Introduction to Psychology

and Research Methods

Dr. Xijing WANG

 Road Map
• The definition and aims of Psychology

• A brief history and subfields within psychology

• Research methods
 Introduction
• Psychology –the scientific study of the mind and
behavior, according to the American Psychological
Association.
Why do we do the things we do
But, psychologists are involved in research on perception, cognition, attention,
emotion, intelligence, subjective experiences, motivation, brain functioning,
personality, social influence, and many other things

• An academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the

boundaries between the natural and social sciences.
Philosophy + Experimentation (psychologists use the methodology of
natural science to answer social science questions)
4

Studying psychology will NOT

help you with

Palm reading
Mind reading
 Psychology Research
Questions/findings
1. Being lonely is worse for your health than you actually
think.
2. Your brain gives less importance to long-term deadlines
3. Artists from creative fields have an 8% greater chance to
suffer from bipolar disorder than those from less creative
ones.
4. Catching a yawn shows empathy and toddlers and young
people with autism are less likely to have the symptoms.
5. A person still has 7 minutes of brain activity upon dying
6. A single negative thing could only be outweighed by at
least five positive things
 Goals of Psychology
1. Description: Describing Behavior (What is happening? Observe
and describe objectively)
2. Explanation: Explaining Behavior (Why is it happening?
Predictors and mechanism)
3. Prediction: Predicting behavior (When, why and how will the
behavior occur in the future?)
4. Control: changing behavior (How can it be changed?
intervention?)
 Goals of Psychology
1. Description: Describing Behavior (What is happening? Observe
and describe objectively)
2. Explanation: Explaining Behavior (Why is it happening?
Predictors and mechanism)
3. Prediction: Predicting behavior (When, why and how will the
behavior occur in the future?)
4. Control: changing behavior (How can it be changed?
intervention?)
 Goals of Psychology
1. Description: Describing Behavior (What is happening? Observe
and describe objectively)
2. Explanation: Explaining Behavior (Why is it happening?
Predictors and mechanism)
3. Prediction: Predicting behavior (When, why and how will the
behavior occur in the future?)
4. Control: changing behavior (How can it be changed?
intervention?)
 Goals of Psychology
1. Description: Describing Behavior (What is happening? Observe
and describe objectively)
2. Explanation: Explaining Behavior (Why is it happening?
Predictors and mechanism)
3. Prediction: Predicting behavior (When, why and how will the
behavior occur in the future?)
4. Control: changing behavior (How can it be changed?
intervention?)
 One example—nudging
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LF4ETgw29BA

1. Description: ?
2. Explanation: ?
3. Prediction: ?
4. Control: ?
 Goals of Psychology
1. Description: people don’t eat healthily enough (eating too
much cake but too little apple)
2. Explanation: the size of food could affect people’s food
consumption
3. Prediction: (in the future) if we present cakes in larger sizes
and apples as a whole, people would eat more cake and less
apple; if we present cakes in smaller sizes and apples in slices,
people would eat less cake and more apple
4. Control: we can make people eat more/less healthily by
manipulating the size of the food.
Another example of nudging

from painting the stairs to

changing people’s stair-
climbing behavior
How many of the goals do you see here?
Description: Love seems to emerge at a certain point in
history across different cultures—a global phenomenon
Description: Love seems to emerge at a certain point in
history across different cultures —supported with evidence
Explanation: Why so? What are the ecological determinants
(causes)?
Explanation: Why so? What are the ecological determinants
(causes)?
Economic development —supported with evidence
How about prediction and control?
 General Points about Psychology
• Three general statements about psychology:
1. Confidence in the conclusions should depend on the
strength of the evidence
distinguish between opinions based on strong evidence and those based on
less
you can still have your opinion, but it is not a conclusion
 General Points about Psychology
• Three general statements about psychology:
1. Confidence in the conclusions should depend on the
strength of the evidence (distinguish between opinions
based on strong evidence and those based on less)

2. Progress depends on good measurement

Psychologists’ understanding has advanced fastest on topics such
as sensory processes, learning, and memory, because researchers
can measure these things fairly accurately

areas of psychology with less certain measurement have less

definite conclusions and slower progress
 General Points about Psychology
• Three general statements about psychology:
1. Confidence in the conclusions should depend on the
strength of the evidence (distinguish between opinions
based on strong evidence and those based on less)

2. Progress depends on good measurement

3. It depends
hardly anything is true about the behavior of all people all the time

It depends on age, genetics, health, past experiences, being awake

or asleep, gender, culture, social situation, time of day, room
temperature, whom the target is with, the exact wording of the
question and so on
 General Points about Psychology
It depends (one example)

• Two psychology laboratories were conducting similar studies on

human learning.
• They found very different results, actually contradictory results.
Why?
• A key difference in their procedure: the chairs in which the
participants sat!--chairs from a retired dentist
• Sitting there in a state of heightened anxiety during learning

Implications
• The findings of psychologists are always bounded—it depends
 Major Philosophical Issues in Psychology

1. Free will versus determinism

Determinism
– the idea that everything that happens has a cause, or determinant
--if determinism does not exist, there is no cause and effect--we don’t need
science
--universal assumption of science—determinism (everything that happens has
a cause)
--(in a strict sense), it is never true that people could have decided or
acted otherwise than they actually did

Free will
– the belief that behavior is caused by a person’s independent decisions
e.g., Do you think you make the decisions about your actions? Or do you think
you are just like a computer or robots with all the actions pre-programed?
 Major Philosophical Issues in Psychology
1. Free will versus determinism
Determinism
– the idea that everything that happens has a cause, or determinant
--if determinism does not exist, there is no cause and effect--we don’t need
science (universal assumption of science—determinism--everything that
happens has a cause)
--(in a strict sense), it is never true that people could have decided or
acted otherwise than they actually did

Free will
– the belief that behavior is caused by a person’s independent decisions
e.g., Do you think you make the decisions about your actions? Or do you think
you are just like a computer or robots with all the actions pre-programed?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2_BTVN68-ZA
 Major Philosophical Issues in Psychology

2. The mind–brain problem

• Dualism – view that the mind is separate from the brain but somehow
controls the brain and therefore the rest of the body
• Monism – view that conscious experience is inseparable from the physical
brain
 Major Philosophical Issues in Psychology

3. The nature–nurture issue

– Question of how differences in behavior relate to differences in heredity and
environment
e.g., obesity
having certain genes will ultimately lead to obesity versus poor eating habits
and the limited ability to regulate personal habits lead to obesity

– pre-wiring (e.g., genetic inheritance and other biological factors) versus

external factors after conception (e.g., the product of exposure, experience
and social learning on an individual)
 A Brief History of Psychology
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_qqwq
8EmTY4
Can you match the field with its general interests and example
research question?
 Psychology in Research
Example of Interest or
Specialization General Interest Research Topic
Personality Personality differences Why are certain people shy and
psychology others gregarious?
Cognitive Memory, thinking Do people have several kinds
psychology of memory?
Developmental Changes in behavior over At what age can a child first
psychology age distinguish between
appearance and reality?
Social Social influences, social What methods of persuasion
psychology situations, human are most effective for changing
interactions attitudes?
 Psychologists in Example
Researchof Interest or
Specialization General Interest Research Topic
Biological Relationship between What hormones are linked with
psychology/Phys genetics & physiology and stress and anxiety?
iological behavior & mind
psychology
Evolutionary Evolutionary history of How did people evolve their
psychology behavior (behaviors or traits facial expressions of emotion?
that occur universally
are good candidates for
evolutionary adaptations)
Psychometrics Theory and technique of How fair are current IQ tests?
measurement/ quantify Can we devise better tests?
constructs
Experimental Creating a hypothesis and What are the limitations and
Psychology then testing it through strengths of measuring
experimentation aggression in a laboratory
setting
 Psychology in Applied Settings
Example of Interest or
Specialization General Aim Research Topic
Clinical Provides continuing and How can people be helped to
psychology comprehensive mental and overcome severe anxiety?
behavioural health care for
individuals and families
(Psychiatry) A branch of medicine that Is the antidepressant effective?
deals with emotional
disturbances
Counseling Helping people make Should this person consider
psychology important decisions changing careers?
Forensic Clinical or counselling
psychology psychologists who have
additional training in legal
issues
 Psychology in Applied Settings

Example of Interest or
Specialization General Aim Research Topic
School Focusing on children and How does peer pressure affect
psychology/Educ youth development with the students’ academic performance?
ational context of schools
psychology
Industrial/ People at work (e.g., job Should jobs be made simple and
organizational satisfaction, motivation, foolproof or interesting and
psychology employees’ well-being) challenging?

Health Factors influencing people’s Are people high in neuroticism

psychology health more vulnerable to depression?
 Schedule of SS1101

Introduction &
methodology

Developmental

Cognitive

Health
Social

Personality

Clinical
Basic research – study that seeks theoretical knowledge for its
own sake
– (e.g., what makes people socially exclude others; what kind of
behavioral or mental processes do victims of social exclusion have?)
Social psychology

Applied research – study dealing with practical problems

– (e.g., how to help children deal with deal with the experience of being
socially excluded by his or her classmates.)
School psychology

Basic research and applied research are mutually supportive

– understanding the basic processes can help applied researchers
develop effective interventions
– the practical problems applied researchers meet can also inspire basic
research scholars to form scientific questions
Basic research – study that seeks theoretical knowledge for its
own sake
– (e.g., what makes people socially exclude others; what kind of
behavioral or mental processes do victims of social exclusion have?)
Social psychology

Applied research – study dealing with practical problems

– (e.g., how to help children deal with deal with the experience of being
socially excluded by his or her classmates.)
School psychology, counselling psychology

Basic research and applied research are mutually supportive

– understanding the basic processes can help applied researchers
develop effective interventions
– the practical problems applied researchers meet can also inspire basic
research scholars to form scientific questions
 Basic Psychology

Applied Psychology
 Biological
Psychology
biological roots, genetic
Evolutionary correlates
Psychology Neuropsychology
why physical aggression is associated brain structure
beneficial for our survival and neural correlates

Why are men (in general) more

physically aggressive than women
 Biological
Psychology
biological roots, genetic
Evolutionary correlates
Psychology Neuropsychology
why physical aggression is associated brain structure
beneficial for our survival and neural correlates

Why are men (in general) more

physically aggressive than women

Developmental Cultural Psychology

Psychology if this pattern is the same
Social Psychology across different cultures
the way parents educate the different social
boys versus girls e.g., Eastern Asians versus
expectations and
Africans
interaction patterns people
Cultural Tightness
have towards men and
women
 New fields
Social cognition: social psychology + cognitive psychology

Cognitive neuroscience: cognitive psychology + neuroscience

Evolutionary developmental psychology: evolutionary psychology +

developmental psychology

Environmental Psychology：environmental studies + psychology

Consumer Psychology: marketing + psychology

User Experience: make a product or service usable, enjoyable, and

accessible for us humans

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PdQz27oq_uE

When AI Meets Psychology….?

Research Methods
Research Question vs. Hypothesis
• Research question
– An interrogative sentence that states the
relationship between two (or more) variables
– E.g., How does the experience of being socially
excluded affect people’s aggressive behavior?

• Hypothesis
– An answer to the research question
– E.g., The experience of being socially excluded
increases people’s aggressive behavior.

4
1
 To test the hypothesis…
• Research hypothesis
– E.g., The experience of being socially excluded
affects people’s aggressive behavior.

• Null hypothesis:
– E.g., The experience of being socially excluded does
not affect people’s aggressive behavior.

• In scientific research, we test the hypothesis

with statistical tests
– If we can reject the null hypothesis, the research
hypothesis is supported
4
2
Research
Question
Where do research ideas or
questions come from?

4
4
 Formulating research questions
4 sources of ideas (Christensen, 1994):

1. Everyday life experience 2. Practical issues

– Get ideas from our own – To solve problems
experience or observations – E.g., How can we combat gender
– Just be curious about things around inequality?
us! – E.g., How can we raise the work morale
of the employees?

4
5
 Formulating research quetions

3. Past research 4. Theory

– Follow--up, extend, – It usually describes a behavior.
revolutionize previous – It usually makes predictions
ideas or prior findings about future behaviors
– Ask new questions – It should naturally generate
lots of research ideas and
questions
 A theory is based on a hypothesis, which is backed by
evidence

• Falsifiable – stated in such clear, precise terms that we

can see what evidence would count against it
• Burden of proof – the obligation to present evidence to
support one’s claim/theory

Not falsifiable
Freud: “You hate your father.”
Patient: “Wow, that makes sense.”
Freud: “I am right“

Freud: “You hate your father”

Patient: “No, that’s not right! that’s disgusting! it can’t be true!”
Freud: “your anger shows that this idea is painful to you, you have repressed it from
consciousness; and I am right.”

Falsifiable: Introverted people are more likely to work in Academia

than extraverted people
• Can you come up with a falsifiable research question?
• Start from here
 A good theory should be simple
but inclusive

e.g.,
people would behave more aggressively after they are socially
excluded
vs.
people would behave more aggressively after they are socially excluded
AND when they perceive the social exclusion as unfair

people would behave more aggressively after they are socially

excluded
vs.
men aged between 20 to 40 would behave more aggressively after they
are socially excluded
 Operational Definitions

In physics, what is temperature and how to measure it (e.g., using thermometer)

In psychology, what is anger and how to measure it (e.g., frowns/ swear words
per minute)

Operational definition specifies the operations (e.g., frowns/ swear words per
minute) used to produce or measure something. It is a way to give a numerical
value to a construct (e.g., anger).
 How to operationally measure

• Friendliness: ?

• Generosity: ?

• Fear: ?
Research Methods in Psychology

Lecture 2

Dr. Xijing Wang

 Road Map
• What are research question, hypotheses, and theories?
• Who should we target?
• How should we measure?
• How should we design the study?
Research Question vs. Hypothesis
• Research question
– An interrogative sentence that states the relationship between two (or more)
variables
– E.g., How does the experience of being socially excluded affect people’s
aggressive behavior?

• Hypothesis
– An answer to the research question
– E.g., The experience of being socially excluded increases people’s aggressive
behavior.
3
To test the hypothesis…
• Research hypothesis
– E.g., The experience of being socially excluded affects people’s aggressive behavior.

• Null hypothesis:
– E.g., The experience of being socially excluded does not affect people’s aggressive
behavior.

• In scientific research, we test the hypothesis with statistical

tests
– If we can reject the null hypothesis, the research hypothesis is supported

4
Research
Question
Formulating research questions
4 sources of ideas (Christensen, 1994):

1. Everyday life experience 2. Practical issues

– Get ideas from our own – To solve problems
experience or observations – E.g., How can we combat gender
– Just be curious about things around inequality?
us! – E.g., How can we raise the work morale
of the employees?

6
Formulating research questions
4 sources of ideas (Christensen, 1994):

3. Past research 4. Theory

– Follow--up, extend, – It usually describes a behavior.
revolutionize previous – It usually makes predictions
ideas or prior findings about future behaviors
– Ask new questions – It should naturally generate
lots of research ideas and
questions
A theory is based on a hypothesis, which is backed by evidence

• Falsifiable – stated in such clear, precise terms that we can see what evidence
would count against it
• Burden of proof – the obligation to present evidence to support one’s
claim/theory
Not falsifiable
Freud: “You hate your father.”
Patient: “Wow, that makes sense.”
Freud: “I am right“

Freud: “You hate your father”

Patient: “No, that’s not right! that’s disgusting! it can’t be true!”
Freud: “your anger shows that this idea is painful to you, you have repressed it from
consciousness; and I am right.”

Falsifiable
Introverted people are more likely to work in Academia than extraverted people
 A good theory should be simple
but inclusive

e.g.,
people would behave more aggressively after they are socially excluded
vs.
people would behave more aggressively after they are socially excluded
AND when they perceive the social exclusion as unfair

people would behave more aggressively after they are socially excluded
vs.
men aged between 20 to 40 would behave more aggressively after they are
socially excluded
 We can’t collect data from each person in the target population

Samples

How get a good sample to represent your

population well?

We need to avoid Sampling bias, which refers to sample not reflecting the characteristics of
the target population

Target population (e.g., all humans, teenagers, pre-school children, people

who misuse drugs?)
 Types of Sample

Sample Individuals Included Advantages and Disadvantages

Convenience Anyone who is available Easiest to get, but results may not
sample generalize to the whole population
Representative Same percentage of Results probably similar to whole
sample e.g., recruiting
male/female, friends to population,
white/black, participate in your study,
although sample may be
collecting
etc., as the data from locations
whole population that arein
representative nearby,
some ways but not
or sharing a link others
on social media

Random sample Everyone in population has Difficult to get this kind of sample, but
same chance of being chosen it is the best suited for generalizing to
the whole population

Sampling bias: convenience sample (highest), random sample (lowest)

 Types of Sample
Sample Individuals Included Advantages and Disadvantages
Convenience Anyone who is available Easiest to get, but results may not
sample generalize to the whole population
Representative Same percentage of Results probably similar to whole
sample male/female, white/black, population, although sample may be
etc., as the whole population representative in some ways but not
others
Random sample Everyone in population has Difficult to get this kind of sample, but
e.g., Ages
same chance of of the population
being chosen itofisinterest aresuited
the best as follows
for generalizing to
18-25 26-40 the whole
40-60 61+population

10% 30% 45% 15%

To get a representative sample in terms of age, 10% of the people surveyed will be between 18-25, 30%
Sampling bias: convenience sample (highest), random sample (lowest)
will be between the ages of 26-40, etc.
 Types of Sample
Sample Individuals Included Advantages and Disadvantages
Convenience Anyone who is available Easiest to get, but results may not
sample generalize to the whole population
Representative Sameto
e.g., if you want percentage
randomly of Results students
select 10 psychology probably from
similar to whole
your
sample college classmale/female,
--first assign white/black,
a number to every population,
student in although sample may be
the class---use
etc., astothe
computer whole
choose 10population
numbers amongrepresentative in some ways but not
them randomly
others
Random sample Everyone in population has Difficult to get this kind of sample,
same chance of being chosen but it is the best suited for
generalizing to the whole population

Sampling bias: convenience sample (highest), random sample (lowest)

 Operational Definitions

• In physics, what is temperature and how to measure it (e.g., using thermometer)

• In psychology, what is anger and how to measure it (e.g., frowns/ swear words per
minute)

• Operational definition specifies the operations (e.g., frowns/ swear words per
minute) used to produce or measure something--It is a way to give a numerical value
to a construct (e.g., anger).
 How to operationally measure

• Friendliness: ?

• Generosity: ?

• Fear: ?
 How to operationally measure

• Friendliness: e.g., the number of people someone smiles at during an hour or

the number of people someone lists as close friends.

• Generosity: e.g., the amount of time or money someone gives to charity per
year.

• Fear: e.g., measurable physiologic responses, such as changes in heart rate,

pupil dilation, and blood pressure (that occur in response to a perceived threat).
 How do you feel about their movements?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YrRs4acFOv0
• The guy in white was manipulating the other three guys

• The movements of the other three guys were mechanical and

inhuman

• They acted like mindless puppets

 Dehumanization and Objectification
• Perceiving other people as less than human (lacking human uniqueness
and/or human nature) and hence not worthy of humane treatment.

• Human uniqueness (e.g., self-control, refinement, and rationality)

• Human nature (e.g., interpersonal warmth and emotions)

• Depriving someone’s human uniqueness---perceiving the target as an

animal
• Depriving someone’s human nature---perceiving the target as a cold
machine
1
2 3

4 6
5
 Observed locally, nationally, and
internationally

Interpersonal/intergroup level:
indifference,
reduced helping,
hatred,
sexual harassment,
The Consequences of social exclusion,
Objectification/ aggression/harm,
Dehumanization killing/genocide

Intrapersonal level, self-

objectification/self-dehumanization:
reduced performance (cognitive and
physical)
and
health issues (e.g., suicide, eating
disorders, job burnout, anxiety and
depression)
 Group Activity One:

How to measure objectification/dehumanization?

 Descriptive Research
Assesses the amount or average level of a given variable in a population (e.g.,
public opinion surveys); how much, how often, how likely, what percentage, how
many, what is

• How often do people feel socially excluded in college?

• What is the percentage of students feel socially excluded in college?

Informative, but not a hypothesis test

23
 Hypothesis Testing

• Researcher subjects his or her calculated assumption to a series of

evaluations to know whether they are true or false.
E.g., Social exclusion increases aggression?

• Null hypothesis: there is no relationship between social exclusion and

aggression.
• Alternative hypothesis:
social exclusion increases/decreases aggression (directional)
There is a significant relationship between social exclusion and aggression
(non-directional)

24
Research design

• Correlational?
• Experimental?

25
 Correlational Research
Investigates whether changes in one variable are related to changes in
another variable
• Does the perceived level of social exclusion relate to aggressive behavior?

• Positive or negative?

26
 Correlational Research
correlation coefficient r (0-1): correlation coefficient r (-1- 0):
positive negative
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
100%

100%
(Outcome Variable)

(Outcome Variable)
0%

0%
Low High Low High

(Predictor Variable) (Predictor Variable)

An increase in one variable relates to a rise in An increase in one variable relates to a decrease
the other variable; a decrease in one variable in the other variable; a decrease in one variable
27
relates to a decrease in the other variable relates to a rise in the other variable
 Correlational Research
• CORRELATION COEFFICIENT (r): -1 to 1

Absolute values
indicate the
strength of the
association

28
Correlational Research

NONE

100%
(Outcome Variable)
Correlation coefficient = 0
No relations between two variables

0%

Low High

(Predictor Variable)

29
 Correlational Research
• CORRELATION COEFFICIENT (r): -1 to 1

• in the social sciences (Cohen, 1992)

/r/ = .50 (strong)
/r /= .30 (moderate)
/r /= .10 (small)

30
 Correlational Research

• Surveys/Questioners: gathers data by asking a group of people their thoughts,

reactions or opinions to fixed questions.
(+) cost effective and efficient
(-) answer choices could not reflect true opinions; one particular response may be
understood differently
 Correlational Research
Observational Studies
--Naturalistic: studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in natural surroundings.
greater ecological validity;
generate new ideas;
lack a representative sample;
other variables cannot be controlled

• In a naturalistic observation study at a children’s science

museum, parents were three times more likely to explain
science to boys than to girls (Crowley & others, 2001).
• The gender difference occurred regardless of whether the
father, the mother, or both parents were with the child.
 Correlational Research
Observational Studies
--Naturalistic: studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in natural surroundings.
e.g., study children at play by observing their behavior in a playgroup.
greater ecological validity; generate new ideas; lack a representative sample; other variables cannot be
controlled

--Laboratory: researcher decides where the observation will take place, at what time,
with which participants, in what circumstances and uses a standardized procedure
easier to test for reliability (replicate)
but lack validity

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU
Correlational Research
Strengths of this approach
• allows researchers to collect much more data than experiments
• has good generalizability (i.e., external validity-- in a natural environment)
• potential for numerous variables (e.g., can study variables that you can’t manipulate or
would be unethical to do so)
• paves the way for causation experiments

Weakness of this approach

• cannot infer a cause-effect relationship

• can’t rule out a spurious relationship

34
Correlational Research
Strengths of this approach
• allows researchers to collect much more data than experiments
• has good generalizability (i.e., external validity-- in a natural environment)
• potential for numerous variables (e.g., can study variables that you can’t manipulate or
would be unethical to do so)
• paves the way for causation experiments

Weakness of this approach

• cannot infer a cause-effect relationship

• can’t rule out a spurious relationship

35
 Spurious Relationship

Two or more events or variables are not causally related to each other,
yet it may be wrongly inferred that they are, due to either coincidence or the
presence of a certain third, unseen factor, referred to as confounding factor
36
 Causal: Experiments
• Experiment – a study in which the investigator manipulates at least one variable while measuring at
least one other variable
– Independent variable – the item that an experimenter changes or controls
– Dependent variable – the item that an experimenter measures to determine the outcome

e.g., Does social exclusion (independent variable) increase aggression (dependent variable)?

• Experimental group – the group that receives the treatment that an experiment is designed to test
• Control group – a set of individuals treated in the same way as the experimental group except for
the procedure that the experiment is designed to test
• Random assignment – a chance procedure to make sure that all participants have the same
probability of being assigned to a given group

37
 Causal: Experiments
• Experiment – a study in which the investigator manipulates at least one variable while measuring at
least one other variable
– Independent variable – the item that an experimenter changes or controls
– Dependent variable – the item that an experimenter measures to determine the outcome

e.g., Does social exclusion (independent variable) increase aggression (dependent variable)?

• Experimental group – the group that receives the treatment that an experiment is designed to test
• Control group – a set of individuals treated in the same way as the experimental group except for
the procedure that the experiment is designed to test
• Random assignment – a chance procedure to make sure that all participants have the same
probability of being assigned to a given group

38
Research Question: the effects of meditation by pregnant women on their newborns’
breathing and sleeping patterns
Classroom Activity Two
 Group Activity
Hypothesis: being socially excluded would result in a higher level of
aggressive behavior.

How would you design an experiment to test this question?

• Step 1: making people feel either being socially excluded or socially included
• Step 2: examine their aggressive behavior

How can you make people feel socially excluded (manipulation, independent
variable) and how can we assess people’s aggressive behavior (the dependent
variable)?
41
 Experimental Design
• Strengths
allows for causal conclusions to be made -- best test of theory

• Weaknesses
not all questions are amenable to experiments
Low ecological validity; concerns about generalizability (mundane realism vs.
experimental realism)
• Experimental realism refers to the extent to which participants experience the
experimental situation as intended.
• Mundane realism refers to the extent to which the experimental situation is similar to
situations people are likely to encounter outside of the laboratory.

42
 Experimental Design
• Strengths
allows for causal conclusions to be made -- best test of theory

• Weaknesses
not all questions are amenable to experiments
Low ecological validity; concerns about generalizability (mundane realism vs.
experimental realism)
• Experimental realism refers to the extent to which participants experience the
experimental situation as intended.
• Mundane realism refers to the extent to which the experimental situation is similar to
situations people are likely to encounter outside of the laboratory.

43
Observer Expectancy effect (experimenter expectancy effect)
when a researcher expects a given result and therefore
unconsciously affects the outcome, or reports the expected result

Demand effect
participants form an interpretation of the experiment's purpose
and unconsciously change their behavior to fit that interpretation

Use double-blind study – research in which both the observer and

the participants are unaware of which participants received which
treatment.
Ethical Concerns with Humans
• Research on human participants should not proceed until the participants have
given their informed consent.
• Informed consent – a statement that a participant has been told what to expect and agrees to
continue

• Psychologists try to minimize risk to their participants, but they sometimes face
difficult ethical decisions, such as temporary deception.
Neither Correlational or Causal Research is Perfect.

Solutions?
Developmental Psychology (Part 1)
From Infancy to Early Adulthood
 Some fundamental Assumptions
(patterns that developmental psychologists are interested in)

• People are capable of changes (either in good or bad directions) across the life
span.

• There are some general patterns in these changes

• walked at about 1 year,
• engaged in fantasy play as a young child,
• and became more independent as a youth
• if we live long enough, will experience hearing problems, and the death of family members and friends
 Some fundamental Assumptions
(patterns that developmental psychologists are interested in)

• People are capable of changes (either in good or bad directions) across the life
span.

• There are some general patterns in these changes

• walked at about 1 year,
• engaged in fantasy play as a young child,
• and became more independent as a youth
• if we live long enough, will experience hearing problems, and the death of family members and friends
• (In general) A human life can be roughly classified into eight periods (eight-period sequence)
• Three clusters: physical, cognitive, and socioemotional changes

PROCESSES AND PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

Prenatal period is from conception to birth--from a single cell to a complete organism with a
brain and behavioral capabilities.

Infancy is from birth to 18 or 24 months--many psychological activities are just beginning.

Early childhood is from the end of infancy to age 5 or 6--young children learn to become more
self-sufficient and to care for themselves.

Middle and late childhood is from about 6 to 11 years of age---achievement becomes a more
central theme of the child’s world, and self-control increases.
Adolescence is the transition from childhood to early adulthood--rapid physical
changes+ the pursuit of independence and identity.

Early adulthood is from the late teens or early twenties and lasts through the
thirties--establishing personal and economic independence.
• Middle adulthood is from (approximately) 40 years of age to about 60--expanding personal and
social involvement and responsibility; assisting the next generation in becoming competent, mature
individuals

• Late adulthood begins in the sixties or seventies and lasts until death--a time of life review,
retirement from the workplace, and adjustment to new social roles involving decreasing strength
and health;
lasts longer than any other period of development!
Fertilization
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_5OvgQW6FG4

Pregnancy
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XEfnq4Q4bfk

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s-Xpa5UZAZs
Physical Development
 Infancy Early Childhood Middle and Late Childhood
Infancy is often • Boys and girls become less • Kids tend to get taller
considered as the first chubby and roundish, but slender at a pretty steady
stage of development (no more potbelly). pace
• Arms and legs lengthen.
• Babies double their
weight by the age of 4 • Children grow stronger as (the growth rate during
months and triple by muscles size increases and bones this period is slower
their first birthday. become sturdier. compared to previous
• Body proportions are more periods, infancy and
• Babies grow about 1 early childhood)
similar to those of adults.
inch per month during
the first year (around • The growth rate slows during this
25 center meters). stage, thus preschoolers need
less food to maintain their
Growth slows in the growth.
second year of life.
 Infancy Early Childhood Middle and Late Childhood
Infancy is often considered • Boys and girls become less chubby
and roundish, but slender (no more • Kids tend to get taller at
as the first stage of a pretty steady pace
development potbelly).
• Arms and legs lengthen.
• Babies double their
• Children grow stronger as muscles (the growth rate during this
weight by the age of 4
size increases and bones become period is slower compared
months and triple by
sturdier. to previous periods,
their first birthday.
infancy and early
• Body proportions are more similar to childhood)
• Babies grow about 1 inch
those of adults.
per month during the first
year. • The growth rate slows during this
stage, thus preschoolers need less
Growth slows in the second food to maintain their growth.
year of life.
Adolescence (No longer children, not yet adults)
Adolescence is a time of considerable physical and psychological growth and change.
(the second fast stage of growth)
• Extreme changes in height and weight are common.
• Termed “the adolescent growth spurt”—a period of rapid growth changes in height and
weight
• On average, boys grow 4.1 inches (10.4 cm) in height each year, girls 3.5 inches (8.89 cm)
• Adolescent growth spurt could come earlier for some people than for others

• Girls begin their growth spurts

earlier (approx. 2 years) and
complete them earlier.
• (the onset of puberty corresponds
to a biological age of ≈11 y in girls
and 13 y in boys)
Adolescence (No longer children, not yet adults)
Adolescence is a time of considerable physical and psychological growth and change.
(the second fast stage of growth)
• Extreme changes in height and weight are common.
• Termed “the adolescent growth spurt”—a period of rapid growth changes in height and
weight
• On average, boys grow 4.1 inches (10.4 cm) in height each year, girls 3.5 inches (8.89 cm)
• Adolescent growth spurt could come earlier for some people than for others

• Girls begin their growth spurts

earlier (approx. 2 years) and
complete them earlier.
• (the onset of puberty corresponds
to a biological age of ≈11 y in girls
and 13 y in boys)
Puberty
Puberty is the period when sexual organs mature.
• It begins earlier for girls (ages 10-14) than for boys (ages 12-16)

• What triggers puberty is still an unsolved scientific question

 Puberty

For boys, early maturing ones tend to be better at athletics, be more popular, have
more positive self-esteem; early maturing boys are socially popular and often sports
heroes
But at the same time, early maturing boys can be more aggressive and have more
school difficulties

For girls, early maturing ones tend to be more popular, but they may not be ready to
deal with dating situations.
Girls who mature early can have a lower self-image and higher rates of depression,
anxiety, and disordered eating
Puberty
Body image Causes of a negative body image
• Preoccupation with body image is • Natural or expected weight gain and other
strong throughout adolescence. changes caused by puberty
• Girls are less happy with their bodies • Peer pressure to look a certain way
and have more negative body images
(probably because their body fat • Social media and other media--promoting
increases). the ideal body as fit, thin or muscular
• Boys become more satisfied as they • Sexual objectification
move through puberty (probably
because their muscle mass increases).
Puberty
Body image Causes of a negative body image
• Preoccupation with body image is • Natural or expected weight gain and other
strong throughout adolescence. changes caused by puberty
• Girls are less happy with their bodies • Peer pressure to look a certain way
and have more negative body images
(probably because their body fat • Social media and other media--promoting
increases). the ideal body as fit, thin or muscular
• Boys become more satisfied as they • Sexual objectification
move through puberty (probably
because their muscle mass increases).
Sexual objectification
• Sexual objectification occurs when a woman's body, body parts, or sexual functions are
isolated from her whole and complex being and treated as objects simply to be looked at,
coveted, or touched (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997).
As if one exists solely for others to use or consume

• When people internalize sexual objectification---self-objectification (seeing oneself as a

sexual object for others to use)
Sexual objectification
• Sexual objectification occurs when a woman's body, body parts, or sexual functions are
isolated from her whole and complex being and treated as objects simply to be looked at,
coveted, or touched (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997).
As if one exists solely for others to use or consume

• When people internalize sexual objectification---self-objectification (seeing oneself as a

sexual object for others to use)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uy8yLaoWybk&t=546s
 Sexual Objectification Among Adolescents
• Objectification processes commence Predictors of self-objectification in
with the onset of puberty adolescence

• Girls experience more self- • Mothers in early childhood (modelling)

objectification than boys. • Mothers’ self-objectification was unrelated (or
negatively related) to their teens’ self-
objectification
• Self-objectification increases with age. • Peer evaluations (peer influence may override
parental influence during adolescence)

Daniels, E. A., Zurbriggen, E. L., & Ward, L. M. (2020).

Becoming an object: A review of self-objectification in
girls. Body Image, 33, 278-299.
 Outcomes of Self-Objectification
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uy8yLaoWybk&t=546s

• Constant self-monitoring, and then shame, anxiety, and depression (mental health issues)

• Disordered eating (physical health issues)

Self-objectification is positively correlated with body shame, which then predicts greater
tendencies toward maladaptive eating habits
Even self-objectifying women who report to enjoy being sexualized have still been found to
engage in negative eating attitudes

• Reduced states of productivity and flow (performance)

Flow is a highly productive and enjoyable experience, marked by a loss of self-consciousness
Self-objectifiers, unfortunately, dedicate their attention to physical self-monitoring
Cognitive Development
 Stage Theories: development progresses in distinct stages-
e.g., Jean Piaget’s Stage Theory of Cognitive Development

Continuous Theories: development progresses continuously

e.g., Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_fWm7cF8-WM
Jean Piaget’s Stage Theory of Cognitive Development
 Sensorimotor stage

(A focus on the here and now with no thought beyond

immediate physical experiences)

1. Lacking mental representations 2. Lacking object permanence

Object permanence: an understanding that objects and events
Mental representation: being able to hold something continue to exist when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or
in your mind that isn’t directly in front of you touched.
e.g., Can you create a picture of your favourite food “out of sight” is literally out of mind
in your mind
Object permanence is one of infancy’s landmark cognitive
accomplishments
 Sensorimotor stage

(A focus on the here and now with no thought beyond

immediate physical experiences)

1. Lacking mental representations 2. Lacking object permanence

Object permanence: an understanding that objects and events
Mental representation: being able to hold something continue to exist when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or
in your mind that isn’t directly in front of you touched.
e.g., Can you create a picture of your favourite food “out of sight” is literally out of mind
in your mind
• Object permanence is one of infancy’s landmark cognitive
accomplishments
 Sensorimotor stage

(A focus on the here and now with no thought beyond

immediate physical experiences)

• By the end of the sensorimotor period, babies can understand object permanence.
Initially, Piaget suggested that this cognitive skill does not develop until the baby is about 8
months old.
It is now generally agreed that babies begin understanding object permanence earlier—
somewhere between 4 and 7 months.

• The development of object permanence helps babies to reach more adorable

milestones, e.g., memory development, exploration, and language acquisition.
• However, the more difficult side of object permanence: separation anxiety.
 Preoperational Stage

• Children represent the world with words, images, and drawings.

• Two substages: Symbolic function and Intuitive thought

Symbolic function substage: the child gains the Intuitive thought substage: between 4 and 7 years of
ability to mentally represent an object that is not age.
present. (immediate understanding or knowing something without
• Between about 2 and 4 years of age. reasoning; e.g., recognizing a cup)

E.g., using word duck as a symbol for an actual duck Or • Children use primitive reasoning (e.g., a vague idea of
understanding that a toy duck represents an actual what would happen if a car were to be hit by a car, but
duck can’t negotiate traffic)
• By the age of 5, want to know the answers to many
• A key benefit to symbolic thought is language questions (an age filled with questions, as children begin
development (as language is essentially using to make sense of their worlds)
symbols to represent objects and ideas).
 Preoperational Stage

• Children represent the world with words, images, and drawings.

• Two substages: Symbolic function and Intuitive thought

Symbolic function substage: the child gains the Intuitive thought substage: between 4 and 7 years of
ability to mentally represent an object that is not age.
present. • Immediate understanding or knowing something without
• Between about 2 and 4 years of age. reasoning; e.g., recognizing a cup.

E.g., using word duck as a symbol for an actual duck Or • By the age of 5, want to know the answers to many
understanding that a toy duck represents an actual questions (an age filled with questions, as children begin
duck to make sense of their worlds)-- signals the emergence
of interest in reasoning
• A key benefit to symbolic thought is language
development (as language is essentially using
symbols to represent objects and ideas).
 Concrete Operational Stage

• Egocentric: the inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s
perspective
• The three mountain experiment: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mcqAWzW4DfQ

• Become Less Egocentric (i.e., are able to think about things the way that others see them)
 Concrete Operational Stage

• Understanding reversibility (e.g., Water can be frozen and then thawed to become liquid
again; Arithmetic operations are reversible as well: 2 + 3 = 5 and 5 – 3 = 2)
• Understanding conservation (e.g., if you break a candy bar up into smaller pieces it is still
the same amount at when the candy was whole)

Preoperational kids: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gnArvcWaH6I

Concrete Operational kids: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j4lvQfhuNmg starting from

2:02
 Formal operational stage
Formal operational thought is more abstract than concrete operational thought.
(no longer limited to actual, concrete experiences for thought).

Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: the cognitive ability to develop hypotheses, or

best guesses, about ways to solve problems.
a person comes into a dark room and tries the light switch, which doesn’t work
light is not plugged in? the light has burned out?
inserts the new light bulb--works
More logical thinking.
• Increased tendency to think about thought itself (meta-cognition).
Not everyone achieves formal operational skills

• Research has demonstrated that only a few (about 10%) of the adult population
are fully equipped with formal operational thinking skills.

• Between 30% and 40% of the population lack the ability to engage in this type
of thought completely.

• The remaining 50 to 60 percent have some formal operational thinking skills

ranging from barely demonstrating that to usually (but not always using them).

• Some studies estimate that even 25 percent –50% of college students do not
have this capacity.
 Piaget’s Theory
Stage Age Characteristics
Motor activity without use of
symbols.
Sensorimotor Birth to 18–24 months old All things learned are based
on experiences, or trial and
error.
Development of language,
memory, and imagination.
Preoperational 2 to 7 years old
Intelligence is both
egocentric and intuitive.
Less egocentric, and more
aware of the outside world
Concrete operational 7 to 11 years old and events.
Understanding reversibility
and conservation.

Able to make hypotheses and

Formal operational Adolescence to adulthood grasp abstract concepts and
relationships. Logic-thinking.
 Metacognition
Definitions
• https://cambridge-community.org.uk/professional-development/gswmeta/index.html

The importance of metacognition

e.g., learning
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elZFL4FLVLE
Socioemotional Development
A group activity
Erikson’s theory:

• Trust versus mistrust: first year of infancy.

• Autonomy versus shame and doubt: 1 to 3 years.
• Initiative versus guilt: 3 to 5 years.
• Industry versus inferiority: 6 years to puberty.
• Identity versus identity confusion: 10 to 20 years.
• Intimacy versus isolation: twenties and thirties.
• Generativity versus stagnation: forties and fifties.
• Integrity versus despair: sixties to death.
Erikson’s theory:
• Developmental change occurs throughout
the life span—8 stages
Trust versus mistrust: first year of infancy.
Autonomy versus shame and doubt: 1 to 3 years. • At each stage, a unique developmental task
Initiative versus guilt: 3 to 5 years. confronts individuals with a crisis that must
be revolved.
Industry versus inferiority: 6 years to puberty.
Identity versus identity confusion: 10 to 20 years.
• However, this crisis is not catastrophe, but a
Intimacy versus isolation: twenties and thirties. turning point marked by both increased
vulnerability and enhanced potential.
Generativity versus stagnation: forties and fifties.
Integrity versus despair: sixties to death.
 Marcia’s Identity Statuses

Erikson’s theory:

Trust versus mistrust: first year of infancy.

Autonomy versus shame and doubt: 1 to 3 years.
Initiative versus guilt: 3 to 5 years.
Industry versus inferiority: 6 years to puberty.
Identity versus identity confusion: 10 to 20 years.
Intimacy versus isolation: twenties and thirties.
Generativity versus stagnation: forties and fifties.
Integrity versus despair: sixties to death.
• Tyler, who stumbled his way through high school and
graduated last year (but just barely). Tyler still doesn't know
what he wants to do with his life. In fact, he hasn't really
given much thought at all to what he'd like to accomplish.
He hasn't applied to any colleges or technical schools. He
still works part-time at the pizza shop; a job he started
while in high school so that he could have a little extra
spending money. He doesn't earn enough money to live on
his own so he lives with his parents, but he doesn't pay
them any rent or even pay for his own groceries.
Nonetheless, he hasn't even considered applying for a
better paying, full-time job. Whenever his frustrated
mother asks, "What are you doing with your life?" he just
mutters, "I dunno." Tyler hasn't even considered this
question, and has no goals or plans of any sort.
• Jasmine, 17, is applying to the same college that her
mother and grandmother both attended, and she has
"decided" to major in elementary education. She really
hasn't thought about whether or not she wants to go to
college, or what other colleges she might like to attend.
Nor has she considered any other career options besides
elementary school teacher. If asked about her plans she
might say, "All the women in my family became
elementary teachers for a few years and then stayed
home with their own children. My mom and grandma
seemed to do just fine, so it seems good enough for me."
• Tim, 14, may suddenly begin to argue with his parents
about going to the Sunday worship service, even
though he has attended this service with his family
since childhood. Instead, he likes to spend his timing
reading about all the different world religions. Or, he
may question the logic of religion altogether, and he
may even wonder whether God exists at all. It is clear
that Tim is not quite certain what he believes yet,
but he is actively exploring and considering what
values, principles, and beliefs he wants to live by.
• Miranda cast her vote for the presidential election the very
first year she was allowed to vote. But, she did so only after
carefully researching all the different candidates and their
positions on issues that were important to her. First, she
gave a great deal of thought by considering her own
beliefs and values system. Next, she figured out which
issues were most important to her based on her beliefs
and values. And finally, she determined which candidate
best matched her beliefs and values on the issues she
considered most important.
Achievement
Higher scores---higher preference for delay of gratification
 Delayed Gratification
Delay of gratification: engaging in self-control by waiting until late to obtain something more
valuable rather than immediately seeking satisfaction with something less valuable.

Two paths we can take in any given situation:

• avoiding pain and getting pleasure in the moment versus delaying pleasure for a bigger
purpose.
• a smaller reward now versus obtaining something bigger and better later

Examples:
studying really hard so that you can graduate as a top achiever in your class
saving for your future dream house
choosing a healthy lifestyle now to stay healthy as you age
putting up with a difficult job to help boost your career for the long-term
 Lecture 4

Developmental Psychology
Middle and Late Adulthood
 Roadmap

• Physical Development
• Cognitive Development
• Psychosocial Development & Death
Physical Changes
Middle adulthood: ranging 40 to 45 years of age to 60 to 65 years of age.

Visible signs of physical changes:

• Skin wrinkles and sags.
• Age spots appear.
• Hair thins and grays.
• Nails thicken and become more brittle.
• Teeth yellow.

• Lose height (men and women from 30/25 to 70/75 years of age lose
about two inches)-due to bone loss in the vertebrae.
• Gain weight: body fat accounts for about 10 percent of body weight in
adolescence; it makes up 20 percent or more in middle age.
• But a healthy lifestyle can (at least) slow down this process.
 Physical Changes
Middle adulthood: ranging 40 to 45 years of age to 60 to 65 years of age.

Visible signs of physical changes:

• Skin wrinkles and sags.
• Age spots appear.
• Hair thins and grays.
• Nails thicken and become more brittle.
• Teeth yellow.

• Lose height (men and women from 30/25 to 70/75 years of age lose
about two inches)-due to bone loss in the vertebrae.
• Gain weight: body fat accounts for about 10 percent of body weight in
adolescence; it makes up 20 percent or more in middle age.
• But a healthy lifestyle can (at least) slow down this process.
Physical Changes

Declines in
• Muscle mass & strength
muscle loss with age occurs at a rate of approximately 1 to 2 percent per year after age 50
especially occurs in the back and legs, causing walking problems

• Bone density
maximum bone density occurs by the mid- to late thirties; after that, there is also a progressive loss of
bone (as the bone density decreases, people lose height)
Women start with lower bone density than their male peers
women tend to lose bone at younger age and at a more rapid pace than men (Why?)
Sexuality
Menopause: cessation of a woman’s menstrual periods, usually during
the late forties or early fifties (common symptoms “hot flashes,” nausea,
fatigue, and rapid heartbeat)
Late menopause is linked with increased risk of breast cancer (based on
data of more than 300,000 women in Norway).

• The loss of fertility is an important marker for women

(but having Menopause may be functional?）

Hormonal changes in middle-aged men:

• Most men do not lose their capacity to father children.
• There is usually a modest decline in sexual hormone level
and activity.
Sexuality
Menopause: cessation of a woman’s menstrual periods, usually during
the late forties or early fifties (common symptoms “hot flashes,” nausea,
fatigue, and rapid heartbeat)
Late menopause is linked with increased risk of breast cancer (based on
data of more than 300,000 women in Norway).

• The loss of fertility is an important marker for women

(but having Menopause may be functional?）

Hormonal changes in middle-aged men:

• Most men do not lose their capacity to father children.
• There is usually a modest decline in sexual hormone level
and activity.
Late Adulthood
Late adulthood is the longest span of any period of human development—50 to 60 years.
The young-old (65 to 84 years of age) and oldest-old (85 years and older).

Physical declines:
• Wrinkled skin and age spots
• Muscle loss
• Motor (e.g., taking longer time to move)
• Vision (vision acuity, color vision, depth perception)
• Hearing
• Smell and Taste
• Touch
• Prone to different kinds of diseases
 Can we reverse aging?
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a5_JgBRl6UU
Cognitive Development
Intelligence
Fluid and crystallized intelligence:
Crystallized intelligence: the accumulation of information and verbal
skills; is linked to education, experience, and cultural background
• Continues to increase in middle adulthood.

Fluid intelligence: independent of any previously acquired knowledge.

• May begin to decline in middle adulthood.
 • Test your fluid intelligence
https://www.proprofs.com/quiz-school/story.php?title=ntywndm5
Intelligence
Crystallized intelligence: the accumulation of information and skills, rely
on knowledge that comes from prior learning and past experiences.
e.g., learning more vocabulary in English,

Fluid intelligence: the ability to reason abstractly, finding new ways to

solve problems; depend only minimally on prior learning.
e.g., solving new puzzles, constructing strategies to deal with new
problems

We sometimes need to use both together:

When you take a math test, the formulas comes from crystallized
intelligence. The ability to develop a strategy to solve a new problem is
the product of fluid intelligence.
Intelligence

BUT, the patterns were only supported

by cross-sectional studies:

• a cross-sectional study assesses individuals of

different ages at the same time point (e.g.,
assess the intelligence of different groups of
40-, 50-, and 60-year-olds in a single
evaluation).

• Lots of noise here (e.g., these differences are

between-participants-- cohort effects).
Intelligence

BUT, the patterns were only supported

by cross-sectional studies:

• a cross-sectional study assesses individuals of

different ages at the same time point (e.g.,
assess the intelligence of different groups of
40-, 50-, and 60-year-olds in a single
evaluation).

• Lots of noise here (e.g., these differences are

between-participants-- cohort effects).
Intelligence • Longitudinal Study: the same individuals are
studied over a period of time; data is from the
same people across their different ages.
• The differences are indeed due to development
within individuals
• The Seattle Longitudinal Study:
Initiated by K. Warner Schaie, the study involves
an extensive evaluation of intellectual abilities
during adulthood, assessing participants at seven-
year intervals from 19 56 to 2012.
peak performance on verbal ability, verbal
memory, inductive reasoning, and spatial
orientation was attained during middle
adulthood; only numeric facility and perceptual
speed decline during middle adulthood
middle age is a time of peak performance for
some aspects of crystalized and fluid intelligence
Intelligence • Longitudinal Study: the same individuals are
studied over a period of time; data is from the
same people across their different ages.
• The differences are indeed due to development
within individuals
• The Seattle Longitudinal Study:
Initiated by K. Warner Schaie, the study involves
an extensive evaluation of intellectual abilities
during adulthood, assessing participants at seven-
year intervals from 1956 to 2012.
peak performance on verbal ability, verbal
memory, inductive reasoning, and spatial
orientation was attained during middle
adulthood; only numeric facility and perceptual
speed decline during middle adulthood
middle age is a time of peak performance for
some aspects of crystalized and fluid intelligence
Intelligence

The discrepancy between the results

obtained from cross-sectional and
longitudinal studies very likely to
derive from a cohort effect.

• CROSS-SECTIONAL AND LONGITUDINAL COMPARISONS OF INTELLECTIAL

CHANGE IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
Cross-sequential Analysis
• Schaie (2007) examined generational differences in parents and their children over a seven-year
time frame from 60 to 67 years of age.
• Higher levels of cognitive functioning occurred for the second generation in inductive
reasoning, verbal memory, and spatial orientation, whereas the first generation scored higher
on numeric ability.
• The parent generation showed cognitive decline from 60 to 67 years of age, but their offspring
showed stability or modest increases in cognitive functioning across the same age range--could
due to factors such as educational attainment, occupational structures, health care and
lifestyles, and social interventions in poverty
• The gains in cognitive functioning in recent cohorts are more evident for fluid intelligence than
for crystallized intelligence.

Of course, there are individual differences

How about individual differences?
 Aging: It's Not What You Think

https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=wrTIS0uKg6o&feature=youtu.be
Brain Mechanisms
• Neural distinctiveness tends to decline as we age.
• Neural distinctiveness can positively predict fluid processing
• However, reduced neural distinctiveness could NOT predict crystalized processing

• As we age, our brain can reorganize itself to process information more effectively.
e.g., Older people can recruit new brain regions, which helps with fluid processing.

It is more accurate to think about aging as a kind of transformation rather than as pure deterioration.
Psychosocial Development
Erikson’s stage of generativity versus stagnation:
• Generativity encompasses adults’ desire to leave
legacies of themselves to the next generation—to
achieve a kind of immorality

• Middle-aged adults can develop generativity in a

number of ways:
E.g.,
• Parental generativity (raising one’s own
children or benefiting people of next “Feeling needed by people.”
generations) “Effort to ensure that young people get their
chance to develop.”
• Work generativity (generativity is positively “Influence in my community or area of interest
related to many desirable outcomes, such as
well-being and career satisfaction)
Erikson’s stage of generativity versus stagnation:
• Generativity encompasses adults’ desire to leave
legacies of themselves to the next generation—to
achieve a kind of immorality

• Middle-aged adults can develop generativity in a

number of ways:
E.g.,
• Parental generativity (raising one’s own
children or benefiting people of next “Feeling needed by people.”
generations) “Effort to ensure that young people get their
chance to develop.”
• Work generativity (generativity is positively “Influence in my community or area of interest
related to many desirable outcomes, such as
well-being and career satisfaction)
Midlife Crisis
• Everyone can experience a midlife crisis

Common symptoms:
• Feeling unfulfilled in life
• Intense feelings of nostalgia
• Impulsive, often rash actions
• Dramatic changes in behavior and appearance
• Marital infidelity or constant thoughts about infidelity
• Intense feelings of regret very successful people in the conventional
sense can also experience midlife crisis

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u1XxJE0RQVM
Stress and Personal Control in Midlife

WHY?
1. Physical and cognitive aging (mortality and aging).
2. Many demands and responsibilities.

• More attention is given to responsibility for others, including people both

younger and older than they are.
• Middle-aged adults can experience more overload stressors that involve
juggling too many activities at once.
• In one-third of cases where individuals report experiencing a midlife
crisis, it was triggered by life events such as job loss, financial problems,
or illness.
Midlife Crisis
How pervasive?

• 26 percent of middle-aged U.S. adults said they had

experienced a midlife crisis, but most attributed
the crisis to negative life events rather than aging;
women were as likely as men to report having had
a midlife crisis (Wethington, Kessler, & Pixley,
2004).

• A longitudinal study of more than 2,000 individuals

found few midlife crises (McCrae & Costa, 1990;
Siegler & Costa, 1999)--the emotional instability of
individuals did not significantly increase through
their middle-aged years.
Midlife: A period of crisis A period of peak functioning

26 percent of middle-aged U.S. adults Middle age is a time of considerable stability and
said they had experienced a midlife crisis; happiness; associated with positive descriptors
same for men and women such as competent, responsible, knowledgeable,
and powerful (Lachman et al. 1994).
Stressors and Responsibilities
The time when financial obligations For middle-aged adults, health is generally good,
spread to the generation below (raising & and most physical changes do not cause disability
schooling children), and the generation or alter lifestyles.
above (caring for elderly relatives: cf.
Spitze & Logan, 1990). No obvious cognitive decline (if not gain); In fact,
Financial burdens may be substantial on verbal memory seems to peak in midlife.
the middle-aged individuals themselves,
e.g., mortgages (ABFP, 1990), job loss, A shift from expansionist motives, such as
financial problems, and illness. achievement, identity development, and self-
actualization, to motives involving security or
Existential Factors threat avoidance.
Physical and cognitive aging (mortality Identity concern decreases, whereas confidence,
and aging). power, and generativity increase.
Personal achievement and fulfilment
issues: goals that can never be met
Midlife Crisis
• 26 percent of middle-aged U.S. adults said they
had experienced a midlife crisis, but most
attributed the crisis to negative life events rather
than aging; women were as likely as men to report
having had a midlife crisis (Wethington, Kessler, &
Pixley, 2004).

• A longitudinal study of more than 2,000

individuals found few midlife crises (McCrae &
Costa, 1990; Siegler & Costa, 1999)--the emotional
instability of individuals did not significantly
increase through their middle-aged years.

Stage theories focus on the universals of adult personality development---These

theories do not adequately address individual variations in adult development
The Final Stage
Since 2010, both women and men in
Hong Kong have led the world in life
expectancy.

According to the latest data of the

World Bank, the life expectancy for
males and females in Hong Kong stand
at 82 years and 88 years, respectively.
Death
Brain death: a neurological death when all electrical activity of the brain
has ceased for a specified period of time--The permanent, irreversible,
and complete loss of brain function.

Some of the signs of brain death include:

• The pupils don’t respond to light.
• The person shows no reaction to pain.
• The eyes don’t blink when the eye surface is touched.
• The eyes don’t move when the head is moved.
• The person doesn’t breathe when the ventilator is switched
off.
• An EEG test shows no brain activity at all.

• Paolo_Toffanin/Getty Images
Now please spend sometime to think about your own physical death.
How people perceived death
• Please rate the extent to which each metaphor could describe your personal perception of
death (0 = not all; 5 =quite well)

A cold lonely journey A homecoming

A high stone wall A peaceful garden
A fall from a cliff A great adventure
An ugly monster A clear crisp morning
A black hole A soothing breeze
An empty gray space A family reunion
A thick fog A comforting parent
A devouring tiger A deserved holiday
A hammer blow A new experience

A general decrease in positive perception of death and an increase in negative perception of death
from 2004 to 2016 among Hong Kong University students (Chau, Cheung, & Ho, 2019, Death Studies)
 10 minutes to discuss the following questions in a group
• How do you feel about death?
• What kind of behaviour would you like to engage in when you think about your mortality?
• What kind of behaviour do you think other people would demonstrate when they are aware of
their death? Can you think of any human behaviors or attitudes can be triggered by thinking
about death.
 Terror Management Theory
• Two simple assumptions:
humans have a strong desire to stay alive (e.g., we have the instincts to run away from dangers
and be sensitive to negative cues)
humans have led to the realization that humans are mortal--we can picture and understand that
death is the final stage for everyone

• The combination of the desire to stay alive with the knowledge of one’s mortality creates
existential terror-- the fear of no longer existing.
Terror Management Theory
To buffer this fear:

• Religious worldviews/beliefs (literal immortality: e.g., after the biological body has died,
the spiritual body is believed to live on; belief in reincarnation; how about digital
immortality?

• Having offspring; cultural achievement in the arts and sciences (symbolic immortality).
to buffer existential fear, people strive to be significant beings who are qualified
for transcendence of death
Decisions Regarding Life, Death, and Health Care

• Death can be lonely, prolonged, and painful (61 percent of dying patients were in pain in
the last year of life; nearly one-third had symptoms of depression and confusion prior to death).

• A good death involves physical comfort, support from loved ones, acceptance,
and appropriate medical care.
• The three most frequent themes for a good death:
(1) preference for dying process;
(2) pain-free status;
(3) emotional well-being
Decisions Regarding Life, Death, and Health Care

Hospice: a program committed to making end of life as free from pain, anxiety, and depression as possible.
• usually serves a patient to have six months or fewer to live.
• a primary is to bring pain under control and to help dying patients face death in a psychologically healthy
way
• approximately 90 percent of hospice care is provided in patients’ homes

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uY6ubn7fxEI
Take-Home Message
 The general pattern has been
determined for us

But it is just the general pattern

What would you like to fill your
bottle with?

This is entirely up to you!

 Delayed Gratification
Delay of gratification: engaging in self-control by waiting until late to obtain something more
valuable rather than immediately seeking satisfaction with something less valuable.

To study the delay of gratification among children: the marshmallow test: one now or two later?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QX_oy9614HQ

Children who were able to wait for two marshmallows grew up to be

• more intelligent
• academic success (e.g., In one group of participants, there was a link between delay of gratification and
higher SAT scores)
• more likely to resist temptation
• have better social responsibility
• exhibit better ways to cope with frustration and stress
• strive for higher levels of achievement in many areas of life