Basic Radio Theory

What is Radio Navigation?

Navigating or piloting the aircraft
using only the instruments and the
navigational systems installed such
as VHF Omni directional Range
(VOR) and Automatic Direction
Finder (ADF)
 Waves

AWave is a progressive disturbance in a medium

Wave motion transfers energy from one point to another

It moves outward, possesses energy, energy is lost due to

friction and It has constant speed.

Sound Waves, Radio Wave …

 Radio Waves
Radio waves travel in straight lines
in space

Radio waves travel with the speed

of light (186,000 miles per
second)

Because of their electrical and

magnetic nature, they are termed
as electro-magnetic waves.

Static distorts the radio wave and

interferes with the normal
reception of com and nav signals.
 Basic Radio Principles

• A radio wave is an electromagnetic (EM) wave

with frequency characteristics that make it
useful.

“An antenna is used to convert electric current into a radio wave so it

can travel through space to the receiving antenna, which converts it
back into an electric current for use by a receiver”
 Radio Waves
Crest- The point on a wave
with the maximum
value or highest point

Trough- The opposite of a

crest, so the
minimum or lowest
point.

Wavelength- It is the
distance between
two crest.
 Radio Waves
Cycle - It is the complete event starting with a
rise from zero energy to a maximum amplitude, its
return to zero and vice versa

Frequency- is the number of cycles in a given

period of time (1 sec)
 Radio Waves
Kilohertz (KHz) 10ᵌ
Megahertz (MHz) 10⁶
Gigahertz (GHz) 10⁹
Radio Waves
 Factors Affecting Radio Waves
1) Diffraction
2) Reflection
3) Refraction
4) Attenuation
 Factors Affecting Radio
Waves
Diffraction: The bending of a radio wave
when it grazes the edge of a solid,
impassable object.

Reflection: The change in direction of

travel of a radio wave that occurs when
contact is made with the surface separating
two different media.

Refraction: It is the bending of the wave

through different mediums also affecting the
speed of propagation
Attenuation: The loss of wave energy
as a radio wave travels through a
medium. Caused by the solid objects
located on the earth’s surface, as well as
molecules in the air such as water and
dust.
 Frequency Bank Limits
Designation Frequency Range Common Application
Very Low (VLF) 0-30 Khz LORAN
Low (LF) 30-300 Khz NDB (200-415, 510-535Khz)
Mid (MF) 300-3,000 Khz NDB, Radio Stations 550Khz
– 1750 Khz
High (HF) 3,000-30,000 Khz SELCAL
Very High (VHF) 30-300 Mhz VHF NAV/COM, VOR
Ultra High (UHF) 300-3,000 Mhz TACAN,DME, LOC/GS
Super High (SHF) 3,000-30,000 Mhz
Extremely High (EHF) 30,000-300,000 Mhz
WAVE PROPAGATION
There different methods of wave propagation:

OMNI Directional :
- The wave propagation is spherical and travel outwards in all
directions from the radio transmitter.

Directional:
-The wave propagates outward in one direction only.

Pulse/Echo:
-The wave is transmitted by a transmitter and bounces back to a
receiver after hitting an object. This is the same principle used on
radar and sonar.
Types Of Radio Waves

• Ground Waves
• Sky Waves
• Space Waves
 TYPES OF WAVES

Ground Waves

➢ follows the contours of the

Earth
➢ Ground Hugging

Ground Waves Frequency:

100 hz – 1,000 khz (1 Mhz)
 TYPES OF WAVES

Sky Waves

are refracted by the Ionosphere

and returned to earth. Sky
waves are high frequency

Sky Waves Frequency :

1 – 30 Mhz
 TYPES OF WAVES

Space Waves:

“LINE OF SIGHT.”
- It can penetrate through ionosphere.
- Reflect off hard objects.
- 15 MHz and above
Very High Frequency Omni-Directional Range
(VOR)

Melvin Huelgas
OMNI Aviation
VHF Omni-directional Range Navigation System (VOR)

• This is the most widely used means of radio navigation.

• operates at a frequency between 108 to 117.95 Mhz.
• ACCURATE – with +/- 1° error
• Automatically compensate for wind drift
 Principle of Operations

• VOR station transmit radio

beams, called radial,
outward in every direction,
based on Magnetic North
How VOR station works?
The VOR ground station transmits two VHF radio signals:
1. the reference phase signal, which is omni-directional (the
same in all directions); and
2. the variable phase signal, which rotates uniformly at a
rate of 1,800 rpm, with its phase varying at a constant
rate throughout the 360°.
 Classes of VOR
1. Terminal VOR (TVOR)
- is usable out to 25 NM (aircraft at 1,000 to 12,000 feet AGL)
2. Low Altitude VOR (LVOR)
- is usable out to 40 NM (aircraft at 1,000 to 18,000 feet AGL)
3. High Altitude VOR (HVOR)
is usable out to:
– 40 NM (aircraft at 1,000 to 14,500 feet AGL);
– 100 NM (aircraft at 14,500 to 60,000 feet); and
– 130 NM (aircraft at 18,000 to 45,000 feet).
VOR station are depicted in maps as compass rose
Classes of VOR facilities

1. Terminal VOR (TVOR) 3. High Altitude VOR (HVOR)

2. Low Altitude VOR (LVOR)

Terminal VOR Low Altitude VOR
High Altitude VOR
VOR Airborne Equipment
• VOR Antenna
• VHF-NAV Receiver
• VOR Indicator
VOR Indicator
VOR Orientation

• Determining your position with respect to VOR Navaids

• Identifying your radial or Line of Position

Note :

When determining your position from a VOR using a

CDI, remember that your heading does NOT matter
• RECIPROCAL COURSE INDEX points
your radial TO the VOR station

• The DONUT represents the AIRCRAFT

• The CDI Needle represents the RADIAL
Desired Radial: R240

Deviation of Aircraft: Left by 6

Current Radial: R246

Desired Radial: R061
Deviation of Aircraft: Right by 9
Current Radial: R052
 Going away FROM the station

• Procedure in identifying your position

1. Twist OBS until ‘FR’ appears

2. Continue twisting OBS until CDI centers
3. Once CDI is center, your RADIAL or LINE OF POSITION
reads under Course Index
 Going TO the station

• Procedure in identifying your position

1. Twist OBS until ‘TO’ appears

2. Continue twisting OBS until CDI centers
3. Once CDI is center, your RADIAL or LINE OF POSITION
reads under Reciprocal Course Index
• Rule of the thumb in finding your LOP

“ FROM – TOP,
TO – BOTTOM”
Things to remember before using VOR
• T - Tune
• I - Identify
• T - Test
IDENTIFY- identify morse code

CAB:112.7 CIA:113.1 SBA: 113.5

_._. _._. ...
._ .. _...
_... ._ ._
 Testing the VOR

ACCURACY - twist to known radial needle should be within the

allowable error.

SENSITIVITY - twist OBS 5 or 10 degrees left and right

needle deflects left and right

AMBIGUITY - OFF flag appears 90 degrees from the selected

radial
 Testing the VOR
A – Accuracy
• VOR ground checkpoints – pre-determined area in the airport
with a known radial. +/- 4ᵒ allowable error

• VOR airborne checkpoints – a known landmark associated with

a published radial. +/- 6ᵒ allowable error

• VOT – VOR Testing facility that broadcasts signal for radial 360
regardless of position
VOR Orientation
• Another Way to check your exact position is through cross
checking with a second VOR
 VOR Limitations
Zone of Ambiguity "A" and "B"
Cone of Confusion signal
received

Only "A" Only "B"

signal signal
received received
Neither
"A" or "B"
received

VOR VOR
station "A" station "B"

• Cone of confusion
• Zone of Ambiguity
• Reverse Sensing
• Line of Sight
Line of Sight
 Reverse Sensing

Correct Sensing Reverse Sensing

HOW TO AVOID REVERSE SENSING

Avoiding reverse sensing is easy. All you have

to do is make sure your heading is on the
upper half of the VOR.
 VOR sensitivity

• When tuned to a VOR 2

• each dot is about 2 degrees
• Thus below radial shows that you are on radial ? .3 nm

10 nm

.7 nm

20 nm

1 nm

30 nm
• VOR Degrees and Distance off course

Degrees

2 4 6 8 10
10 nm .3 .7 1 1.4 1.7
20 nm .7 1.4 2.1 2.8 3.5
30 nm 1 2.1 3.1 4.2 5.2
 1 2 3

4 5 6
 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

• Slant range distance

~ 6000 AGL

~ 6000 AGL
10 DME
1.0 DME

10 nm
DME
 HOMING

1. Twist OBS until you see a with ‘TO’ (▲) indication

2. Turn the plane to match your heading with the value above
the course index

3. Repeat step 1 and 2 as needed if the needle is not centered

DETERMINING LINE OF POSITION (L.O.P.)

1. Twist OBS until CDI needle centers.

2. If CDI needle centers with ‘TO’ (▲) indication, read the

value on the Reciprocal Course Index.

3. If CDI needle centers with a ‘FROM’ (▼) indication, read

the value on the Course Index.
Automatic Direction Finder
 Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

• Oldest navigational system in use

• Use either ground waves and sky waves
• Capable of receiving radio signals from ground facilities called Non-
directional Beacon (NDB)
• Capable also to receive Commercial Broadcasting Station which operates
from 415-1750 KHz
Non-directional Beacon (NDB)
• Ground-based radio transmitter that transmits radio energy in
all directions.

• Operates at a frequency between 190-415 LF and 510-535 Khz

MF.

• Transmit two either two letter or alpha numeric combination

of Morse code as identification.
Airborne Equipment
• ADF Antenna
- Directional antenna and sense Antenna

• ADF Receiver
• ADF Indicator
 NDB/ADF
❖Magnetic Heading (MH)
• Direction your nose is pointed.

❖ Relative Bearing (RB)

• Degrees from the nose of the
aircraft to the transmitter (clock-
wise).
❖ Magnetic Bearing (MBTO / MBFR)
• Direction flown to/from the
station in still air.
 How to Find your LOP
• First find your MB (TO) the station by using the formula,

MH + RB = MB(TO)

• MB(TO) +/- 180 = L.O.P = MB(FR)

To plot an Aircraft,

✓ Keep in mind: MH and LOP.

ADF INDICATOR
• Fixed Card ADF
• Movable Card ADF
ADF INDICATOR

• Fixed Card

The needle always points

the Relative bearing (RB)

• Movable - Card Indicator

The needle always points

the Magnetic Bearing To
the station ( MBTO)
Heading Indicator
MAGNETIC HEADING:
+ [ RELATIVE BEARING:

MAGNETIC BEARING TO:

MAGNETIC BEARING FROM:

Fixed Card ADF
LINE OF POSITION:
 Homing
Fly the aircraft on any heading to keep the needle
pointed to straight ahead RB - 0̊

Creates a curved path due to wind

 Limitations
• Twilight Error
- NDB signals can be refracted by the ionosphere leading to ADF
needle fluctuations.
- Most pronounced during the period just before and just after
sunrise or sunset.
- To minimize the effect, you can…
► average the fluctuations
► fly at a higher altitude
► select a station transmitting on frequencies lower than 350
kHz

• Terrain Error
High terrain like mountains and cliffs can diffract radio waves,
giving erroneous readings; magnetic deposits can also cause
erroneous readings
 Limitations
• Electrical Error
Thunderstorms, and sometimes also electrical
interference can cause the ADF needle to deflect towards
the electrical source
• Shoreline Error
Low-frequency radio waves will refract or bend near a
shoreline, especially if they are close or parallel to it

• Thunderstorm Effect
Lightning can create signal disturbances causing the
needle to momentarily swing in the direction of the
storm instead of the NDB station
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