condition1)
{
if(condition2)
{
//Executes this block if condition is True
}
else
{
//Executes this block if condition is false
}
}
else
{
//Executes this block if condition is false
}

Example-nested-if statement:
class NestedIfDemo
{
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public static void main(String args[])

{
int i = 10;
if (i ==10)
{
if (i < 15)
{
System.out.println("i is smaller than 15");
}
else
{
System.out.println("i is greater than 15");
}
}
else
{
System.out.println("i is greater than 15");
}
}
}
Output:
i is smaller than 15

if...else if...else Statement:

An if statement can be followed by an optional else if...else statement, which is
veryuseful to test various conditions using single if...else if statement.
Syntax:

if(Boolean_expression 1){
//Executes when the Boolean expression 1 is true
}else if(Boolean_expression 2){
//Executes when the Boolean expression 2 is true
}else if(Boolean_expression 3){
//Executes when the Boolean expression 3 is true
}else {
//Executes when the none of the above condition is true.
}

Example:
public class Test {
public static void main(String args[]){

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int x = 30;
if( x == 10 ){
System.out.print("Value of X is 10");
}else if( x == 20 ){
System.out.print("Value of X is 20");
}else if( x == 30 ){
System.out.print("Value of X is 30");
}else{
System.out.print("This is else statement");
}
}
}

Output:
Value of X is 30

switch Statement:
 The switch case statement, also called a case statement is a multi
multi-way
branch with several choices.
choices. A switch is easier to implement than a
series of if/else statements.
 A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against a list of
 55

values. Eachvalue is called a case, and the variable being switched on is checked
for each case.
 The switch statement begins with a keyword, followed by an expression that
equates to a no long integral value. Following the controlling expression is a
code block that contains zero or more labeled cases. Each label must equate to
an integer constant and each must be unique.
 When the switch statement executes, it compares the value of the controlling
expression to the values of each case label.
 The program will select the value of the case label that equals the value of the
controllingexpression and branch down that path to the end of the code block.
 If none of the case label values match, then none of the codes within the
switch statementcode block will be executed.
 Java includes a default label to use in cases where there are no matches.
We can have a nested switch within a case block of an outer switch.

Syntax:

switch (<expression>)
{
case label1:
<statement1>
case label2:
<statement2>
…
case labeln:
<statementn>
default:
<statement>
}

Example:

public class SwitchCaseStatementDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {int a =

10, b = 20, c = 30;
int status = -1;
if (a > b && a > c) {
status = 1;
} else if (b > c) {
status = 2;
} else {

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status = 3;
}
switch (status) {case 1:
System.out.println("a is the greatest");break;
case 2:
System.out.println("b is the greatest");break;
case 3:
System.out.println("c is the greatest");break;
default:
System.out.println("Cannot be determined");
}
}
}

Output:
c is the greatest

2. Looping Statements (Iteration Statements)

While Statement
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 The while statement is a looping control statement that executes a blockof code while
a condition is true. It is entry controlled loop.
 You can either have a single statement or a block of code within the while loop.The
loop will never be executed if the testing expression evaluates to false.
 The loop condition must be a boolean expression.

Syntax:
The syntax of the while loop is

while (<loop condition>)

<statements>

Example:

public class WhileLoopDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {int
count = 1;
System.out.println("Printing Numbers from 1 to 10");
while (count <= 10) {
System.out.println(count++);
}
}
}
Output
Printing Numbers from 1 to 10
1
2
3
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4
5
6
7
8
9
10

do-while Loop Statement

 do while loop checks the condition after executing the statements atleast
once.
 Therefore it is called as Exit Controlled Loop.
 The do-while loop is similar to the while loop, except that the test is
performed at the endof the loop instead of at the beginning.
 This ensures that the loop will be executed at least once. A do-while loop
begins with the keyword do, followed by the statements that make up the
body of the loop.

Syntax:
do

<loop body>
}while (<loop condition>);

Example:
public class DoWhileLoopDemo {
public static void main(String[] args)
{
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int count = 1;
System.out.println("Printing Numbers from 1 to 10");
do {
System.out.println(count++);
} while (count <= 10);
}
}

Output:

Printing Numbers from 1 to 10

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

For Loops
The for loop is a looping construct which can execute a set of
instructions a specified number of times. It‘s a counter controlled loop.
A for statement consumes the initialization, condition and
increment/decrement in one line. It is the entry controlled loop.

Syntax:
for (<initialization>; <loop condition>; <increment expression>)
{
<loop body>
}

 The first part of a for statement is a starting initialization, which

executes once before the loop begins. The <initialization> section can
also be a comma-separatedlist of expression statements.
 The second part of a for statement is a test expression. As long as the
expression istrue, the loop will continue. If this expression is evaluated
as false the first time, theloop will never be executed.

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 The third part of the for statement is the body of the loop. These are the
instructionsthat are repeated each time the program executes the loop.
 The final part of the for statement is an increment expression that
automatically executes after each repetition of the loop body. Typically,
this statement changes the value of the counter, which is then tested
to see if the loop should continue.
Exmple:
public class ForLoopDemo {
public static void main(String[] args)
{
System.out.println("Printing Numbers from 1 to
10");
for (int count = 1; count <= 10; count++)
{
System.out.println(count);
}
}
}
Output:
Printing Numbers from 1 to 10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Enhanced for loop or for- each loop:

As of Java 5, the enhanced for loop was introduced. This is mainly used for
Arrays.
 The for-each loop is used to traverse array or collection in java.
 It is easier to use than simple for loop because we don't need to
increment value and usesubscript notation.
 It works on elements basis not index.
 It returns element one by one in the defined variable.

Syntax:

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for(declaration : expression)

//Statements

 Declaration: The newly declared block variable, which is of a type

compatible with the elements of the array you are accessing. The
variable will be available within the for block and its value would be the
same as the current array element.
 Expression: This evaluates to the array you need to loop through. The
expression can be an array variable or method call that returns an
array.

Example:

public class Test {

public static void main(String args[])

{
int [] numbers = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

for(int x : numbers )
{
System.out.print( x );
System.out.print(",");
}
System.out.print("\n\n");
String [] names ={"B", "C", "C++", "JAVA"};
for( String name : names )
{
System.out.print( name );
System.out.print(",");
}
}
}

Output:
10,20,30,40,50,
B,C,C++,JAVA

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3. Transfer Statements / Loop Control Statements/Jump Statements)

1. break statement
2. continue statement

1. Using break Statement:

 The break keyword is used to stop the entire loop. The break
keyword must beused inside any loop or a switch statement.
 The break keyword will stop the execution of the innermost loop and
start executingthenext line of code after the block.
Syntax:
The syntax of a break is a single statement inside any loop:

break;

Flowchart:

Example:

public class Test {

public static void main(String args[]) { int [] numbers = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

for(int x : numbers ) { if( x == 30 ) { break;

}
System.out.print( x ); System.out.print("\n");
}
}
}
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Output:
10
20

2. Using continue Statement:

 The continue keyword can be used in any of the loop control structures. It
causes theloop to immediately jump to the next iteration of the loop.
 The Java continue statement is used to continue loop. It continues the
current flow of the program and skips the remaining code at
specified condition. In case of inner loop, it continues only inner
loop.
Syntax:
The syntax of a continue is a single statement inside any loop:
continue;

Example:

public class Test {

public static void main(String args[]) {int

[] numbers = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

for(int x : numbers )
{
if( x == 30 )
{
continue;
}
System.out.print( x );
System.out.print("\n");
}
}
}

Output:
10
20
40
50

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: DEFINING CLASSES and OBJECTS

A class is a collection of similar objects and it contains data and methods that operate
on that data. In other words ― Class is a blueprint or template for a set of objects
that share a common structure and a common behavior.

DEFINING A CLASS:
The keyword class is used to define a class.

Rules to be followed:
1. Classes must be enclosed in parentheses.
2. The class name, superclass name, instance variables and method names may be any
validJava identifiers.
3. The instance variable declaration and the statements of the methods must end
with ;(semicolon).
4. The keyword extends means derived from i.e. the class to the left of the
extends
(subclass) is derived from the class to the right of the extends (superclass).

Syntax to declare a class:

[public|abstract|final] class class_name [extends superclass_name implements interface_name]
{
data_type instance_variable1;
data_type instance_variable2;
.
.
data_type instance_variableN;

return_type method_name1(parameter list)

{
Body of the method
}
.
.
return_type method_nameN(parameter list)
{
Body of the method
}
}

 The data, or variables, defined within a class are called instance variables.
 The code to do operations is contained within methods.
 Collectively, the methods and variables defined within a class are called members of

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theclass.
 Variables defined within a class are called instance variables because each instance of
theclass (that is, each object of the class) contains its own copy of these variables.
 Thus, the data for one object is separate and unique from the data for another.

 Example:
class box {
double width;
double height;
double depth;
void volume()
{
System.out.println( \n Volume is : );
Systme.out.println(width*height*depth);
}
}

Program Explanation:
Class : keyword that initiates a class definition
Box : class name
Double : primitive data type
Height, depth, width: Instance variables
Void : return type of the method
Volume() : method name that has no parameters

DEFINING OBJECTS
An Object is an instance of a class. It is a blending of methods and data.

Object = Data + Methods

 It is a structured set of data with a set of operations for manipulating that data.
 The methods are the only gateway to access the data. In other words, the methods
and dataare grouped together and placed in a container called Object.

Characteristics of an object:
An object has three characteristics:
1) State: represents data (value) of an object.
2) Behavior: represents the behavior (functionality) of an object such as deposit,
withdraw etc.
3) Identity: Object identity is an unique ID used internally by the JVM to identify
each object uniquely.
For Example: Pen is an object. Its name is Reynolds, color is white etc. known

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state. It is used to write, so writing is its behavior.

CREATING OBJECTS:
Obtaining objects of a class is a two-step process:
1. Declare a variable of the class type – this variable does not define an object. Instead,it
is simply a variable that can refer to an object.
2. Use new operator to create the physical copy of the object and assign the referenceto
the declared variable.

NOTE: The new operator dynamically allocates memory for an object and returns a
referenceto it. This reference is the address in memory of the object allocated by new.

Advantage of using new operator: A program can create as many as objects it needs
duringthe execution of the program.

Syntax:
class_name object_name = new class_name();
(or)
class_name object_name;
object_name = new class_name();

Example:
box b1=new box();(or)
box b2; b2=new box();

ACCESSING CLASS MEMBERS:

 Accessing the class members means accessing instance variable and instance methods in a
class.
 To access these members, a dot (.) operator is used along with the objects.

Syntax for accessing the instance members and methods:

object_name.variable_name;
object_name.method_name(parameter_list);

Example:

class box
{
double width;
double height;

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double depth;
void volume()
{
System.out.print("\n Box Volume is : ");
System.out.println(width*height*depth+" cu.cms");
}
}
public class BoxVolume
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
box b1=new box(); // creating object of type box
b1.width=10.00; // Accessing instance variables through object
b1.height=10.00;
b1.depth=10.00;
b1.volume(); // Accessing method through object
}
}

Output:

Box Volume is: 1000.0 cu.cms

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: METHODS

DEFINITION :
A Java method is a collection of statements that are grouped together to perform an
operation.

Syntax: Method:
modifier Return –type method_name(parameter_list) throws exception_list
{
// method body
}

The syntax shown above includes:

 modifier: It defines the access type of the method and it is optional to use.
 returnType: Method may return a value.
 Method_name: This is the method name. The method signature consists of the
methodname and the parameter list.
 Parameter List: The list of parameters, it is the type, order, and number of
parameters of a method. These are optional, method may contain zero
parameters.
 method body: The method body defines what the method does with statements.

Example:
This method takes two parameters num1 and num2 and returns the maximum between
the two:

/** the snippet returns the minimum between two numbers */

public static int minFunction(int n1, int n2)
{
int min;
if (n1 > n2)
min = n2;
else
min = n1;
return min;
}

 METHOD CALLING (Example for Method that takes parameters and returning
value):
 For using a method, it should be called.

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 A method may take any no. of arguments.

 A parameter is a variable defined by a method that receives a value when the
method is called. For example, in square( ), i is a parameter.
 An argument is a value that is passed to a method when it is invoked. For
example, square(100) passes 100 as an argument. Inside square( ), the
parameter i receives that value.
 There are two ways in which a method is called.
• calling a method that returns a value or
• calling a method returning nothing (no return value).
 The process of method calling is simple. When a program invokes a method, the
programcontrol gets transferred to the called method.
 This called method then returns control to the caller in two conditions, when:
1. return statement is executed.
2. reaches the method ending closing brace.
 Example:
Following is the example to demonstrate how to define a method and how to call it:
public class ExampleMinNumber
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int a = 11;
int b = 6;
int c = minFunction(a, b);
System.out.println("Minimum Value = " + c);
}

/** returns the minimum of two numbers */

public static int minFunction(int n1, int n2)
{
int min;
if (n1 > n2)
min = n2;
else
min = n1;
return min;
}
}

This would produce the following result:

Minimum value = 6

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: CONTRUCTORS

Definition:
Constructor is a special type of method that is used to initialize the object.
Constructor is invoked at the time of object creation. Once defined, the constructor is
automatically called immediately after the object is created, before the new operator
completes.

 Rules for creating constructor:

1. Constructor name must be same as its class name

2. Constructor must have no explicit return type
3. Constructors can be declared public or private (for a Singleton)
4. Constructors can have no-arguments, some arguments and var-args;
5. A constructor is always called with the new operator
6. The default constructor is a no-arguments one;
7. If you don‘t write ANY constructor, the compiler will generate the default one;
8. Constructors CAN‘T be static, final or abstract;
9. When overloading constructors (defining methods with the same name
but with different arguments lists) you must define them with different
arguments lists (as number or as type)

 What happens when a constructor is called?

1. All data fields are initialized to their default value (0, false or null).
2. All field initializers and initialization blocks are executed, in the order in
which theyoccur in the class declaration.
3. If the first line of the constructor calls a second constructor, then the
body of thesecond constructor is executed.
4. The body of the constructor is executed.

 Types of constructors

There are two types of constructors:

1. Default constructor
2. no-arg constructor
3. Parameterized constructor

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1. Default Constructor
 Default constructor refers to a constructor that is automatically created by
compilerin the absence of explicit constructors.

Rule: If there is no constructor in a class, compiler automaticaaly creates a default

constructor.
Purpose of Default Constructor: It is used to provide the default values to the object
members like 0, null etc. depending on the data type.

Example:

class student
{
int id;
String name;
void display()
{
System.out.println(id+&quot; &quot;+name);
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
student s1=new student();
student s2=new student();
s1.display();
s2.display();
}
}
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Output:
0 null
1 null

2) No-Argument Constructor
 Constructor without parameters is called no-argument constructor.

Purpose of No-Arg Constructor: It is used to provide values to be common for all

objects of the class.

Syntax of default constructor:

Classname()
{
// Constructor body
}
Example:

class Box
{
double width;
double height;
double depth;

// This is the constructor for Box

Box()
{
System.out.println(“Constructing Box…”);
width=10;
height=10;
depth=10;
}
// Compute and return volume
double volume()
{
return width*height*depth;
}
}
class BoxDemo
{
public static void main(String arg[])
{
// declare, allocate and initialize Box objects

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Box mybox1=new Box();

Box mybox2=new Box();
double vol;

// Get volume of first box

vol=mybox1.volume();
System.out.println(“Volume is ” +vol);

// Get volume of second box

vol=mybox2.volume();
System.out.println(“Volume is ”+vol);
}
}
Output:

Constructing Box
Constructing Box
Volume is 1000.0
Volume is 1000.0

As you can see, both mybox1 and mybox2 were initialized by the Box( )
constructor when they were created. Since the constructor gives all boxes
the same dimensions, 10 by 10 by 10, both mybox1 and mybox2 will have
the same volume.

3. Parameterized Constructor
A constructor that takes parameters is known as parameterized constructor.

Purpose of parameterized constructor

Parameterized constructor is used to provide different values to the distinct
objects.

Example:

class Box
{
double width;
double height;
double depth;

// This is the constructor for Box

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Box(double w, double h, double d)

{
width=w;height=h;depth=d;
}

// Compute and return volume

double volume()
{
return width*height*depth;
}
}
class BoxDemo
{
public static void main(String arg[])
{
// declare, allocate and initialize Box objects
Box mybox1=new Box(10,20,15);
Box mybox2=new Box(3,6,9);
double vol;
// Get volume of first box

vol=mybox1.volume();
System.out.println(“Volume is ” +vol);

// Get volume of second box

vol=mybox2.volume();
System.out.println(“Volume is ” +vol);
}
}

Output:
Volume is 3000.0
Volume is 162.0

As you can see, each object is initialized as specified in the parameters to its
constructor. Forexample, in the following line,
Box mybox1 = new Box(10, 20, 15);
the values 10, 20, and 15 are passed to the Box( ) constructor when new creates the
object. Thus,
mybox1‘s copy of width, height, and depth will contain the values 10, 20, and 15,
respectively.

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Difference between constructor and method:

There are many differences between constructors and methods.
They are given
below
Constructor Method
Constructor is used to initialize the Method is used to expose
state of anobject. behaviour of anobject.
Constructor must not have return Method must have return type.
type.
Constructor is invoked implicitly. Method is invoked explicitly.
The java compiler provides a default Method is not provided by
constructor if you don't have any compiler in anycase.
constructor.
Constructor name must be same as Method name may or may not be
the classname. same asclass name.

“this” KEYWORD:
Definition:
In java, this is a reference variable that refers to the current object.

 Usage of this keyword

1. this keyword can be used to refer current class instance variable.
2. this() can be used to invoke current class constructor.
3. this keyword can be used to invoke current class method (implicitly)
4. this can be passed as an argument in the method call.
5. this can be passed as argument in the constructor call.
6. this keyword can also be used to return the current class instance.

Instance Variable Hiding:

It is illegal in Java to declare two local variables with the same name inside the same or
enclosing scopes.
We can also have local variables, which overlap with the names of the class‘ instance
 78

variables.
However, when a local variable has the same name as an instance variable, the
local variable hides the instance variable.
We can use “this” keyword to to resolve any namespace collisions that might occur
betweeninstance variables and local variables.

Example:
class Student
{
int rollno;
String name;
float fee;
Student(int rollno,String name,float fee)
{
this.rollno=rollno;
this.name=name;
this.fee=fee;
}
void display()
{
System.out.println(rollno+" "+name+" "+fee);
}
}

class TestThis2
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Student s1=new Student(111,"ankit",5000f);
Student s2=new Student(112,"sumit",6000f);
s1.display();
s2.display();
}
}

Output:

ankit 5000
sumit 6000

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CONSTRUCTOR OVERLOADING:
Definition:
Constructor overloading is a technique in Java in which a class can have any
number of constructors that differ in parameter lists. The compiler differentiates
these constructors by taking into account the number of parameters in the list and
their type.

Example of Constructor Overloading:

class Box
{
double width;
double height;
double depth;

// constructor used when all the dimensions are specified

Box(double w, double h, double d)
{
width=w;
height=h;
depth=d;
}

// constructor used when no dimensions are specified

Box()
{
width=-1;
height=-1;
depth=-1;
}

// constructor used when cube is created

Box(double len)
{
width = height = depth = len;
}

// Compute and return volume

double volume()
{
return width*height*depth;
}
}

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class ConsOverloadDemo
{
public static void main(String arg[])
{
// declare, allocate and initialize Box objects
Box mybox1=new Box(10,20,15);
Box mybox2=new Box();
Box mybox3=new Box(7);
double vol;

// Get volume of first box

vol=mybox1.volume();
System.out.println(“Volume of Box1 is “+vol);

// Get volume of second box

vol=mybox2.volume();
System.out.println(“Volume of Box2 is “+vol);

// Get volume of cube

vol=mybox2.volume();
System.out.println(“Volume of Cube is “+vol);
}
}

Output:

Volume of Box1 is 3000.0

Volume of Box2 is -1.0
Volume of the cube is 343.0

As we can see, the proper overloaded constructor is called based upon the
parameters specifiedwhen new is executed.

CONSTRUCTOR CHAINING:
Constructor chaining is the process of calling one constructor of a class from
another constructor of the same class or another class using the current object
of the class.
 It occurs through inheritance.

Ways to achieve Constructor Chaining:

We can achieve constructor chaining in two ways:

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o Within the same class: If we want to call the constructor from the same class, then
we use this keyword.
From the base class: If we want to call the constructor that belongs to different
classes (parent and child classes), we use the super keyword to call the constructor
from the base class.

Rules of Constructor Chaining:

 An expression that uses this keyword must be the first line of the constructor.
 Order does not matter in constructor chaining.
 There must exist at least one constructor that does not use this

Advantage:
 Avoids duplicate code while having multiple constructors.
 Makes code more readable

Example

class Shape
{
int radius,length,breadth;

Shape(int radius)
{
this.radius=radius;
}
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Shape(int r,int l,int b)

{
this(r);
length=l;
breadth=b;
}

void areaCircle()
{
System.out.println("Area of Circle is "+(3.14*radius*radius));
}
void areaRectangle()
{
System.out.println("Area of Rectangle is "+(length*breadth));
}
}
public class ConstructorChaining
{
public static void main(String arg[])
{
Shape s1=new Shape(5,10,50);
s1.areaCircle();
s1.areaRectangle();
}
}

Output:

Area of Circle is 78.5

Area of Rectangle is 500

: ACCESS SPECIFIERS
Definition:
Access specifiers are used to specify the visibility and accessibility of a class
constructors, member variables and methods.

Java classes, fields, constructors and methods can have one of four
different accessmodifiers:
1. Public
2. Private
3. Protected
4. Default (package)

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1. Public (anything declared as public can be accessed from anywhere):

A variable or method declared/defined with the public modifier can be accessed
anywhere in the program through its class objects, through its subclass objects
andthrough the objects of classes of other packages also.

2. Private (anything declared as private can’t be seen outside of the class):

The instance variable or instance methods declared/initialized as private can be
accessedonly by its class. Even its subclass is not able to access the private members.

3. Protected (anything declared as protected can be accessed by classes in

the samepackage and subclasses in the other packages):
The protected access specifier makes the instance variables and instance methods
visibleto all the classes, subclasses of that package and subclasses of other packages.

4. Default (can be accessed only by the classes in the same package):

The default access modifier is friendly. This is similar to public modifier except only
theclasses belonging to a particular package knows the variables and methods.

Example: Illustrating the visibility of access specifiers:

Z:\MyPack\FirstClass.java

package MyPack;

public class FirstClass

{
public String i="I am public variable";
protected String j="I am protected variable";
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private String k="I am private variable";

String r="I dont have any modifier";
}

Z:\MyPack2\SecondClass.java

package MyPack2;
import MyPack.FirstClass;
class SecondClass extends FirstClass {
void method()
{
System.out.println(i); // No Error: Will print "I am public variable".
System.out.println(j); // No Error: Will print “I am protected variable”.
System.out.println(k); // Error: k has private access in FirstClass
System.out.println(r); // Error: r is not public in FirstClass; cannot be accessed
// from outside package
}

public static void main(String arg[])

{
SecondClass obj=new SecondClass();
obj.method();
}
}

Output:

I am public variable
I am protected variable

Exception in thread "main" java.lang.RuntimeException: Uncompilable source code - k

has private access in MyPack.FirstClass

: “static” MEMBERS:

Static Members are data members (variables) or methods that belong to a static
or non-static class rather than to the objects of the class. Hence it is not necessary
to create object of that class to invoke static members.

 The static can be:

1. variable (also known as class variable)

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2. method (also known as class method)

3. block
4. nested class

 Static Variable:
 When a member variable is declared with the static keyword, then it is called
static variable and it can be accessed before any objects of its class are created,
and without reference to any object.
 Syntax to declare a static variable:
[access_spefier] static data_type instance_variable;
 When a static variable is loaded in memory (static pool) it creates only a single copy
of static variable and shared among all the objects of the class.
 A static variable can be accessed outside of its class directly by the class name
anddoesn‘t need any object.
Syntax : <class-name>.<variable-name>

Advantages of static variable

 It makes your program memory efficient (i.e., it saves memory).

 Static Method:
If a method is declared with the static keyword , then it is known as static
method.

 A static method belongs to the class rather than the object of a class.
 A static method can be invoked without the need for creating an instance of a class.
 A static method can access static data member and can change the value of it.
o Syntax: (defining static method)
[access_specifier] static Return_type method_name(parameter_list)

// method body

o Syntax to access static method:

<class-name>.<method-name>

 The most common example of a static member is main( ). main( ) is declared as static
because it must be called before any objects exist.

 Methods declared as static have several restrictions:

 They can only directly call other static methods.
 They can only directly access static data.
 They cannot refer to this or super in any way.

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 Static Block:
Static block is used to initialize the static data member like constructors
helps toinitialize instance members and it gets executed exactly once, when the
class is first loaded.
It is executed before main method at the time of class loading in JVM.
Syntax:

class classname
{
static
{
// block of statements
}
}

The following example shows a class that has a static method, some static variables,
and a static
initialization block:

// Demonstrate static variables, methods, and blocks.

1. class Student
2. {
3. int rollno;
4. String name;
5. static String college = "ITS";
6. //static method to change the value of static variable
7. static void change(){
8. college = "BBDIT";
9. }
10. //constructor to initialize the variable
11. Student(int r, String n){
12. rollno = r;
13. name = n;
14. }
15. //method to display values
16. void display()
17. {
18. System.out.println(rollno+" "+name+" "+college);
19. }
20. }
21. //Test class to create and display the values of object
22. public class TestStaticMembers

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23. {
24. static
25. {
26. System.out.println(―*** STATIC MEMBERS – DEMO ***‖);
27. }
28.
29. public static void main(String args[])
30. {
31. Student.change(); //calling change method
32. //creating objects
33. Student s1 = new Student(111,"Karan");
34. Student s2 = new Student(222,"Aryan");
35. Student s3 = new Student(333,"Sonoo");
36. //calling display method
37. s1.display();
38. s2.display();
39. s3.display();
40. }
41. }

Here is the output of this program:

*** STATIC MEMBERS – DEMO ***

111 Karan BBDIT
222 Aryan BBDIT
333 Sonoo BBDIT
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: JavaDoc Comments

Definition:
Javadoc is a tool which comes with JDK and it is used for generating Java code
documentation in HTML format from Java source code. Java documentation can be
created as part of the source code.
Input: Java source files (.java)
 Individual source files
 Root directory of the source files
Output: HTML files documenting specification of java code
 One file for each class defined
 Package and overview files

HOW TO INSERT COMMENTS?

The javadoc utility extracts information for the following items:
• Packages
• Public classes and interfaces
• Public and protected methods
• Public and protected fields
Each comment is placed immediately above the feature it describes.

Format:
 A Javadoc comment precedes similar to a multi-line comment except that it
beginswith a forward slash followed by two asterisks (/**) and ends with a
*/
 Each /** . . . */ documentation comment contains free-form text followed by
tags.
 A tag starts with an @, such as @author or @param.
 The first sentence of the free-form text should be a summary statement.
 The javadoc utility automatically generates summary pages that extract
thesesentences.
 In the free-form text, you can use HTML modifiers such as <em>...</em>
foremphasis, <code>...</code> for a monospaced ―typewriter
font, <strong>...</strong> for strong emphasis, and even <img ...> to include
an image.
 Example:

/**
This is a <b>doc</b> comment.
*/

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TYPES OF COMMENTS:

1. Class Comments
The class comment must be placed after any import statements, directly before the
classdefinition.
Example:
import java.io.*;
/** class comments should be written here */Public class sample
{
….
}

2. Method Comments
The method comments must be placed immediately before the method that it
describes.

Tags used:

Tag Descriptio Syntax

n
@param It describes the method parameter @param name description
@return This tag describes the return value @return description
from a method with the exception void
methods and
constructors.
@throw This tag describes the method that throws @throws class description
s an
exception.

Example:

/** adding two numbers

@param a & b are two numbers to be added
@return the result of addition
**/
public double add(int a,int b)
{
int c=a+b;
return c;
}

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3. Field Comments
Field comments are used to document public fields—generally that means static
constants.

For example:
/**
* Account number
*/
public static final int acc_no = 101;

4. General Comments

Tag Description Syntax

The following tags can be used in class documentation comments

@author This tag makes an ―author entry. You can @author name
have multiple @author tags, one for each
author.
@version This tag makes a ―version‖ entry. The text can @version text
be any description of the current version.
The following tags can be used in all documentation comments
@since This tag makes a ―since‖ entry. The text can @since text
be any description of the version that
introduced thisfeature.
For example, @since version 1.7.1
@deprecate This tag adds a comment that the class, @deprecated text
d method, or variable should no longer be used.
The text should suggest a replacement.
For example:
@deprecated
Use <code>setVisible(true)</code>instead
Hyperlinks to other relevant parts of the javadoc documentation, or to external
documents,with the @see and @link tags.
@link This tag place hyperlinks to other classes {@link
or methods anywhere in any of your package.class#feature
documentationcomments. label}

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@see This tag adds a hyperlink in the ―see also @see reference
section. It can be used with both classes and
methods. Here, reference can be one of the
following:
package.class#feature label
<a ref="...">label</a>
"text"
Example:
@see ―Core java 2
@see <a href=222.java.com>Core Java</a>

COMMENT EXTRACTION

Here, docDirectory is the name of the directory where you want the HTML files to go.

Follow these steps:

1. Change to the directory that contains the source files you want to document.
2. To create the document API, you need to use the javadoc tool followed by
java file name.There is no need to compile the javafile.
Here, docDirectory is the name of the directory where you want the HTML files to go.

Follow these steps:

1. Change to the directory that contains the source files you want to document.
2. Run the command
javadoc -d docDirectory nameOfPackage
for a single package. Or run

javadoc -d docDirectory nameOfPackage1 nameOfPackage2...

to document multiple packages.

If your files are in the default package, then instead run

javadoc -d docDirectory *.java
If you omit the -d docDirectory option, then the HTML files are extracted to
the currentdirectory.

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Example:

//Java program to illustrate frequently used

// Comment tags

/**
* <h1>Find average of three numbers!</h1>
* The FindAvg program implements an application that
* simply calculates average of three integers and Prints
* the output on the screen.
*
* @author Pratik Agarwal
* @version 1.0
* @since 2017-02-18
*/
public class FindAvg
{
/**
* This method is used to find average of three integers.
* @param numA This is the first parameter to findAvg method
* @param numB This is the second parameter to findAvg method
* @param numC This is the third parameter to findAvg method
* @return int This returns average of numA, numB and numC.
*/
public int findAvg(int numA, int numB, int numC)
{
return (numA + numB + numC)/3;
}

/**
* This is the main method which makes use of findAvg method.
* @param args Unused.
* @return Nothing.
*/

public static void main(String args[])

{
FindAvg obj = new FindAvg();
int avg = obj.findAvg(10, 20, 30);

System.out.println("Average of 10, 20 and 30 is :" + avg);

}

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OUTPUT:

D:\OOPs\Programs\JavaDoc>javadoc -d FindAvgDocument FindAvg.java

Loading source file FindAvg.java...
Constructing Javadoc information...
Creating destination directory: "FindAvgDocument\"
Standard Doclet version 1.8.0_251

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Building tree for all the packages and classes...

Generating FindAvgDocument\FindAvg.html...
FindAvg.java:32: error: invalid use of @return
* @return Nothing.
^
Generating FindAvgDocument\package-frame.html...
Generating FindAvgDocument\package-summary.html...
Generating FindAvgDocument\package-tree.html...
Generating FindAvgDocument\constant-values.html...
Building index for all the packages and classes...
Generating FindAvgDocument\overview-tree.html...
Generating FindAvgDocument\index-all.html...
Generating FindAvgDocument\deprecated-list.html...
Building index for all classes...
Generating FindAvgDocument\allclasses-frame.html...
Generating FindAvgDocument\allclasses-noframe.html...
Generating FindAvgDocument\index.html...
Generating FindAvgDocument\help-doc.html...
1 error
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 98

: Additional Topics
Comments, Literals, Keywords, Type Conversion, Garbage
Collection, Command Line Arguments

: JAVA – COMMENTS

 Java comments are either explanations of the source code or descriptions of

classes,interfaces, methods, and fields.
 They are usually a couple of lines written above or beside Java code to clarify
what itdoes.
 Comments in Java do not show up in the executable program.
 The Java language supports three kinds of comments:
1. Line comment:
 When you want to make a one line comment type "//" and follow the
two forward slasheswith your comment.
 Syntax: // text
 Example: // this is a single line comment
 The compiler ignores everything from // to the end of the line.
2. Block Comment:
 To start a block comment type "/*". Everything between the forward
slash and asterisk, even if it's on a different line, will be treated as
comment until the characters "*/" end the comment.
 Syntax: /* text */
 Example: /* it is a comment */ (or)
/* thisis a block
comment
*/
 The compiler ignores everything from /* to */.
3. Documentation Comment:
 This type of comment helps is generating the documentation automatically.
 Syntax: /** documentation */
The JDK javadoc tool uses doc comments when preparing
automatically generated documentation. For more information on
javadoc, see the Java tool documentation.
 Example:
/*
* Title: Conversion of Degrees
* Aim: To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit and vice versa
* Date: 31/08/2000
* Author: Tim
*/

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: JAVA - CONSTANTS

 A constant is an identifier written in uppercase (convention and not a rule) that

prevents
its contents form being modified by the program during the execution.
 If an attempt is made to change the value, the compiler will give an error message.
 In Java, the keyword final is used to declare constants.
 The value of a final variable cannot change after it has been initialized.

final datatype variablename=value;

 Syntax:
 Example:final float PI=3.14f;

: JAVA - IDENTIFIERS

 Identifiers are names given to the variables, classes, methods, objects, labels,
package and interface in our program.
 The name we are giving must be meaningful and it may have random length.
 The following rule must be followed while giving a name:
1. The first character must not begin with a number.
2. The identifier is formed with alphabets, number, dollar sign ($) and underscore
(_).
3. It should not be a reserved word.
4. Space is not allowed in between the identifier name.

 Example:
String name = "Homer Jay Simpson";
int weight = 300;
double height = 6;

: JAVA – RESERVED WORDS (KEYWORDS)

 There are some words that you cannot use as object or variable names in a Java
program. These words are known as reserved words; they are keywords that are
already used by the syntax of the Java programming language.
 For example, if you try and create a new class and name it using a reserved word:
// you can't use finally as it's a reserved word!
class finally {
public static void main(String[] args)
{

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0
//class code..
}
}
 It will not compile, instead you will get the following error: <identifier> expected
 The table below lists all the words that are reserved:

abstract assert boolean break byte case

catch char class const* continue default

double do else enum extends false

final finally float for goto* if

implement import instanceo int interfac long

s f e
native new null packag private protecte
e d
public return short static strictfp super

switch synchronized this throw throws transien

t
true try void volatile while

: TYPE CONVERSIONS AND CASTING

Type Conversion is the task of converting one data type into another data type.

Two types of type conversion:

1. Implicit Type Conversion (or) Automatic Conversion
2. Explicit Type Conversion (or) Casitng

1. Implicit Type Conversion (or) Automatic Conversion;

If the two types are compatible, then Java will perform the conversion automatically.
When one type of data is assigned to another type of variable, an Automatic type
conversion (or) WideningConversion will take place if the following two conditions are
met:
 Two types are compatible
 The destination type is larger than the source type
.

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1
Example:
byte a=100;
int b=a; // b is larger than a

long d=b; // d is large than b

float e=b; // e is larger than b

float sum=10;
int s=sum; // s is smaller than sum, So we need to go for explicit conversion.

1. Explicit Type Conversion (or) Casting:

If the two types are compatible, a forced conversion of one type into another type is
performed This forced conversion is called as Explicit Type Conversion. Casting (or)
narrowing conversion is an operation which performs an explicit conversion
between incompatible types.

Example: converting int to byte.

Syntax to perform “Cast”:

(target-type) value;
Here,
Target-type = specifies the desired type to convert the specified value.

Example:
class conversion {
public static void main(String arg[])
{
byte b;
int i=257;
double d=323.142;

System.out.println(“\nConversion of int to byte: “);

b=(byte) i;
System.out.println(“i and b : “+i+” , “+b);

System.out.println(“\nConversion of double to int: “);

i=(int) d;
System.out.println(“d and i : “+d+” , “+i);

System.out.println(“\nConversion of double to byte: “);

b=(byte) d;

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System.out.println(“d and b : “+d+” , “+b);

// Automatic Type promotions in expressions

byte r=40;
byte s=50;
byte t=100;
int p=r * s / t ;
3 // r*s exceeds the range of byte, so automatic type promotion take place.
System.out.println(“Value of P = “+p);
s=s*2; //Error! cannot assign int to a byte.
s=(byte)(s*2); // Possible.
}
}

Output:
Conversion of int to byte:
i and b : 257 , 1
Conversion of int to byte:
d and i : 323.142 , 323
Conversion of int to byte:
d and b : 323.142 , 67
Value of P = 20

Type Promotions rules:

1. All byte, short and char values are promoted to int.
2. If one operand is long, the whole expression is promoted to long.
3. If one operand is float, the whole expression is promoted to float.
4. If any of the operand is double, the result is double.

: GARBAGE COLLECTION
 Since objects are dynamically allocated by using the new operator, you might be
wondering how such objects are destroyed and their memory released for later
reallocation.
 In some languages, such as C++, dynamically allocated objects must be manually
released by use of a delete operator.

 Java takes a different approach;

Automatic Garbage Collection: The technique that accomplishes automatic

deallocation ofmemory occupied by an unused object is called garbage collection.

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It works like this:

 When no references to an object exist, that object is assumed to be no longer
needed, and the memory occupied by the object can be reclaimed. There is no
explicit need to destroy objects as in C++.
 Garbage collection only occurs sporadically (if at all) during the execution of your
program.

 Finalization:
 Sometimes an object will need to perform some action when it is destroyed. For
example, if an object is holding some non-Java resource such as a file handle or
character font, then you might want to make sure these resources are freed before
an object is destroyed.
 To handle such situations, Java provides a mechanism called finalization. By using
finalization, you can define specific actions that will occur when an object is just
about tobe reclaimed by the garbage collector.

 Finalize() method:
A finalize() method is a method that will be called by the garbage collector on an
object when garbage collection determines that there are no more references to the
object.

Inside the finalize( ) method, we will specify those actions that must be performed
before anobject is destroyed.

The finalize( ) method has this general form:

protected void finalize( )
{
// finalization code here
}
Here, the keyword protected is a specifier that prevents access to finalize( ) by code
definedoutside its class.

Example:

public class TestGarbage1

{
public void finalize()
{

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System.out.println("object is garbage collected");
}
public static void main(String args[])
{
TestGarbage1 s1=new TestGarbage1();
TestGarbage1 s2=new TestGarbage1();
s1=null;
s2=null;
System.gc();
}
}

Output:
object is garbage collectedobject is garbage collected

: USING COMMAND LINE ARGUMENTS:

 Sometimes you will want to pass information into a program when you run it.
This isaccomplished by passing command-line arguments to main( ).

 A command-line argument is the information passed to the main() method

that directly follows the program’s name on the command line when it is
executed.

 To access the command-line arguments inside a Java program is quite easy—they are
stored as strings in a String array passed to the args parameter of main( ).
 The first command-line argument is stored at args[0], the second at args[1], and so
on.
 For example, the following program displays all of the command-line arguments that
it iscalled with:
// Display all command-line arguments.

class CommandLine
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
for(int i=0; i<args.length; i++)
System.out.println("args[" + i + "]: " + args[i]);
}
}

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5

Try executing this program, as shown here:

>java CommandLine this is a test 100 -1

When you do, you will see the following output:

args[0]: this
args[1]: is
args[2]: a
args[3]: test
args[4]: 100
args[5]: -1

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 Unit – 2: INHERITANCE, PACKAGES AND INTERFACES

Chapter
Topic Page No.
No.

Overloading Methods 1
2.1
Method Overloading and Type Promotion 4

Objects as Parameters 6
2.2
Returning Objects 7

2.3 Static, Nested and Inner Classes 8

Inheritance 15

Types of Inheritance 17
2.4
2.4.1: Protected Member 22

2.4.2: Constructors in Sub-Classes 24

2.5 super Keyword 26

2.6 Method Overriding 28

2.7 Dynamic Method Dispatch 30

Abstract Classes 33
2.8
Abstract Methods 34
2.9 final with Inheritance 37
Packages 41
2.10.1: Creating User-Defined Packages 42
2.10
2.10.2: Accessing a Package 43
2.10.3: Packages and Member Access 44
2.11 Interfaces 47

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UNIT II INHERITANCE, PACKAGES AND INTERFACES

Overloading Methods – Objects as Parameters – Returning Objects – Static, Nested and

Inner Classes. Inheritance: Basics – Types of Inheritance – super keyword – Method
Overriding – Dynamic Method Dispatch – Abstract Classes – final with Inheritance.
Packages and Interfaces: Packages – Packages and Member Access – Importing Packages
– Interfaces.

2.1: Overloading Methods

Method Overloading is a feature in Java that allows a class to have more than one
methods having same name, but with different signatures (Each method must have
different number of parameters or parameters having different types and orders).

Advantage:
 Method Overloading increases the readability of the program.
 Provides the flexibility to use similar method with different parameters.

Three ways to overload a method

In order to overload a method, the argument lists of the methods must differ in either of
these:

1. Number of parameters. (Different number of parameters in argument list)

For example: This is a valid case of overloading
add(int, int)
add(int, int, int)

2. Data type of parameters. (Difference in data type of parameters)

For example:
add(int, int)
add(int, float)

3. Sequence of Data type of parameters.

For example:
add(int, float)
add(float, int)

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Rules for Method Overloading:

1. First and important rule to overload a method in java is to change method

signature.
2. Return type of method is never part of method signature, so only changing the
return type of method does not amount to method overloading.

Example: To find the Minimum of given numbers:

public class OverloadingCalculation1

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int a = 11;
int b = 6;
int c = 3;
double x = 7.3;
double y = 9.4;

int result1 = minFunction(a, b, c);

double result2 = minFunction(x, y);
double result3 = minFunction(a, x);

System.out.println("Minimum("+a+","+b+","+c+") = " + result1);

System.out.println("Minimum("+x+","+y+") = " + result2);
System.out.println("Minimum("+a+","+x+") = " + result3);
}

public static int minFunction(int n1, int n2, int n3)

{
int min;
int temp = n1<n2? n1 : n2;
min = n3 < temp? n3 : temp;
return min;
}

public static double minFunction(double n1, double n2)

{
double min;

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if (n1 > n2)

min = n2;
else
min = n1;

return min;
}
public static double minFunction(int n1, double n2)
{
double min;
if (n1 > n2)
min = n2;
else
min = n1;

return min;
}
}

This would produce the following result:

Minimum(11,6,3) = 3
Minimum(7.3,9.4) = 7.3
Minimum(11,7.3) = 7.3

Note:-
Method overloading is not possible by changing the return type of the method
because of ambiguity that may arise while calling the method with same
parameter list with different return type.

Example:

class Add
{
static int sum(int a, int b)
{
return a+b;
}
static float sum(int a, int b)

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{
return a+b;
}
public static void main(String arg[])
{
System.out.println(sum(10,20));
System.out.println(sum(15,25));
}
}

Output:
Compile by: javac TestOverloading3.java

Add.java:7: error: method sum(int,int) is already defined in class Add

static float sum(int a, int b)
^
1 error

Method Overloading and Type Promotion

Type Promotion: When a data type of smaller size is promoted to the data type of
bigger size than this is called type promotion, for example: byte data type can be
promoted to short, a short data type can be promoted to int, long, double etc.

Type Promotion in Method Overloading:

One type is promoted to another implicitly if no matching datatype is found.

Type Promotion Table:

The data type on the left side can be promoted to the any of the data type present
in the right side of it.

byte → short → int → long → double

short → int → long → float → double
int → long → float → double
float → double
long → float → double
char → int → long → float → double

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Example: Method Overloading with Type Promotion:

class Overloading
{
void sum(int a, float b)
{
System.out.println(a+b);
}
void sum(int a, int b, int c)
{
System.out.println(a+b+c);
}

public static void main(String args[])

{
OverloadingCalculation1 obj=new OverloadingCalculation1();
obj.sum(20,20); //now second int literal will be promoted to float
obj.sum(100,'A'); //Character literal will be promoted to float
obj.sum(20,20,20);
}
}

OUTPUT:

40.0
165.0
60
 7

2.2: Objects as Parameters

Java is strictly pass-by-value. But the scenario may change when the parameter passed
is of primitive type or reference type.

 If we pass a primitive type to a method, then it is called pass-by-value or call-by-

value.
 If we pass an object to a method, then it is called pass-by-reference or call-by-
reference.

Object as a parameter is a way to establish communication between two or more

objects of the same class or different class as well.

Pass-by-value vs. Pass-by-reference:

Pass-by-value (Value as parameter) Pass-by-reference (Object as parameter)
Only values are passes to the function Reference to the object is passed. So any
parameters. So any modifications done in modifications done through the object will
the formal parameter will not affect the affect the actual object.
value of actual parameter
Caller and Callee method will have two Caller and Callee methods use the same
independent variables with same value. reference for the object.
Callee method will not have any access to Callee method will have the direct
the actual parameter reference to the actual object
Requires more memory Requires less memory

class CallByVal class CallByRef

{ {
void Increment(int count) int count=0;
{ CallByRef(int c)
count=count+10; {
} count=c;
} }
public class CallByValueDemo { static void Increment(CallByRef obj) {
public static void main(String arg[]) obj.count=obj.count+10;
{ }
CallByVal ob1=new CallByVal();
int count=100; public static void main(String arg[]) {
System.out.println("Value of Count before CallByRef ob1=new CallByRef(10);
method call = "+count); System.out.println("Value of Count (Object 1) before
 8

ob1.Increment(count); method call = "+ob1.count);

System.out.println("Value of Count after Increment(ob1);
method call = "+count); System.out.println("Value of Count (Object 1) after
} method call = "+ob1.count);
}
} }
OUTPUT: OUTPUT:
Value of Count (Object 1) before method call = 10
Value of Count before method call = 100 Value of Count (Object 1) after method call = 20
Value of Count after method call = 100

Returning Objects:
In Java, a method can return any type of data. Return type may any primitive data type
or class type (i.e. object). As a method takes objects as parameters, it can also return
objects as return value.

Example:
class Add
{
int num1,num2,sum;

static Add calculateSum(Add a1,Add a2)

{
Add a3=new Add();
a3.num1=a1.num1+a1.num2;
a3.num2=a2.num1+a2.num2;
a3.sum=a3.num1+a3.num2;
return a3;
}

public static void main(String arg[])

{
Add ob1=new Add();
ob1.num1=10;
ob1.num2=15;

Add ob2=new Add();

ob2.num1=100;
ob2.num2=150;

Add ob3=calculateSum(ob1,ob2);
System.out.println("Object 1 -> Sum = "+ob1.sum);

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System.out.println("Object 2 -> Sum = "+ob2.sum);

System.out.println("Object 3 -> Sum = "+ob3.sum);
}
}

OUTPUT:

Object 1 -> Sum = 0

Object 2 -> Sum = 0
Object 3 -> Sum = 275

2.3: STATIC, NESTED and INNER CLASSES

Definition:

An inner class is a class that is defined inside another class.

Inner classes let you make one class a member of another class. Just as
classes have member variables and methods, a class can also have member classes.

Benefits:
1. Name control
2. Access control
3. Code becomes more readable and maintainable because it locally group related
classes in one place.

Syntax: For declaring Inner classes

[modifier] class OuterClassName

{
---- Code -----
[modifier] class InnerClassName
{
---- Code ----
}
}

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 Instantiating an Inner Class:

Two Methods:
1. Instantiating an Inner class from outside the outer class:
To instantiate an instance of an inner class, you must have an instance of the
outer class.
Syntax:
OuterClass.InnerClass objectName=OuterObj.new InnerClass();

2. Instantiating an Inner Class from Within Code in the Outer Class:

From inside the outer class instance code, use the inner class name in the
normal way:
Syntax:
InnerClassName obj=new InnerClassName();

Advantage of java inner classes

There are basically three advantages of inner classes in java. They are as follows:

1) Nested class can access all the members (data members and methods) of
outer class including private.
2) Nested classes are used to develop more readable and maintainable code.
3) Code Optimization: It requires less code to write.

Types of Nested classes

There are two types of nested classes non-static and static nested classes. The non-static
nested classes are also known as inner classes.
o Non-static nested class (inner class)
1. Member inner class
2. Anonymous inner class
3. Local inner class
o Static nested class

Type Description
Member Inner Class A class created within class and outside method.
A class created for implementing interface or
Anonymous Inner Class extending class. Its name is decided by the java
compiler.
Local Inner Class A class created within method.
Static Nested Class A static class created within class.
Nested Interface An interface created within class or interface.

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1. Java Member inner class

A non-static class that is created inside a class but outside a method is called member
inner class.

Syntax:
class Outer
{
//code
class Inner
{
//code
}
}

Java Member inner class example

In this example, we are creating msg() method in member inner class that is accessing
the private data member of outer class.

1. class TestMemberOuter1
2. {
3. private int data=30;
4. class Inner
5. {
6. void msg()
7. {
8. System.out.println("data is "+data);
9. }
10. }
11. public static void main(String args[])
12. {
13. TestMemberOuter1 obj=new TestMemberOuter1();
14. TestMemberOuter1.Inner in=obj.new Inner();
15. in.msg();
16. }
17. }

Output:

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data is 30

2. Java Anonymous inner class

A class that have no name is known as anonymous inner class in java. It should be used
if you have to override method of class or interface. Java Anonymous inner class can be
created by two ways:
1. Class (may be abstract or concrete).
2. Interface

Java anonymous inner class example using class

1. abstract class Person

2. {
3. abstract void eat();
4. }
5. class TestAnonymousInner
6. {
7. public static void main(String args[])
8. {
9. Person p=new Person()
10. {
11. void eat()
12. {
13. System.out.println("nice fruits");
14. }
15. };
16. p.eat();
17. }
18. }

Output:

nice fruits

Java anonymous inner class example using interface

1. interface Eatable
2. {
3. void eat();

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4. }
5. class TestAnnonymousInner1
6. {
7. public static void main(String args[])
8. {
9. Eatable e=new Eatable()
10. {
11. public void eat(){System.out.println("nice fruits");
12. }
13. };
14. e.eat();
15. }
16. }

Output:
nice fruits

3. Java Local inner class

A class i.e. created inside a method is called local inner class in java. If you want to
invoke the methods of local inner class, you must instantiate this class inside the
method.

Java local inner class example

1. public class localInner1

2. {
3. private int data=30;//instance variable
4. void display()
5. {
6. int value=50;
7. class Local
8. {
9. void msg()
10. {
11. System.out.println(data);
12. System.out.println(value);
13. }
14. }

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15. Local l=new Local();

16. l.msg();
17. }
18. public static void main(String args[])
19. {
20. localInner1 obj=new localInner1();
21. obj.display();
22. }
23. }

Output:
30
50

Rules for Java Local Inner class

1. Local inner class cannot be invoked from outside the method.
2. Local inner class cannot access non-final local variable till JDK 1.7. Since JDK 1.8, it
is possible to access the non-final local variable in local inner class.
3. Local variable can't be private, public or protected.

Properties:
1. Completely hidden from the outside world.
2. Cannot access the local variables of the method (in which they are defined), but the
local variables has to be declared final to access.

4. Java static nested class

A static class i.e. created inside a class is called static nested class in java. It cannot
access non-static data members and methods. It can be accessed by outer class name.
o It can access static data members of outer class including private.
o Static nested class cannot access non-static (instance) data member or method.

Java static nested class example with instance method

1. class TestOuter1
2. {
3. static int data=30;
4. static class Inner
5. {
6. void msg()

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7. {
8. System.out.println("data is "+data);
9. }
10. }
11. public static void main(String args[])
12. {
13. TestOuter1.Inner obj=new TestOuter1.Inner();
14. obj.msg();
15. }
16. }

Output:
data is 30

Java static nested class example with static method

If you have the static member inside static nested class, you don't need to create
instance of static nested class.

1. class TestOuter2{
2. static int data=30;
3. static class Inner
4. {
5. static void msg()
6. {
7. System.out.println("data is "+data);
8. }
9. }
10. public static void main(String args[])
11. {
12. TestOuter2.Inner.msg();//no need to create the instance of static nested
class
13. }
14. }

Output:
data is 30

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DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP Department of CSE

2.4: Inheritance

Definition:
Inheritance is a process of deriving a new class from existing class, also called as
“extending a class”. When an existing class is extended, the new (inherited) class
has all the properties and methods of the existing class and also possesses its own
characteristics.

 The class whose property is being inherited by another class is called “base class”
(or) “parent class” (or) “super class”.
 The class that inherits a particular property or a set of properties from the base class
is called “derived class” (or) “child class” (or) “sub class”.

Class A
Base class
Properties and
methods

Extended to
Class B
Derived
Properties and methods
of Class A + B’s own
properties and methods

 Subclasses of a class can define their own unique behaviors and yet share some of
the same functionality of the parent class.

 ADVANTAGES OF INHERITANCE:
 Reusability of Code:
 Inheritance is mainly used for code reusability (Code reusability means
that we can add extra features to an existing class without modifying it).
 Effort and Time Saving:
 The advantage of reusability saves the programmer time and effort. Since
the main code written can be reused in various situations as needed.
 Increased Reliability:
 The program with inheritance becomes more understandable and easily
maintainable as the sub classes are created from the existing reliably
working classes.

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 “extends” KEYWORD:
 Inheriting a class means creating a new class as an extension of another class.
 The extends keyword is used to inherit a class from existing class.
 The general form of a class declaration that inherits a superclass is shown here:
 Syntax:
[access_specifier] class subclass_name extends superclass_name
{
// body of class
}

Characteristics of Class Inheritance:

1. A class cannot be inherited from more than one base class. Java does not
support
the inheritance of multiple super classes into a single subclass.
2. Sub class can access only the non-private members of the super class.
3. Private data members of a super class are local only to that class. Therefore, they
can’t be accessed outside the super class, even sub classes can’t access the
private members.
4. Protected features in Java are visible to all subclasses as well as all other
classes in the same package.
 Example:
class Vehicle
{
String brand;
String color;
}
class Car extends Vehicle
{
int totalDoor;
}

class Bike extends Vehicle

{
}

In the above example, Vehicle is the super class or base class that holds the
common property of Car and Bike. Car and Bike is the sub class or derived class that
inherits the property of class Vehicle extends is the keyword used to inherit a class.

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 TYPES OF INHERITACE:
1. Single Inheritance
2. Multilevel Inheritance
3. Multiple Inheritance
Note: The following inheritance types are not directly supported in Java.
4. Hierarchical Inheritance
5. Hybrid Inheritance
 19

1. SINGLE INHERITANCE

The process of creating only one subclass from only one super class is known as Single
Inheritance.
 Only two classes are involved in this inheritance.
 The subclass can access all the members of super class.

Example: Animal  Dog

1. class Animal
2. {
3. void eat()
4. {
5. System.out.println("eating...");
6. }
7. }
8. class Dog extends Animal
9. {
10. void bark()
11. {
12. System.out.println("barking...");
13. }
14.}
15.class TestInheritance
16.{
17. public static void main(String args[])
18. {
19. Dog d=new Dog();
20. d.bark();
21. d.eat();
22. }
23.}

Output:
$java TestInheritance
barking...
eating...

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2. MULTILEVEL INHERITANCE:

 The process of creating a new sub class from an already inherited sub class is
known as Multilevel Inheritance.
 Multiple classes are involved in inheritance, but one class extends only one.
 The lowermost subclass can make use of all its super classes' members.
 Multilevel inheritance is an indirect way of implementing multiple inheritance.
 Example: Animal  Dog  BabyDog

1. class Animal
2. {
3. void eat()
4. {
5. System.out.println("eating...");
6. }
7. }
8. class Dog extends Animal
9. {
10. void bark()
11. {
12. System.out.println("barking...");
13. }
14. }
15. class BabyDog extends Dog
16. {
17. void weep()
18. {
19. System.out.println("weeping...");
20. }
21. }
22. class TestInheritance2
23. {
24. public static void main(String args[]) {
25. BabyDog d=new BabyDog();
26. d.weep();
27. d.bark();
28. d.eat();
29. }
30. }

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Output:
$java TestInheritance2
weeping...
barking...
eating..

3. HIERARCHICAL INHERITANCE

 The process of creating more than one sub classes from one super class is called
Hierarchical Inheritance.

Animal

Dog Cat

 Example:
1. class Animal
2. {
3. void eat()
4. {
5. System.out.println("eating...");
6. }
7. }
8. class Dog extends Animal
9. {
10. void bark()
11. {
12. System.out.println("barking...");
13. }
14. }
15. class Cat extends Animal
16. {
17. void meow()
18. {
19. System.out.println("meowing...");
20. }

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21. }
22. class TestInheritance3
23. {
24. public static void main(String args[])
25. {
26. Cat c=new Cat();
27. c.meow();
28. c.eat();
29. //c.bark();//C.T.Error
30. }
31. }
Output:

meowing...
eating...

Why multiple inheritance is not supported in java?

To reduce the complexity and simplify the language, multiple inheritances is not
supported in java.
Consider a scenario
cenario where A, B and C are three classes. The C class inherits A and B
classes. If A and B classes have same method and you call it from child class object, there
will be ambiguity to call method of A or B class.
Since compile time errors are better thathann runtime errors, java renders compile time
error if you inherit 2 classes. So whether you have same method or different, there will
be compile time error now.
class A { Multiple Inheritance using Interface
void msg()
{ interface Printable {
System.out.println("Hello"); void print();
} }
}
class B { interface Showable {
void msg() void show();
{ }
System.out.println("Welcome"); class A implements Printable, Showable {
} public void print() {
} System.out.println("Hello");
class C extends A,B // this is multiple inheritance which is ERROR }
{ public void show() {
Public Static void main(String args[]) System.out.println("Welcome");
{ }
C obj=new C(); public static void main(String args[]) {
obj.msg();//Now which msg() method would be i A obj = new A();
nvoked? obj.print();
} obj.show();
} }
}
Output Output:
Compile Time Error Hello
 23

2.4.1: PROTECTED MEMBER

The private members of a class cannot be directly accessed outside the class. Only
methods of that class can access the private members directly. However, sometimes it
may be necessary for a subclass to access a private member of a superclass. If you make
a private member public, then anyone can access that member. So, if a member of a
superclass needs to be (directly) accessed in a subclass then you must declare that
member protected.

Following table describes the difference

Modifier Class Package subclass World

public Yes Yes Yes Yes
private Yes No No No
protected Yes Yes Yes No

Following program illustrates how the methods of a subclass can directly access a
protected member of the superclass.

Consider two kinds of shapes: rectangles and triangles. These two shapes have certain
common properties height and a width (or base).

This could be represented in the world of classes with a class Shapes from which we
would derive the two other ones : Rectangle and Triangle
Program : (Shape.java)

public class Shape

{
protected double height; // To hold height.
protected double width; //To hold width or base

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public void setValues(double height, double width)

{
this.height = height;
this.width = width;
}
}
Program : (Rectangle.java)

public class Rectangle extends Shape

{
public double getArea()
{
return height * width; //accessing protected members
}
}
Program : (Triangle.java)
public class Triangle extends Shape
{
public double getArea()
{
return height * width / 2; //accessing protected members
}
}
Program : (TestProgram.java)

public class TestProgram

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
//Create object of Rectangle.
Rectangle rectangle = new Rectangle();

//Create object of Triangle.

Triangle triangle = new Triangle();

//Set values in rectangle object

rectangle.setValues(5,4);

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//Set values in trianlge object

triangle.setValues(5,10);

// Display the area of rectangle.

System.out.println("Area of rectangle : " +
rectangle.getArea());

// Display the area of triangle.

System.out.println("Area of triangle : " +
triangle.getArea());
}
}

Output :
Area of rectangle : 20.0
Area of triangle : 25.0

2.4.2: CONSTRUCTORS IN SUB – CLASSES

In Java, constructor of base class with no argument gets automatically called in derived
class constructor.

When Constructors are Called?

Constructors are called in order of derivation, from superclass to subclass.
Because a superclass has no knowledge of any subclass, any initialization it needs to
perform is separate from and possibly prerequisite to any initialization performed by
the subclass. Therefore, it must be executed first.

Example:

class A
{
A()
{ System.out.println(“ Inside A’s Constructor”); }
}

class B extends A
{
B()

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{ System.out.println(“ Inside B’s Constructor”); }

}
class C extends B
{
C()
{ System.out.println(“ Inside C’s Constructor”); }
}
class CallingCons
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
C objC=new C();
}
}
Output:

Inside A’s Constructor

Inside B’s Constructor
Inside C’s Constructor
Program Explanation:
In the above program, we have created three classes A, B and C using
multilevel inheritance concept. Here, constructors of the three classes are called in the
order of derivation. Since super() must be the first statement executed in subclass’s
constructor, this order is the same whether or not super() is used. If super() is not
used, then the default or parameterless constructor of each superclass will be executed.
When inheriting from another class, super() has to be called first in the constructor. If
not, the compiler will insert that call. This is why super constructor is also invoked when
a Sub object is created.

After compiler inserts the super constructor, the sub class constructor looks like the
following:
B()
{
super();
System.out.println("Inside B’s Constructor");
}
C()
{
super();

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System.out.println("Inside C’s Constructor");

}

2.5: “super” keyword

 Super is a special keyword that directs the compiler to invoke the superclass
members. It is used to refer to the parent class of the class in which the keyword is
used.
 super keyword is used for the following three purposes:
1. To invoke superclass constructor.
2. To invoke superclass members variables.
3. To invoke superclass methods.

1. Invoking a superclass constructor:

 super as a standalone statement(ie. super()) represents a call to a constructor of

the superclass.
 A subclass can call a constructor method defined by its superclass by use of the
following form of super:
super();
or
super(parameter-list);
 Here, parameter-list specifies any parameters needed by the constructor in the
superclass.
 super( ) must always be the first statement executed inside a subclass
constructor.
 The compiler implicitly calls the base class’s no-parameter constructor or
default constructor.
 If the superclass has parameterized constructor and the subclass constructor
does not call superclass constructor explicitly, then the Java compiler reports an
error.

2. Invoking a superclass members (variables and methods):

(i) Accessing the instance member variables of the superclass:

Syntax:
super.membervariable;

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(ii) Accessing the methos of the superclass:

Syntax:
super.methodName();

This call is particularly necessary while calling a method of the super

class that is overridden in the subclass.
 If a parent class contains a finalize() method, it must be called explicitly by the
derived class’s finalize() method.
super.finalize();

Example:
class A // super class
{
int i;
A(String str) //superclass constructor
{
System.out.println(" Welcome to "+str);
}
void show() //superclass method
{
System.out.println(" Thank You!");
}
}
class B extends A
{
int i; // hides the superclass variable 'i'.
B(int a, int b) // subclass constructor
{
super("Java Programming"); // invoking superclass constructor
super.i=a; //accessing superclass member variable
i=b;
}
// Mehtod overriding
@Override
void show()
{
System.out.println(" i in superclass : "+super.i);
System.out.println(" i in subclass : "+i);
super.show(); // invoking superclass method

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DOWNLOADED FROM STUCOR APP Department of CSE

}
}
public class UseSuper {
public static void main(String[] args) {
B objB=new B(1,2); // subclass object construction
objB.show(); // call to subclass method show()
}
}

Output:
Welcome to Java Programming
i in superclass : 1
i in subclass : 2
Thank You!

Program Explanation:
In the above program, we have created the base class named A that contains a instance
variable ‘i’ and a method show(). Class A contains a parameterized constructor that
receives string as a parameter and prints that string. Class B is a subclass of A which
contains a instance variable ‘i’ ( hides the superclass variable ‘i’) and overrides the
superclass method show(). The subclass defines the constructor with two parameters a
and b. The subclass constructor invokes the superclass constructor super(String) by
passing the string “Java Programming” and assigns the value a to the superclass
variable(super.i=a) and b to the subclass variable. The show() method of subclass
prints the values of ‘i’ form both superclass and subclass & invokes the superclass
method as super.show().
In the main class, object for subclass B is created and the object is used to invoke
show() method of subclass.

2.6: METHOD OVERRIDING

The process of a subclass redefining a method contained in the superclass (with

the same method signature) is called Method Overriding.

 When a method in a subclass has the same name and type signature as a method in
its superclass, then the method in subclass is said to override a method in the
superclass.

Example:

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class Bank
{
int getRateOfInterest()// super class method
{
return 0;
}
}
class Axis extends Bank// subclass of bank
{
int getRateOfInterest()// overriding the superclass method
{
return 6;
}
}
class ICICI extends Bank// subclass of Bank
{
int getRateOfInterest()// overriding the superclass method
{
return 15;
}
}
// Mainclass
class BankTest
{
public static void main(String[] a)
{
Axis a=new Axis();
ICICI i=new ICICI();
// following method call invokes the overridden method of subclass AXIS
System.out.println(“AXIS: Rate of Interest = “+a.getRateOfInterest());

// following method call invokes the overridden method of subclass ICICI

System.out.println(“ICICI: Rate of Interest = “+i.getRateOfInterest());
}
}

Output:

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Z:\> java BankTest

AXIS: Rate of Interest = 6
ICICI: Rate of Interest = 15

 RULES FOR METHOD OVERRIDING:

 The method signature must be same for all overridden methods.

 Instance methods can be overridden only if they are inherited by the subclass.
 A method declared final cannot be overridden.
 A method declared static cannot be overridden but can be re-declared.
 If a method cannot be inherited, then it cannot be overridden.
 Constructors cannot be overridden.

 ADVANTAGE OF JAVA METHOD OVERRIDING

 Method Overriding is used to provide specific implementation of a method that is

already provided by its super class.
 Method Overriding is used for Runtime Polymorphism

2.7: DYNAMIC METHOD DISPATCH

Dynamic method dispatch is the mechanism by which a call to an overridden

method is resolved at run time, rather than compile time. Dynamic method dispatch
is important because this is how Java implements run-time polymorphism.

Example that illustrate dynamic method dispatch:

class A {
void callme() {
System.out.println(“Inside A’s callme method”);
}
}

class B extends A {
//override callme()
void callme() {
System.out.println(“Inside B’s callme method”);
}}

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class C extends A
{
//override callme()
void callme() {
System.out.println(“Inside C’s callme method”);
}
}

class Dispatch
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
A a=new A(); //object of type A
B b=new B(); //object of type B
C c=new C(); //object of type C
A r;// obtain a reference of type A

r = a; // r refers to an A object // dynamic method dispatch

r.callme();// calls A’s version of callme()

r = b;// r refers to an B object

r.callme();// calls B’s version of callme()

r = c;// r refers to an C object

r.callme();// calls C’s version of callme()
}
}

The output from the program is shown here:

Inside A's callme method

Inside B's callme method
Inside C's callme method

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 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN METHOD OVERLOADING AND METHOD OVERRIDING IN

JAVA:

Method Overloading Method Overriding

In Method Overloading,
In Method Overriding, sub
Methods of the same class
class have the same method
shares the same name but each
with same name and exactly
Definition method must have different
the same number and type of
number of parameters or
parameters and same return
parameters having different
type as a super class.
types and order.
Method Overloading means Method Overriding means
more than one method shares method of base class is re-
Meaning
the same name in the class but defined in the derived class
having different signature. having same signature.
Method Overloading is to “add” Method Overriding is to
Behavior or “extend” more to method’s “Change” existing behavior of
behavior. method.

Overloading and Overriding is a kind of polymorphism. Polymorphism means “one

name, many forms”.

It is a compile time It is a run time

Polymorphism
polymorphism. polymorphism.
It may or may not need
It always requires inheritance
Inheritance inheritance in Method
in Method Overriding.
Overloading.
In Method Overloading, In Method Overriding,
Signature methods must have different methods must have same
signature. signature.
In Method Overriding,
In Method Overloading,
Relationship of relationship is there between
relationship is there between
Methods methods of super class and
methods of same class.
sub class.
Method Overloading does not Method Overriding requires
No. of Classes require more than one class for at least two classes for
overloading. overriding.

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Class A // Super Class

{
Class Add void display(int num)
{ {
int sum(int a, int b) print num ;
{ }
return a + b; }
Example } //Class B inherits Class A
int sum(int a) Class B //Sub Class
{ {
return a + 10; void display(int num)
} {
} print num ;
}
}

2.8: ABSTRACT CLASSES

 Abstraction:

Abstraction is a process of hiding the implementation details and showing only

the essential features to the user.

 For example sending sms, you just type the text and send the message. You don't
know the internal processing about the message delivery.
 Abstraction lets you focus on what the object does instead of how it does it.

 Ways to achieve Abstraction

There are two ways to achieve abstraction in java

1. Abstract class (0 to 100%)
2. Interface (100%)

 Abstract Classes:

A class that is declared as abstract is known as abstract class. Abstract classes

cannot be instantiated, but they can be subclassed.

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 Syntax to declare the abstract class:

abstract class <class_name>
{
Member variables;
Concrete methods { }
Abstract methods();
}
 Abstract classes are used to provide common method implementation to all the
subclasses or to provide default implementation.

Properties of abstract class:

 abstract keyword is used to make a class abstract.

 Abstract class can’t be instantiated.
 If a class has abstract methods, then the class also needs to be made abstract
using abstract keyword, else it will not compile.
 Abstract classes can have both concrete methods and abstract methods.
 The subclass of abstract class must implement all the abstract methods unless
the subclass is also an abstract class.
 A constructor of an abstract class can be defined and can be invoked by the
subclasses.
 We can run abstract class like any other class if it has main() method.

Example:
abstract class GraphicObject {
int x, y;
...
void moveTo(int newX, int newY) {
...
}
abstract void draw();
abstract void resize();
}

 Abstract Methods:

A method that is declared as abstract and does not have implementation is

known as abstract method. It acts as placeholder methods that are
implemented in the subclasses.

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 Syntax to declare a abstract method:

abstract class classname
{

abstract return_type <method_name>(parameter_list);//no braces{}

// no implementation required
……..
}
 Abstract methods are used to provide a template for the classes that inherit the
abstract methods.

Properties of abstract methods:

 The abstract keyword is also used to declare a method as abstract.
 An abstract method consists of a method signature, but no method body.
 If a class includes abstract methods, the class itself must be declared abstract.
 Abstract method would have no definition, and its signature is followed by a
semicolon, not curly braces as follows:
public abstract class Employee {
private String name;
private String address;
private int number;
public abstract double computePay();
//Remainder of class definition
}
 Any child class must either override the abstract method or declare itself
abstract.

Write a Java program to create an abstract class named Shape that contains 2
integers and an empty method named PrintArea(). Provide 3 classes named
Rectangle, Triangle and Circle such that each one of the classes extends the
class Shape. Each one of the classes contain only the method PrintArea() that
prints the area of the given shape.

abstract class shape

{
int x, y;
abstract void printArea();
}

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class Rectangle extends shape

{
void printArea()
{
System.out.println("Area of Rectangle is " + x * y);
}
}
class Triangle extends shape
{
void printArea()
{
System.out.println("Area of Triangle is " + (x * y) / 2);
}
}
class Circle extends shape
{
void printArea()
{
System.out.println("Area of Circle is " + (22 * x * x) / 7);
}
}
class abs
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
Rectangle r = new Rectangle();
r.x = 10;
r.y = 20;
r.printArea();

System.out.println(" ------------------------------------------------ ");

Triangle t = new Triangle();

t.x = 30;
t.y = 35;
t.printArea();

System.out.println(" ------------------------------------------------ ");

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Circle c = new Circle();

c.x = 2;
c.printArea();

System.out.println(" ------------------------------------------------ ");

}
}
Output:
D:\>javac abs.java
D:\>java abs
Area of Rectangle is 200
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -
Area of Triangle is 525
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -
Area of Circle is 12
-- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -

2.9: final WITH INHERITANCE

What is final keyword in Java?

Final is a keyword or reserved word in java used for restricting some
functionality. It can be applied to member variables, methods, class and local
variables in Java.
 final keyword has three uses:
1. For declaring variable – to create a named constant. A final variable
cannot be changed once it is initialized.
2. For declaring the methods – to prevent method overriding. A final
method cannot be overridden by subclasses.
3. For declaring the class – to prevent a class from inheritance. A final
class cannot be inherited.

1. Final Variable:
Any variable either member variable or local variable (declared inside method or
block) modified by final keyword is called final variable.

 The final variables are equivalent to const qualifier in C++ and #define directive
in C.
 Syntax:

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 final data_type variable_name = value;

 Example:
final int MAXMARKS=100;
final int PI=3.14;

 The final variable can be assigned only once.

 The value of the final variable will not be changed during the execution of the
program. If an attempt is made to alter the final variable value, the java compiler will
throw an error message.

There is a final variable speedlimit, we are going to change the value of this
variable, but It can't be changed because final variable once assigned a value can never
be changed.
1. class Bike
2. {
3. final int speedlimit=90;//final variable
4. void run( )
5. {
6. speedlimit=400;
. }
8. public static void main(String args[])
9. {
10. Bike obj=new Bike();
11. obj.run();
12. }
13.}
Output: Compile Time Error
NOTE: Final variables are by default read-only.

2. Final Methods:
 Final keyword in java can also be applied to methods.
 A java method with final keyword is called final method and it cannot be
overridden in sub-class.
 If a method is defined with final keyword, it cannot be overridden in the
subclass and its behaviour should remain constant in sub-classes.
 Syntax:
final return_type function_name(parameter_list)
{
// method body
}

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 Example of final method in Java:

1. class Bike
2. {
3. final void run()
4. {
5. System.out.println("running");
6. }
7. }
8. class Honda extends Bike
9. {
10. void run()
11. {
12. System.out.println("running safely with 100kmph");
13. }
14. public static void main(String args[])
15. {
16. Honda honda= new Honda();
17. honda.run();
18. }
19.}

Output:

D:\>javac Honda.java
Honda.java:9: error: run() in Honda cannot override run() in Bike
void run()
^
overridden method is final
1 error

3. Final Classes:
 Java class with final modifier is called final class in Java and they cannot
be sub-classed or inherited.
 Syntax:
final class class_name
{
// body of the class
}

 Several classes in Java are final e.g. String, Integer and other wrapper classes.

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 Example of final class in java:

1. final class Bike
2. {
3. }
4. class Honda1 extends Bike
5. {
6. void run()
7. {
8. System.out.println("running safely with 100kmph");
9. }
10. public static void main(String args[])
11. {
12. Honda1 honda= new Honda1();
13. honda.run();
14. }
15. }
Output:

D:\>javac Honda.java
Honda.java:4: error: cannot inherit from final Bike class Honda extends Bike
^
1 error

Points to Remember:

1) A constructor cannot be declared as final.

2) Local final variable must be initializing during declaration.
3) All variables declared in an interface are by default final.
4) We cannot change the value of a final variable.
5) A final method cannot be overridden.
6) A final class cannot be inherited.
7) If method parameters are declared final then the value of these parameters
cannot be changed.
8) It is a good practice to name final variable in all CAPS.
9) final, finally and finalize are three different terms. finally is used in exception
handling and
10)finalize is a method that is called by JVM during garbage collection.

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2.10: PACKAGES
Definition:

A Package can be defined as a collection of classes, interfaces, enumerations and

annotations, providing access protection and name space management.

 Package can be categorized in two form:

1. Built-in package
2. user-defined package.

Table: List of Built-in Packages

Advantage of Package:

 Package is used to categorize the classes and interfaces so that they can be easily
maintained.
 Package provides access protection.
 Package removes naming collision.
 To bundle classes and interface
 The classes of one package are isolated from the classes of another package
 Provides reusability of code
 We can create our own package or extend already available package
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: CREATING USER DEFINED PACKAGES:

Java package created by user to categorize their project's classes and interface
are known as user-defined packages.

 When creating a package, you should choose a name for the package.
 Put a package statement with that name at the top of every source file that
contains the classes and interfaces.
 The package statement should be the first line in the source file.
 There can be only one package statement in each source file

 Syntax:
package package_name.[sub_package_name];
public class classname
{ ……..
……..
}

 Steps involved in creating user-defined package:

1. Create a directory which has the same name as the package.
2. Include package statement along with the package name as the first
statement in the program.
3. Write class declarations.
4. Save the file in this directory as “name of class.java”.
5. Compile this file using java compiler.

 Example:
package pack;
public class class1 {
public static void greet()
{ System.out.println(“Hello”); }
}

To create the above package,

1. Create a directory called pack.
2. Open a new file and enter the code given above.
3. Save the file as class1.java in the directory.
4. A package called pack has now been created which contains one class class1.

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: ACCESSING A PACKAGE (using “import” keyword):

 The import keyword is used to make the classes and interface of another package
accessible to the current package.

Syntax:

import package1[.package2][.package3].classname or *;

There are three ways to access the package from outside the package.

1. import package.*;
2. import package.classname;
3. fully qualified name.

 Using packagename.*
 If you use package.* then all the classes and interfaces of this package will be
accessible but not subpackages.

 Using packagename.classname
 If you import package.classname then only declared class of this package will be
accessible.

 Using fully qualified name

 If you use fully qualified name then only declared class of this package will be
accessible. Now there is no need to import. But you need to use fully qualified
name every time when you are accessing the class or interface.
Example :

greeting.java (create a folder named “pack” in F:\ and save )

package pack;
public class greeting{
public static void greet()
{ System.out.println(“Hello! Good Morning!”); }
}

FactorialClass.java (create a folder named “Factorial” inside F:\pack and save)

package Factorial;
public class FactorialClass
{

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public int fact(int a)

{
if(a==1)
return 1;
else
return a*fact(a-1);
}
}

ImportClass.java (save the file in F:\ )

import java.lang.*; // using import package.*

import pack.Factorial.FactorialClass; // using import package.subpackage.class;
import java.util.Scanner;
public class ImportClass
{
public static void main(String[] arg)
{
int n;
Scanner in=new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter a Number: ");
n=in.nextInt();
pack.greeting p1=new pack.greeting(); // using fully qualified name
p1.greet();
FactorialClass fobj=new FactorialClass();
System.out.println("Factorial of "+n+" = "+fobj.fact(n));
System.out.println("Power("+n+",2) = "+Math.pow(n,2));
}
}

Output:

F:\>java ImportClass
Enter a Number:
5
Hello! Good Morning!
Factorial of 5 = 120
Power(5,2) = 25.0

: PACKAGES AND MEMBER ACCESS:

Access level modifiers determine whether other classes can use a particular field or
invoke a particular method.

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There are two levels of access control:

 At the top level— public, or package-private (no explicit modifier).
 At the member level—public, private, protected, or package-private (no
explicit modifier).

Top Level access control:

 A class may be declared with the modifier public, in which case that class is visible
to all classes everywhere.
 If a class has no modifier (the default, also known as package-private), it is visible
only within its own package.

Member Level access control:

 public – if a member is declared with public, it is visible and accessible to all
classes everywhere.
 private - The private modifier specifies that the member can only be accessed in
its own class.
 protected - The protected modifier specifies that the member can only be
accessed within its own package and, in addition, by a subclass of its class in
another package.

The following table shows the access to members permitted by each modifier.
Access Levels
Modifier Class Package Subclass World
public Y Y Y Y
protected Y Y Y N
no modifier Y Y N N
private Y N N N

The following figure shows the four classes in this example and how they are related.

Figure: Classes and Packages of the Example Used to Illustrate Access Levels
 47

The following table shows where the members of the Alpha class are visible for each of
the access modifiers that can be applied to them.

Visibility
Modifier Alpha Beta Alphasub Gamma
public Y Y Y Y
protected Y Y Y N
no modifier Y Y N N
private Y N N N

Example:

Z:\MyPack\FirstClass.java

package MyPack;

public class FirstClass

{
public String i="I am public variable";
protected String j="I am protected variable";
private String k="I am private variable";
String r="I dont have any modifier";
}

Z:\MyPack2\SecondClass.java

package MyPack2;
import MyPack.FirstClass;
class SecondClass extends FirstClass {
void method()
{
System.out.println(i); // No Error: Will print "I am public variable".
System.out.println(j); // No Error: Will print “I am protected variable”.
System.out.println(k); // Error: k has private access in FirstClass
System.out.println(r); // Error: r is not public in FirstClass; cannot be accessed
// from outside package
}

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public static void main(String arg[])

{
SecondClass obj=new SecondClass();
obj.method();
}
}

Output:

I am public variable
I am protected variable

Exception in thread "main" java.lang.RuntimeException: Uncompilable source code - k

has private access in MyPack.FirstClass

Visibility of the variables i,j,k and r in MyPack2

Accessibility i j k r
Class Y Y Y Y
Package Y Y N N
Subclass Y Y N N
world Y N N N
Table: Accessibility of variables of MyyPack/FirstClass in MyPack2/SecondClass

2.11: INTERFACES

“interface” is a keyword which is used to achieve full abstraction. Using

interface, we can specify what the class must do but not how it does.
Interfaces are syntactically similar to classes but they lack instance variable and
their methods are declared without body.

Definition:
An interface is a collection of method definitions (without implementations)
and constant values. It is a blueprint of a class. It has static constants and abstract
methods.

 Why use Interface?

There are mainly three reasons to use interface. They are given below.
 It is used to achieve fully abstraction.

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 By interface, we can support the functionality of multiple inheritance.

 It can be used to achieve loose coupling.
 Writing flexible and maintainable code.
 Declaring methods that one or more classes are expected to implement.

 An interface is similar to a class in the following ways:

 An interface can contain any number of methods.
 An interface is written in a file with a .java extension, with the name of the
interface matching the name of the file.
 The bytecode of an interface appears in a .class file.
 Interfaces appear in packages, and their corresponding bytecode file must be in a
directory structure that matches the package name.

 Defining Interfaces:
An interface is defined much like a class. The keyword “interface” is used to
define an interface.

Syntax to define interface:

[access_specifier] interface InterfaceName

{
Datatype VariableName1=value;
Datatype VariableName2=value;
.
.
Datatype VariableNameN=value;
returnType methodName1(parameter_list);
returnType methodName2(parameter_list);
.
.
returnType methodNameN(parameter_list);
}

Where,
Access_specifer : either public or none.
Name: name of an interface can be any valid java identifier.
Variables: They are implicitly public, final and static, meaning that they cannot be
changed by the implementing class. They must be initialized with a constant
value.

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Methods: They are implicitly public and abstract, meaning that they must be declared
without body and defined only by the implementing class.

Note: The java compiler adds public

and abstract keywords before the
interface method and public, static
and final keywords before data
members.

 In other words, Interface fields

are public, static and final by
default, and methods are
public and abstract.

 Understanding relationship between classes and interfaces

As shown in the figure given below, a class extends another class, an interface extends
another interface but a class implements an interface.

 Implementing Interfaces (“implements” keyword):

 Once an interface has been defined, one or more classes can implement that
interface.
 A class uses the implements keyword to implement an interface.
 The implements keyword appears in the class declaration following the extends
portion of the declaration.

 Syntax:
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[access_specifier] class class_name [extends superclassName] implements

interface_name1, interface_name2…
{
//implementation code and code for the method of the interface
}

Rules:
1. If a class implements an interface, then it must provide implementation for all the
methods defined within that interface.
2. A class can implement more than one interfaces by separating the interface
names with comma(,).
3. A class can extend only one class, but implement many interfaces.
4. An interface can extend another interface, similarly to the way that a class can
extend another class.
5. If a class does not perform all the behaviors of the interface, the class must
declare itself as abstract.
 Example:
/* File name : Super.java */
interface Super
{
final int x=10;
void print();
}
/* File name : Sub.java */
class Sub implements Super
{
int y=20;
x=100 //ERROR; cannot change modify the value of final variable

// defining the method of interface

public void print()
{
System.out.println(“X = “+x);
System.out.println(“Y = “+y);
}
}
class sample
{
public static void main(String arg[])

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{
Sub SubObj=new Sub();
SubObj.print();
Super SupObj=new Sub(); // interface variable referring to class object
SupObj.print();
}
}
Output:
$java sample
X = 10
Y = 20
X = 10
Y = 20

 The rules for interfaces:

Member variables:
 Can be only public and are by default.
 By default are static and always static
 By default are final and always final

Methods:
 Can be only public and are by default.
 Cannot be static
 Cannot be Final

 When overriding methods defined in interfaces there are several rules to be

followed:
 The signature of the interface method and the same return type or subtype should
be maintained when overriding the methods.
 An implementation class itself can be abstract and if so interface methods need
not be implemented.

 Properties of Interfaces:
1. Interfaces are not classes. So the user can never use the new operator to
instantiate an interface.
Example: interface super {}
X=new Super() // ERROR

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2. The interface variables can be declared, even though the interface objects
can’t be constructed.
Super x; // OK
3. An interface variable must refer to an object of a class that implements the
interface.
4. The instanceOf() method can be used to check if an object implements an
interface.
5. A class can extend only one class, but implement many interfaces.
6. An interface can extend another interface, similarly to the way that a class
can extend another class.
7. All the methods in the interface are public and abstract.
8. All the variable in the interface are public, static and final.

 Extending Interfaces:
 An interface can extend another interface, similarly to the way that a class can
extend another class.
 The extends keyword is used to extend an interface, and the child interface
inherits the methods of the parent interface.
 Syntax:
[accessspecifier] interface InterfaceName extends interface1, interface2,…..
{
Code for interface
}

Rule: When a class implements an interface that inherits another interface it must
provide implementation for all the methods defined within the interface inheritance
chain.

Example:

interface A
{
void method1();
}
/* One interface can extend another interface. B now has two abstract methods */
interface B extends A
{
void method2();
}

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// This class must implement all the methods of A and B

class MyClass implements B

{
public void method1() // overriding the method of interface A
{
System.out.println(“—Method from interface: A—“);
}
public void method2() // overriding the method of interface B
{
System.out.println(“—Method from interface: B—“);
}
public void method3() // instance method of class MyClass
{
System.out.println(“—Method of the class : MyClass—“);
}
public static void main(String[] arg)
{
MyClass obj=new MyClass();
Obj.method1();
Obj.method2();
Obj.method3();
}
}

Output:
F:\> java MyClass
--Method from Interface: A—
--Method from Interface: B—
--Method of the class: MyClass--

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Difference between Class and Interface:

Class Interface
The class is denoted by a keyword class The interface is denoted by a keyword
interface
The class contains data members and The interfaces may contain data members
methods. but the methods are defined in and methods but the methods are not
the class implementation. thus class defined. the interface serves as an outline
contains an executable code for the class
By creating an instance of a class the class you cannot create an instance of an
members can be accessed interface
The class can use various access specifiers The interface makes use of only public
like public, private or protected access specifier
The members of a class can be constant or The members of interfaces are always
final declared as final

 Difference between Abstract class and interface

Abstract Class Interface

Multiple inheritance is not possible; the Multiple inheritance is possible; The class
class can inherit only one abstract class can implement more than one interfaces
Members of abstract class can have any Members of interface are public by
access modifier such as public, private default
and protected
The methods in abstract class may be The methods in interfaces are abstract by
abstract method or concrete method default
The method in abstract class may or may The methods in interface have no
not have implementation implementation at all. Only declaration
of the method is given
Java abstract class is extended using the Java interface can be implemented by
keyword extends using the keyword implements
The member variables of abstract class The member variables of interface are
can be non-final final by default
Abstract classes can have constructors Interfaces do not have any constructor
Only abstract methods need to be All the method of an interface must be
overridden. overridden.
Non-abstract methods can be static. Methods cannot be static.
Example: Example:
public abstract class Shape public interface Drawable
{ {
public abstract void draw(); void draw();
} }

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Example for Interface :

1. interface Bank
2. {
3. float rateOfInterest();
4. }
5. class SBI implements Bank
6. {
7. public float rateOfInterest()
8. {
9. return 9.15f;
10. }
11. }
12. class PNB implements Bank
13. {
14. public float rateOfInterest()
15. {
16. return 9.7f;
17. }
18. }
19. class TestInterface2
20. {
21. public static void main(String[] args)
22. {
23. Bank b=new SBI();
24. System.out.println("ROI: "+b.rateOfInterest());
25. }
26. }
Output:
ROI: 9.15

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