Society, Biology & Human Affairs 2009; 74(2)

Original article

Increasing Portion Size in Britain

Christina Benson
Department of Anthropology, Durham University, UK
[email protected]

____________________________________________________________________________

Abstract
British obesity levels have risen significantly in the past two decades, with over half
of all British adults now overweight or obese (NEPHO 2005). Much research has
been undertaken in the United States into the effect of historical changes in food
portion sizes upon obesity levels, with positive correlations being found in the
majority of research (Young & Nestle 1998 & 2002, Rolls et al 2002). Despite the
recent interest in food portion sizes and obesity, little research has been conducted
within Britain to date. This explorative study aimed to address the gap in the
literature by ascertaining the extent to which food portions sizes have changed in
Britain over the past century and to examine the causes of any such changes. Several
qualitative and quantitative research methods were employed to conduct this
research which consisted of national food survey analyses, manufacturer data
analyses, recipe analyses, food portion size exercises, questionnaires, a focus group
and the creation of two threads on website forums. The research showed that
portion sizes have changed dramatically in Britain, with the most significant
increases occurring within the past twenty years. The qualitative research highlighted
that not only are increasing portion sizes affecting caloric intake, but the increasing
prevalence of snacking is also an issue. There is no one explanation for these
changes in dietary habits however, it appears that the main causes of the increase in
British portion sizes are a combination of intensive farming methods, the effects of
globalisation, in particular Britain’s intensive exposure to American culture, and the
notion of ‘waste not want not’ which appears embedded in the publics
consciousness. Levels of lay comprehension of increasing portion sizes are
questionable, and it appears that even those people who are aware of the negative
impact that larger than standard portions can have, still struggle to refrain from
over-eating. The lack of public advice on appropriate portion sizes for different
individuals only adds to the confusion among the public as to appropriate amounts
to consume and begs us to consider future public information into food portion
sizes.
 Society, Biology & Human Affairs 2009; 74(2)

Introduction determinants all contribute to an

obesogenic environment (Ulijaszek &
The ever increasing rates of obesity in the Lofink 2006), and are the pivotal themes
UK raise salient questions as to the within the discourse of obesity
impact of the British eating environment prevention.
upon the future of the nation’s health. Although it was evolutionarily
Many argue that obesity in Britain is now advantageous for Homo sapiens to have a
reaching epidemic levels and, with 30,000 thrifty genotype/phenotype, in order to
deaths per annum being obesity-related in protect against times of scarcity, in the
England alone (Davey 2004: 360), it is context of today’s society, where the food
now imperative that this issue is supply is secure, the trait has become
addressed. Despite the human and maladaptive (Ulijaszek and Lofink 2006).
monetary costs of obesity within the UK This adaptive human trait has now
it has been found that, regardless of become disadvantageous within modern
governmental interventions and national industrialised societies, where individuals
targets set in the 1980s, overweight and consume more and expend less than ever
obesity levels have continued to surge. before. This imbalance of energy intake
The Historic Health of Nation Targets and energy expenditure results in high
(NEPHO 2005) hoped to reduce obesity levels of insulin resistance, hypertension,
in men from 7% in 1987 to 6% by 2005, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and
and to reduce obesity in women from many other related non-communicable
12% in 1987 to 8% by 2005. Despite diseases characteristic of Western
these aspirations, obesity rates have now populations (Scrimshaw & Dietz in
trebled, meaning that over half of all Garine & Pollock 1995: p148-156).
British adults are now overweight or Zimmet (2000) argues that the rise in
obese (NEPHO 2005). disposable income affects obesity levels
So, how has the UK come to have greatly, as the associated lifestyle changes
such a high prevalence of overweight and directly correlate with vast increases in
obesity? What causal factors have so obesity-related diseases and excess weight
dramatically affected caloric intake among has been shown to be the cause of more
the public? Much work has been illnesses than any other medical condition
conducted globally into the causes of (Levy 2000). Zimmet (2000) highlights
obesity, with the relatively recent the case of many South Asian countries,
transitions toward processed foods, which are now suffering from chronic
influential commercial marketing, disease epidemics that have occurred
sedentary lifestyles, a growing literal and concurrently with a modernisation in
conceptual distance between food and lifestyle, a process labelled by Arthur
consumer, and growing patterns of over- Koestler as ‘Coca-colonisation’ (Zimmet
consumption, all being cited as 2000). As a result of new found wealth,
explanations (Barnes 2005). These many South Asians are now consuming
significantly greater quantities of meat
 Society, Biology & Human Affairs 2009; 74(2)

than ever before, which appears to be Nestle and Young (1998) and
having a marked effect upon the health of Wansink et al (2005) showed that most
the population (Irwin 2000). Similar individuals cannot accurately estimate
changes in diet are notable within portion sizes and are thus unable to
Western society also, as meat calculate caloric intake, a phenomenon
consumption has also risen dramatically, which has become known as “portion
with the end of rationing in the UK distortion” (Schwartz & Byrd-Bredbenner
heralding a new era of frequent meat 2006). It is argued that “portion-
consumption, synonymous with financial distortion” has occurred as a result of
stability. frequent exposure to large portion sizes in
Nestle and Young (2002) were restaurants and ready meals and these
some of the first researchers to investigate extreme portions have now become the
the effect of portion size upon obesity. norm. It has also been consistently
Their research into changes in portion demonstrated that as portion size
size in the USA has shown that, not only increases so does consumption, with
are market place food portion sizes supersize portions directly increasing the
increasing, but they are often exceeding amount of food consumed in one sitting
the recommended portion size, (Rolls et al 2002, 2004; Wansink et al
sometimes by 480% in the case of pasta 2005).
dishes. Increases in food portion sizes Much research has been conducted
inevitably affect caloric intake and if this into the demography of individuals more
excess energy is not expended then likely to consume larger portions. Rolls et
weight gain is unavoidable. One of the al (2002) and Wansink and Ittersum
areas which has shown the most notable (2007) looked at the responses of
changes in food portion size is the fast individuals to discreet changes in food
food industry (Nielsen & Popkin 2003), portions, and an abundance of food and
which offers super size and value portions although there were significant data to
of their meals (Spurlock 2005, Nestle illustrate that consumption increased
2003). It has been shown that as a result simultaneously with food portion size,
of these ‘value adding’ practices it is often there was no evidence that any of the
cheaper to consume these value meals types of individuals highlighted in the
than it is to purchase a standard sized hypotheses were either more or less likely
meal (Nielsen and Popkin 2003). These to consume more food. That anyone is
trends are particularly prominent in the susceptible to “portion distortion” has
United States where food is increasingly however recently been challenged by
consumed away from the home, with Burger et al (2007) who found that an
over a third of families eating one fifth of individual’s BMI accounted for 28-51%
their meals in the car, as a result of the of the variance in choice of food portion
‘time famine’ with which dual income size.
families are faced (Turner et al 2008). Despite the wealth of research
available for changes in portion size in the
 Society, Biology & Human Affairs 2009; 74(2)

United States, very little has been treat. In a publication on food control
conducted elsewhere, except for the work during the preceding war years the
of Rozin et al (2003). They found that Ministry of Food stated;
despite the French gastronomic traditions ‘Since 1940 Britain has suffered a
of rich food, there was a significantly shortage of nearly all the more appetising
lower prevalence of obesity in France and popular staple foods. Meat, fish,
than in the United States, a phenomenon butter, eggs and sugar have been
referred to as the ‘French Paradox’. They scarce……People have been compelled to
found that much less food is consumed in satisfy their physical needs by filling up
one sitting and snacking is much less with larger quantities of the bulky and
commonplace than in America, and argue less attractive vegetable and cereal
that it is the different attitudes towards foodstuffs still obtainable.’
the ecology of eating which most (Ministry of Food 1946)
significantly affect obesity levels.
As the research here looks at Changes in British agricultural policies
changes in food portion sizes in Britain since 1950, similar to those in the USA,
over the past century it is important to have resulted in intensive farming
put the British eating environment into methods which provide an abundance of
context before exploring the work that cheap foods. The Common Agricultural
has been conducted. The main factors Policy was created after the establishment
which have affected British consumption of the Common Market and was intended
habits are, arguably, the impact of the to create a single agricultural policy which
Second World War and rationing and the would be used by a collective of different
introduction of intensive farming European countries and would enable
methods. countries to increase production and
At the outbreak of the Second export which had dropped so dramatically
World War (1940) rationing was swiftly during the war years (Fennell 1997). The
introduced as a result of Britain’s heavy deficit which was left by the war was
reliance on imported foodstuffs and the quickly filled however, and a drive
need to direct resources toward the War towards intensive farming has resulted in
effort. The rationing scheme categorized a profusion of foods which has never
foodstuffs intro three groups; rationed been experienced before.
foods (meat, bacon, ham, fats, cheese, Research conducted by Davey
sugar and sugar products), quasi-rationed (2004) into obesity in Britain found that
foods (milk and eggs) and un-rationed British manufacturing, marketing and
foods (local, seasonal fruit and vegetables) consumption habits have evolved in a
(Zweiniger-Bargielowska 2000). As a similar vein to those in the USA. The
result of rationing, people subsisted on research also showed that, in today’s
staples of potatoes, bread and vegetables, Britain, portion sizes have increased, with
with more luxurious items such as meat the introduction of ‘Super Size’ chocolate
and sugar products being viewed as a rare bars and ‘Big Eat’ packets of crisps
 Society, Biology & Human Affairs 2009; 74(2)

encouraging over-consumption among The focus of this research is

the population (Dave 2004). Davey thus therefore to address the gap in the
asserts that the British environment is literature in relation to changes in portion
‘toxic’ in promoting over-consumption in sizes in the UK by assessing these
the same fashion as argued by Rozin et al changes from an historical perspective
(2003) in relation to America. and also to explore public attitudes
Wrieden et al (2008) conducted the toward changes in portion size.
only comprehensive analysis to date of
changes in food portion sizes in Britain Materials and Methods
over the past twenty years. They found
that portion size trends were not as As this explorative research focused on
extreme as in the United States but, the historical changes in food portion sizes
introduction of ‘giant’ and ‘king size’ the primary sources employed were
chocolate bars, crisps and confectionery archival and government records.
has affected average portion sizes being However, a number of data collection
consumed by the British public. methods and sources were used in order
Despite the lack of research into to allow the data to be triangulated. Seven
food portion size changes in Britain, methods of data collection were used in
interest in the field is slowly increasing, total: national food survey analyses,
with the retail sector beginning to address manufacturer data analyses, recipe
the issue of large portion sizes in the analyses, food portion size exercises,
British market place. The Institute of questionnaires, a focus group and the
Grocery Distribution (IGD) recently creation of two threads on website
launched a working group in response to forums.
concerns relating to over-consumption
and increases in manufacturer portion National Food Survey Analyses
sizes (IGD 2008). Interest in food portion A total of 6 national food surveys were
sizes has now also reached the British selected to track changes in national
Food Standards Agency (FSA 2008) consumption habits, focusing on meat,
which recently held a workshop on the cereals/grains, potatoes, cheese, fish,
subject in order to analyse the current fruit, vegetables, fats and sugars (Figure
evidence in relation to portion size and 1). These foods were selected because
obesity. They noted that while it was they were recorded in all of the surveys
evident that there was a definite increase and comprise the main components of
in portion sizes over the past fifteen diets with which to highlight any changes
years, particularly in the confectionary in national consumption levels.
and crisp sectors, there was a vast
shortage of current and historical research Manufacturer Data Analyses
into changes in British portion sizes (FSA Surveys conducted by the Ministry of
2008). Agriculture Fisheries and Food (MAFF)
in 1988 and 1993 were used in
 Society, Biology & Human Affairs 2009; 74(2)

conjunction with data obtained from because of their popularity and

McDonalds to assess historic changes in accessibility, as these recipes would have
portion sizes of typical market place been popular amongst different socio-
products, including confectionery, drinks, economic backgrounds.
crisps, biscuits, chips and pre-prepared
meals (Figure 2). However, since the last Food Portion Size Exercise
MAFF survey was conducted over ten To address whether or not there were any
years ago, the data cannot be deemed characteristics which made one individual
representative of portion sizes in today’s more likely to over-consume than
current market place and is only viable as another, 29 participants were asked to
historical analysis. select from a set of eight standardised
images (Nelson et al 1997) the portion
Recipe Analyses size which they felt best represented the
Four recipe books and leaflets from the amount of that food they would typically
Second World War to the present day consume. Fourteen different foods were
were analysed; ‘How Britain was fed in selected overall; corn flakes, soup, pate,
the War Time’ (a collection of Ministry of pasta, roast beef, roast chicken, stew, new
Food leaflets), the 1966 edition of Good potatoes, chips, broccoli, green beans,
Housekeeping, the 1995 edition of Good fruit salad, fruit crumble and ice cream.
Food’. The recipes which were looked at These images were chosen because of
included lamb hot-pot, fish stew, their perceived popularity and represent a
macaroni cheese, burgers, spaghetti in a range of both everyday and more
Housekeeping and ‘Jamie’s Ministry of luxurious foodstuffs. The sample for this
tomato sauce and summer pudding. Both exercise consisted of 15 males and 14
the books and the recipes were selected females, ranging from 16 years old

Figure 1: National Food Surveys used in this research.

Title Period Producing

Covered Body
The Urban Working Class Diet: 1940-1949 1909-1949 Ministry of Food
Household Consumption of Selected Foods from 1942 1942-1996 DEFRA
Onwards
Household Food Consumption and Expenditure 1984-1986 MAFF
The Dietary and Nutritional Survey of British Adults 1987 MAFF
The National Dietary and Nutrition Survey: adults aged 19 to 2000-2001 FSA
64 years
The Low income Diet and Nutrition Survey 2003-2005 FSA
 Society, Biology & Human Affairs 2009; 74(2)

Figure 2: Changes in Commercial Food Products between 1988 and 1993

Food 1988 1993 Difference % Increase

1 slice fresh white bread 23g 25g 2g 8%
1 thin slice corned beef 30g 38g 8g 26%
Bolognese Sauce 220g 240g 20g 9%
Dried Raisins 10g 30g 20g 200%
French fries 100g 110g 10g 10%
Fish pie 227g 250g 23g 10%
Individual mince pie 48g 55g 7g 14%
Medium portion of boiled rice 150g 180g 30g 20%
medium slice of quiche 120g 140g 20g 16%
Plain Croissant 50g 60g 10g 20%
Ravioli canned average portion 200g 220g 20g 10%
Ribena (individual carton) 250g 263g 13g 5%
Ribena (King Sized Carton) 394g 58%
Blue Ribband 22g 29g 7g 31%
Hob Nob Bar 15g 27g 12g 80%
Ready Brek 150g 180g 30g 20%
Cadbury Buttons (bag) 33g 33g
Cadbury Buttons (Large size) 51g 18g 54%
Nestle Fruit Gums 33g 40g 7g 21%
Nestle Golden Cup Bar 38g 37g
Nestle Golden Cup Bar (Large Size) 60g 22g 57%
4 finger Kit Kat 43g 49g 6g 13%
McDonald's Bacon & Egg McMuffin 140g 146g 6g 4%
McDonald's Quarter Pounder with Cheese 186g 195g 9g 4%
McDonald's Reg Fries 93g 110g 17g 13%
McDonald's Large Fries 124g 155g 31g 25%

these changes and also dietary habits. The

to over 76 years old. Participants were population for the questionnaires
recruited from three different social consisted of 24 participants from the
groups representative of different three social groups used for the food
generations: a youth club, a church group portion size exercise. Altogether 14 males
and a day centre for the retired and and 10 females participated in this part of
elderly. the research. The survey, which was self-
administered, comprised a combination
Questionnaires of open-ended questions, closed
Surveys were conducted in order to questions and Likert scale questions in
investigate public perceptions of changes order to obtain both statistical and
in food portion size, attitudes toward descriptive data.
 Society, Biology & Human Affairs 2009; 74(2)

Focus Group newspaper in the North East of England),

A focus group was conducted with in order to gauge the opinions of people
women from a local Women’s Institute within the local area. Three replies were
(WI) in Saltburn, Cleveland. Fifteen received from each posting.
participants, aged between 58 and 75,
took part in the focus group and the Results
discussion was recorded and analysed.
After the focus group the researcher was Overall Changes in Portion Size
approached by a participant who wished Analysis of national food surveys has
to discuss in further detail her opinions shown that the most prolific increases in
about changes in food portion sizes and food portion size in Britain appear to
so an informal email interview was then have occurred over roughly the past
conducted with this participant over a twenty years (Figure 3) and the impact of
sustained period of time. rationing is clearly demonstrated, with
protein, carbohydrates, fats and sugars all
Website Forum Threads having reduced in consumption between
Threads were also started on two internet the 1920s and 1950s, whilst consumption
web forums asking people likely to have of un-rationed foods (fruit and
an interest and knowledge of changes in vegetables) rose dramatically.
British food habits for their opinions of Reponses from the questionnaires
changes in food portion sizes. The (n = 24) showed that 62% of participants
threads were placed on the Jamie Oliver felt that food portion sizes had increased
website as well as the Evening Gazette over their lifetime and 46% of
website (a regional and popular participants felt

Figure 3: Changes in mean portion size consumed per person, per week, for four major food
groups

Protein
80.0
Protein
Carbohydrate
Fruit & Veg
Fats & Sugars

60.0
Mean Weight in Oz

40.0

20.0

0.0
1911 1935 1948 1960 1972 1984 1996 2007
1926 1942 1954 1966 1978 1990 2002

Year
 Society, Biology & Human Affairs 2009; 74(2)

stable up until the past decade, when

that the availability of larger portion sizes consumption levels appear to have
was a negative thing. When attitudes rocketed. The amount of meat and fish
towards larger portion sizes were assessed consumed per person per week in Britain
in relation to gender it was found that is rising exponentially and is consistently
60% of women felt that large portion exceeding recommended daily allowances
sizes were negative, while only 29% of (as Britain has no recommendations for
men held the same view. This difference daily allowances of different foods, the
was statistically significant (p = 0.029, χ2 US Food Pyramid has had to be adopted).
= 7.073(a)). Many of the participants felt The recommended allowance of protein
that large portion sizes encourage over- (which includes meat, fish, beans, peas,
consumption as they produce a distorted eggs and nuts) is 10-15oz (283-425g) a
image of what is normal and if larger day for women and 14-21oz (397-595g) a
sized options were not as abundant in the day for men (Shaw et al). The average
market place people would not have the consumption levels of meat and fish per
opportunity to over-indulge. person, per week (Figure 3), as of 2007,
total 146oz (4139g) giving an average
Changes in Portion Sizes of Protein consumption of 21oz (593g) per day,
As can be seen from Figure 4, apart from already pushing the upper boundaries of
declines in protein consumption during males’ recommended daily allowances,
the period of meat rationing (1940 – without taking into account consumption
1954), amounts of protein eaten per of beans, peas, eggs and nuts.
person per week have remained relatively

Figure 4: Changes in quantities of proteins consumed per person, per week in Britain
Food
100.0
Meat
Cheese
Fish

80.0
Mean Weight in Oz

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0
1911 1935 1948 1960 1972 1984 1996 2007
1926 1942 1954 1966 1978 1990 2002

Year
 Society, Biology & Human Affairs 2009; 74(2)

Analysis of market place foods also The most significant findings in

shows a significant increase in portion relation to changes in protein portion size
sizes of proteins, with the average portion were those obtained from the qualitative
size of corned beef having increased by analysis: 36% of participants stated that
26%, the average minced beef pie by they consumed meat as part of their main
14%, the average fish pie by 10% and the meal of the day seven times per week, and
average chicken kiev by 6% between 1988 25% of participants independently said
and 1993. It can be predicted that there that they felt portion sizes of protein had
will have been further increases in portion increased over their lifetime. The majority
sizes of protein over the past 13 years, as of participants argued that larger sizes of
we can see from figure 3 that it was protein were consumed because these
during the mid 90’s when consumption products had become less expensive and
levels began to rise most dramatically. the increased availability encouraged them
Recipe analysis also highlighted an to purchase and consume more.
increase in protein portion sizes, with the Participants in the focus group stated that
typical fish stew requiring 35% more fish after experiencing the harsh diet during
in 1995 than during the war years, burgers rationing, once the price of meat and fish
requiring 40% more meat in 2008 than fell, everybody felt as though they
during the war years and a lamb hot pot deserved to consume greater quantities of
requiring 70% more meat in 1995 than these products in response to their
during the war years. imposed dietary restrictions.

Figure 5: Changes in quantities of carbohydrates consumer per person, per week in Britain
Food
100.0
Cereals/Grains
Potatoes

80.0
Mean Weight in Oz

60.0

40.0

20.0

0.0
1911 1935 1948 1960 1972 1984 1996 2007
1926 1942 1954 1966 1978 1990 2002

Year
 Society, Biology & Human Affairs 2009; 74(2)

Changes in Portion Sizes of Carbohydrate

Increases in carbohydrate consumption have also occurred. As is illustrated in
Figure 5, consumption levels of cereal and grain peaked during rationing,
began slowly to drop in the resulting years and have swiftly risen again within
the last twenty years. Throughout the past century, levels of potato
consumption have steadily declined, probably as a result of increased
popularity of other carbohydrate staples, such as pasta and rice, but there has
also been a sharp increase in consumption levels over the past twenty years.
However, this does appear to have been curtailed within the past eight years.
As of 2007, weekly consumption levels of grains and cereals totaled
100oz (2835g), giving an average daily consumption level of 14oz (405g) of
grains and cereals per person, per day, which exceeds the recommended daily
allowance of 6-11oz (170-312g) per person per day.
Analyses of market place products also highlight the increases in
carbohydrate portion size. The average slice of white bread increased by 8%
between 1988 and 1993, the average portion of french fries by 10% and the
average portion of boiled rice by 20%. In 2009, McDonalds offered fries in
either 80g, 114g or 160g options, with the largest portion providing almost all
of the recommended daily allowance for carbohydrates. Similar trends were
noted in domestic recipes, where the amount of pasta in a dish of macaroni
cheese was 350% larger in the 2008 recipe than in the 1966 and the
recommended portion size of spaghetti rose by 90% - from 2oz (57g) per
person in 1966 to 3.8oz (108g) per person in 2008. Survey participants and
focus group participants felt that portion sizes of carbohydrates had increased
over their lifetime.

Self Selected Portion Sizes

Males consistently chose significantly larger portion sizes of carbohydrate
(unpaired t-test, t = 2.511, p = 0.018) and protein (t = 2.582, p = 0.016) than
women. When asked how likely they would be to buy a ‘super-size’ portion at
a fast food outlet, 80% of women said that they never would, while 29% of
men stated that they always would choose a super-size portion. A chi-squared
test showed that the relationship between gender and the likelihood of
purchasing and consuming a super-size meal was significant (χ2= 9.538, p =
0.049).
There was little difference between self selected portion size and age
across most food groups; however, older participants did tend to select larger
portions of fruit and vegetables than younger ones.

Snacking
Snacking arose as a topic without prompting during the focus group and
among those participating in the website forum threads. Many participants
said that snacking has become commonplace, and that this was the main cause
of rising obesity levels.
 Society, Biology & Human Affairs 2009; 74(2)

Along with the notion of too much snacking, the typical types of
snacks consumed were criticized by the female participants as being unhealthy
and inappropriate to eat between meals. Findings from both the focus group
participants and results of the survey showed great correlations in the types of
foods typical consumed as a snack, with crisps, chocolate bars and biscuits all
proving to be the most popular types of snack, while nuts, yoghurts, cereal
bars were the least popular. It is frequently the most popular types of snacks
which are sold in larger portion sizes, with chocolate bars, biscuits and crisps
all frequently come with a ‘big eat’, ‘king size’ or ‘super size’ option.
Some quantitative data was gathered later on in the research process, in
light of the regularity with which the issue of snacking arose, but the sample
size was not large enough with which to conduct a statistical analysis. What
the preliminary data showed was that males tended to consume more snacks
per day than females and that younger people consumed more snacks than
middle aged and elderly people on average.

Discussion
From the results presented in the preceding section, it is evident that there has
been a definite increase in food portion sizes over the past century, with the
largest increases having occurred during the past twenty years. These findings
support the initial hypothesis that British food portion sizes have increased
throughout the past century, but it was expected that these changes would be
steady increases and the significance of the last twenty years was not
predicted. This trend is likely to be a result of changes to British Agricultural
Policy, with the introduction of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP
introduced in the 1950s) becoming evident in national consumption levels.
The CAP encouraged intensive farming methods which allowed food to be
produced more cost effectively for the consumer (Fennel 1997). These
changes in farming policy, along with subsidies, have resulted in an abundance
of cheap, readily available food (Davey 2004). This was also noted by
participants, with particular reference to the relatively recent affordability of
meat and the temptation to consume more than ever before. The effect of
rationing upon British food portion sizes appears to have altered the way in
which food portion sizes are regarded today. The slogan ‘waste not, want not’,
introduced during the period of rationing in Britain appears to have become
firmly embedded in a portion of the public’s consciousness, as many
participants stated that they felt guilty if they left food on their plates, as they
had been encouraged from an early age never to leave anything. This
sentiment was predominantly expressed by older participants, but also to a
lesser extent by subsequent generations. One explanation for the continual
existence of this attitude amongst subsequent generations is that this notion
has been passed down in families and has become instilled in the minds of
individuals who are now food secure, despite being detrimental to their health.
 Society, Biology & Human Affairs 2009; 74(2)

The ways in which these notions have disseminated through generations

would be an interesting area of research, especially in relation to individuals of
different Socio-Economic Statuses, as it may be the case that the notion of
‘waste not, want not’ has been retained amongst the working classes in order
to ensure that their children did not waste food, which for them may not have
been as disposable.
One other reason cited for the pattern of increased portion sizes is that
of exposure to America and increased globalisation, or more specifically
‘grobalisation’. Ritzer & Ryan (2004) define ‘grobalisation’ as the ways in
which dominant powers, be it countries, companies or organisations, impose
their presence upon other nations with the intention of increasing their power,
influence and profits. Americanisation and grobalisation go hand in hand in
this context, as American commodities, such as coca-cola, McDonald’s,
Starbucks, Hollywood movies, Sit-Coms, American Basketball etc, have all
been willingly adopted by the British public and are now integrated into
British culture. The increases in means of consumption have resulted in a
myriad of consumer options and the drive to consume, which were mainly
founded in the US (Ritzer & Ryan 2004). The amalgamation of the consumer
culture of the US, with British culture has changed the ways in which we eat
with the role of the fast-food outlet, and it’s myriad of portion size choices,
becoming ever more salient. British attitudes towards the ecology of eating
arguably mirror that of Americans, with the family often fragmented at meal
time, and solitary eating and ‘eating on the hoof’ becoming relatively
commonplace.
It was hypothesized that the majority of participants would view large portion
sizes negatively. This is supported here: 46% of participants viewed large
portion sizes as negative while 33% viewed them as positive. It was also
hypothesized that women would be significantly more likely than men to view
large food portion sizes as negative: 60% of women felt that large food portion
sizes were negative, compared to only 28.6% of men. These gender differences
are undoubtedly significant and have an implication for nutrition counseling
when dealing with over-consumption. While these differences are influenced by
the fact that men have larger appetites than women it is also probable that
these differences are a result of gender-ascribed notions of gluttony and self-
control as it is far more culturally acceptable for a man to consume large
quantities of food than a woman.
Increases in protein consumption levels appear to be some of the
greatest for all food groups as hypothesized, and the changes in meat
consumption have been central to this research. Meat and fish consumption
levels have risen most dramatically, and the recent relative affordability of
these products also appears to be the main driving force. The survey showed
that 38% of participants consumed meat 7 days a week and many participants
felt that they did so because of low prices. As meat has historically been an
expensive product in Britain, it inevitably is adopted as a status symbol, as
 Society, Biology & Human Affairs 2009; 74(2)

previously only the wealthy could consume vast quantities, and so meat and
fish begin to carry notions of grandeur, success and status. Zweiniger-
Bargielowska (2000) argues that during the period of rationing the shortage of
meat particularly impacted the working-class as meat was not only a status
symbol and but also a marker of male privilege. When meat availability
increased it was the natural response of individuals to then consume
significantly more meat products, as this represented both a freedom from the
restraints of rationing and a show of status not only within the household, but
also within the immediate community. The effect of meat and fish prices
plummeting in today’s market encourages over-consumption among all
members of the public, with an unconscious drive to aspire to eat meat and
fish daily and in quantities previously inconceivable to many families. The
investigation into self-selected portion sizes of meat shows that the average
daily consumption of meat is large and, thus, it must be inferred that portion
sizes of meat are getting larger. This point is supported by the research into
changes in market place products whereby individual portions of both meat
and fish dishes increased between the years of 1988 and 1993 and, therefore,
the probability of further increases since this period are high.
Levels of cereal and grain consumption have increased at a much faster
rate than other food groups. However, despite an initial surge in potato
consumption during the 1990s, rates are once again beginning to decline in
line with the overall trend throughout the century. Increased grain and cereal
consumption can be attributed to the CAP, with intensive crop farming
methods making these foods much more affordable, but it is also likely to be
due to changes in food habits. Within the past thirty years, British consumers
have begun to diversify in the types of foods they eat, with the introduction of
more international cuisines heralding a new culinary era in Britain and
increased travel and immigration have raised interest and consumption of
‘ethnic’ and ‘foreign’ foods such as rice, pasta, polenta, couscous and different
types of breads. These changes in culinary habits not only affect consumption
levels of cereal and grain products, but can also explain decreases in potato
consumption, as other carbohydrate options are being selected as substitutes.
This is supported by the qualitative research, with many participants saying
that they felt they had become more adventurous in the types of foods they
consumed and cooked, and that their eating habits now adopted a ‘more
international outlook’.
This research also attempted to ascertain whether or not there were
particular characteristics which would deem an individual more or less likely
to consume large portion sizes similar to work done in America on this
subject (Rolls et al 2002; Wansink & Ittersum 2007; Burger et al 2007). In
concurrence with the US findings, the results showed that neither gender nor
age had a direct effect upon consumption of large portion sizes overall.
However, when analyzing self-selected portion size in relation to particular
food groups, there were some significant differences whereby women chose
 Society, Biology & Human Affairs 2009; 74(2)

significantly smaller portions of protein and carbohydrates than men. One

would expect this perhaps as a result of the gender differences in caloric
requirements and also the higher prevalence of women on diets.
One unexpected theme that emerged from this research was the effect
of snacking on obesity, and the public concern about this habit. Snacking has
become much more commonplace within the past twenty years with many
people citing this as a cause of rising obesity levels. Snacking does have an
impact on caloric intake which is exacerbated by the fact that the most
popular ‘snack foods’ (chocolate, crisps, biscuits etc) are very fattening and
include products in an array of different sizes, right up to ‘king size’. It has
already been demonstrated that our appetite control mechanisms appear to be
over-ridden when faced with large portions of food (Rolls et al 2002, 2004)
and so the introduction of over-sized portions by the snack industry is
aggravating obesity by encouraging over-consumption and promoting larger
portions as a viable alternative to standard sizes.

Conclusion
This research has demonstrated that, within Britain, portion sizes have
increased, particularly within the last twenty years, and that the population is
aware of these changes. However, the majority struggle to resist over-
consumption. The main driving forces in increasing portion sizes appear to be
the effect of intensive farming, the impact of globalisation and
Americanisation and also the impact of rationing during the Second World
War, with it’s accompanying slogans such as ‘waste not, want not’.
Unfortunately, with the lack of research currently being conducted within
Britain as to the effect of increased portion sizes, the impact of snacking upon
obesity levels, along with the slow progress in the standardisation or control
of increasing portion sizes, it may be a while before any actual changes are
seen within this sector. This explorative study has highlighted the changes in
portion sizes which are occurring in Britain and prompts further in-depth
research to be conducted into the effect of portion size upon obesity levels in
Britain, as well as looking at British attitudes towards snacking and the meal as
a formal occasion. It can be concluded that, should portion sizes remain over-
sized or more worryingly increase, the impact of governmental legislation and
advertisement in the future to prevent these trends may have much less
impact, as the phenomenon of ‘portion distortion’ may be too embedded to
change.

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank my supervisor, Gillian Bentley, for all her support and
guidance throughout the research process, along with all those who kindly
participated in this study.
 Society, Biology & Human Affairs 2009; 74(2)

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