EXPERIMENT NO.

AIM:- To implement Data Control Language (DCL)

DCL/TCL stands for Data Control Language/Transaction Control Languages. These
commands are used for maintaining consistency of the database and for the
management of transactions made by the DML commands.

A Transaction is a set of SQL statements that are executed on the data stored in
DBMS. Whenever any transaction is made these transactions are temporarily happen
in database. So, to make the changes permanent, we use DCL commands.

The DCL commands are:

 COMMIT
 ROLLBACK
 SAVEPOINT

COMMIT:

This command is used to save the data permanently.

Whenever we perform any of the DDL command like -INSERT, DELETE or
UPDATE, these can be rollback if the data is not stored permanently. So in order to
be at the safer side COMMIT command is used.

Syntax: commit;

2. ROLLBACK:
This command is used to get the data or restore the data to the last save-point or last
committed state. If due to some reasons the data inserted, deleted or updated is not
correct, you can rollback the data to a particular save-point or if save-point is not done,
then to the last committed state.

Syntax: rollback;
3. SAVEPOINT:
This command is used to save the data at a particular point temporarily, so that
whenever needed can be rollback to that particular point.

Syntax: Savepoint A;
 EXPERIMENT NO. 9

AIM:- To implement Data Integrity Constraints in SQL

 Primary key
 Foreign Key
 Check
 Unique
 Null
 Not null
 Default
Also Enable Constraints, Disable Constraints, Drop Constraints

SQL constraints are used to specify rules for the data in a table.

Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the
accuracy and reliability of the data in the table. If there is any violation between the
constraint and the data action, the action is aborted.
Constraints can be column level or table level. Column level constraints apply to a
column, and table level constraints apply to the whole table.
The following constraints are commonly used in SQL:

NOT NULL - Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value

UNIQUE - Ensures that all values in a column are different

PRIMARY KEY - A combination of a NOT NULL and UNIQUE. Uniquely

identifies each row in a table

FOREIGN KEY - Prevents actions that would destroy links between tables

CHECK - Ensures that the values in a column satisfies a specific condition

DEFAULT - Sets a default value for a column if no value is specified

CREATE INDEX - Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly

NULL CONSTRAINT is By default in the SQL

NOT NULL:
UNIQUE:

PRIMARY KEY:

FOREIGN KEY:

CHECK:

DEFAULT:

Enabling and disabling of constraints

Enabling and disabling constraints can be accomplished by using Drop constraint

command
Disable constraint command

Constraints specified in the enable and disable clauses of a CREATE TABLE

statement must be defined in the statement.
Enabling and disabling Oracle constraints can also be done with the ENABLE and
DISABLE keywords of the CONSTRAINT clause.
If we define a constraint but do not explicitly enable or disable it,SQL enables it by
default.

Any SQL INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE command applied to a table with

constraints enabled has the possibility of failing.

For example,

Updates applied to a Parent Table may fail if the statement leaves orphaned rows in a
child table,

INSERT command against a Child Table may fail if a matching foreign key value
does not exist in the parent table.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10

AIM:- To implement different types of Views in SQL.

 View
 Joint view
 Force View
 View with check option

SYSTEM DEFINED VIEWS

The System Defined Views are predefined views that already exist in the SQL Server
database, such as Tempdb, Master, and temp. Each of the databases has its own
properties and functions.
The template database for all User Defined views is from the Master database. It
contains many predefined views that are templates for tables and other databases. It
contains nearly 230 of the predefined views.
System Defined Views will be automatically attached to all User Defined databases.
And these provide information about the database, tables, and all the properties of the
database and tables. There are three types of System defined views, Information
Schema, Catalog View, and Dynamic Management View.

Information Schema
There are twenty different schema views in the SQL server. They are used to display
the physical information of the database, such as tables, constraints, columns, and
views. This view starts with INFORMATION_SCHEMA and followed by the View
Name.
INFORMATION_SCHEMA.CHECK_CONSTRAINTS is used to receive
information about any constraint available in the database.
A constraint is used on a particular column in a table to ensure that certain data rules
are followed for the column. INFORMATION_SCHEMA.COLUMNS is used to
receive information about the table columns such as table name, column name, the
position of the column, default value, etc. To return the views present in the current
database, INFORMATION_SCHEMA.VIEWS is used.

Catalog View
These are used to return information used by the SQL server. Catalog views provide
an efficient way to obtain, present, and transform custom forms of information. But
they do not include any information about backup, replication, or maintenance plans,
etc. These views are used to access metadata of databases, and the names and column
names are descriptive, helping a user to query what is expected.

Dynamic Management View

These were introduced in the SQL server in 2005. The administer can get information
about the server state to diagnose problems, monitor the health of the server instance,
and tune performance through these views. The Server-scoped Dynamic Management
View is only stored in the Master database, whereas the Database-scoped Dynamic
Management View is stored in each database.
User Defined Views
These are the types of views that are defined by the users. There are two types under
User Defined views, Simple View and Complex View.

Simple View

These views can only contain a single base table or can be created only from one table.
Group functions such as MAX(), COUNT(), etc., cannot be used here, and it does not
contain groups of data.
By using Simple View, DML operations can be performed. Insert, delete, and update
are directly possible, but Simple View does not contain group by, pseudocolumn like
rownum distinct, columns defined by expressions. Simple view also does not include
NOT NULL columns from the base tables.

Complex View

These views can contain more than one base table or can be constructed on more than
one base table, and they contain a group by clause, join conditions, an order by clause.
Group functions can be used here, and it contains groups of data. Complex views
cannot always be used to perform DML operations.
Insert, delete, and update cannot be applied directly on complex views. But unlike
Simple Views, Complex Views can contain group by, pseudocolumn like rownum,
distinct, columns defined by expressions. NOT NULL columns can be included in
complex views while they are not selected by the Simple View.

VIEW

VIEW WITH JOIN

CREATE VIEW _VIEW_ AS SELECT ADDRESS FROM STUDENTS S,MENTOR
M WHERE S.ADDRESS=M.ADDRESS
VIEW WITH CHECK OPTION