Design and Operation of Final Clarifiers

Sam Jeyanayagam

T
he final or secondary clarifier is one of ent with low effluent suspended solids (ESS)
the most important unit processes and levels. Thickening is the conveyance of sludge Sam Jeyanayagam, Ph.D., P.E., DEE, is a
of ten determines the capac i ty of a particles to the bottom of the tank, resulting senior associate with the environmental
treatment plant. The activated sludge system in a slightly con cen tra ted underflow, or engineering and consulting firm Malcolm
consists of two unit processes, the aeration return activated sludge (RAS). Pirnie Inc. in the company’s Columbus,
basin and the final clarifier (Figure 1), which Cl a ri f i c a ti on invo lves less than 2 per- Ohio, office.
are inseparable, with the performance of one cent of the solids that en ter the clari f i er. A
closely linked to that of the other. The failure rise in ESS is an indicati on of cl a rificati on
to consider this interdependency has led to f a i lu re . Th i ckening invo lves a rel a tively larg-
poor clarifier design and operation. er fracti on of the solids (> 98 percen t ) . occ u r. Al s o, deep sludge bl a n kets co u l d
This article outlines factors that are cen- Th i ckening failu re results in a rise in slu d ge po ten tially cause den i tri f i c a ti on and sec-
tral to the design and operation of clarifiers, bl a n ket depth. If the clarifier fails in ei t h er ondary ph o s phorus rel e a s e .
as well as tools available to analyze and pre- of these functi on s , the fo llowing would be
dict their beh avi or, b a s ed on a sys tems en co u n tered : Design & Operational Criteria
approach. Ø Effluent TSS permit violations. The cri teria commonly used in the
Ø Unintentional wasting of solids with the design and oper ational assessment of final
Types of Settling effluent leading to a reduction of solids clarifiers are the overflow rate, the solids
The types of settling that occur in waste- retention time (SRT), which could poten- loading rate, and the weir loading rate. Of
water treatment are summarized in Table 1. tially impact the biological process. these, the overflow and solids loading rates
Type III settling is the predominant mecha- are the most important and are discussed in
nism in secondary cl a ri f i ers and govern s Cl a rifiers may also be used for tem po- the following paragraphs.
design, although Types I, II, and IV settling rary slu d ge storage during diu rnal flow
may also occur to a limited extent. f lu ctu a ti on s . Lon g - term slu d ge stora ge in Overflow Rate
cl a ri f i ers should be avoi ded, since it re su l t s As the floc settles in a clarifier, the dis-
Functions of a Clarifier in a su b s t a n tial porti on of the bi om a s s placed water rises upward. The upward veloc-
The final clarifier must perform two pri- being held in the cl a ri f i er in a rel a tively ity of water is term ed the overf l ow ra te
mary functions: clarification and thickening. i n active state , ra t h er than in the aera ti on (OFR), with units of gpd/ft2, and is deter-
Clarification is the separation of solids from tank, where ox ygen and su b s tra te are ava i l- mined by dividing flow (gpd) by the clarifier
the liquid stream to produce a clarified efflu- able for the de s i red bi o l ogical re acti ons to surface area (ft2).
When a clarifier is opera ted at a spec i f i ed
OFR, a ll parti cles having settling vel oc i ti e s
high er than the opera ting OFR wi ll be
removed , while parti cles with lower settling
vel oc i ties wi ll be carri ed over the ef f lu ent wei r.
By sel ecting a proper OFR, cl a ri f i c a ti on is
en su red . Wh en the cl a ri f i er is not thickening
limited (rising slu d ge blanket ) , its capac i ty
may be incre a s ed by improving set t l e a bi l i ty.

Solids Loading Rate

The clarifier solids load rate (SLR) in
lb/d/ft2, represents the mass of solids applied
Continued on page 36

35
 total system (aeration basin plus clarifier)
cost is a minimum.
Where feasible, implementing a step-
feed configuration would allow greater solids
inventory to be maintained for a given vol-
ume of the activated sl udge basin without
impacting the clarifier SLR.

Sludge Settleability
Like MLSS, sludge settleability has a pro-
found impact on clarifier design and opera-
tion. The density differential between the aer-
ation basin floc (which contains greater than
75 percent water) and the surrounding water
is small; therefore, flocculation is necessary
for effective solids separation in the clarifier.
Flocculation is the process by which par-
ticles aggregate into large r (up to 2 mm
diameter) and heavier particles that settle
readily. When this happens in biological sys-
tems, it is called bioflocculation.
Continued from page 35 sion of the sludge blanket. If the applied According to Jenkins et al. (2004),
per unit area per unit time. It is calculated as solids flux is less than the limiting flu x bioflocculation involves two mechanisms. As
follows: (underloaded condition), the sludge blanket shown in Figure 3, some microbes (floc for-
would be composed of zones h2 and h4 only. m ers) produ ce exocellular polym ers that
SLR = 8.34*(Q + Qras)*X/A (1) allow them to “stick” to each other to form a
Factors that Impact weak and relatively small floc that is suscepti-
Where, Clarifier Performance ble to shearing. The second particle bonding
Q = Influent flow, mgd The clarification capacity is related to mechanism involves filamentous organisms
Qras = RAS flow, mgd the rate at which the incoming solids can be that form a reinforcing net work, wh i ch
X = MLSS concentration, mg/L separated and conveyed to the sludge collec- strengthens the floc and allows it to grow into
A = Clarifier surface area, ft2 tion mechanism at the bottom of the tank. a larger particle.
Clarifier performance is primarily impacted As the floc grows, inert particles are
The maximum amount of solids that by sludge settleability and MLSS concentra- incorporated. The presence of some inert
can be conveyed to the bottom of a clarifier is tion. Favorable hydrodynamic characteristics material has been shown to pr omote good
called the limiting flux. When SLR exceeds the are also vital to clarifier performance. settling. As presented in Table 2, commonly
limiting flux, a rising sludge blanket (thicken- encountered clarification problems can be
ing failure) is encountered. MLSS Requirements explained by the degree of flocculation.
Most design engineers prefer to keep the The aeration basin MLSS is one of the From an operational po int of view, a
maximum solids loading rate in the range of most important operating parameters, since proper balance between filamentous organ-
25 to 35 lb/d/ft2. Higher rates of up to 50 it directly impacts clarifier SLR. The design isms and floc formers would ensure good
lb/d/ft2 have been encountered in plants with MLSS is typically selected based on the solids setlleability. Short filaments may not impact
low SVIs, well-designed clarifiers, and effec- inventory required to
tive solids removal. The state point analysis m eet process objec-
discussed below provides a means of estab- tive s . Mixed - l i qu or
lishing site-specific solids loading rate. concentrations signif-
According to the In tern a ti onal Water icantly less than 1,000
Association model (Figure 2), the clarifier mg/L do not settle
solids concentration profile consists of four well, while mixing
zones: a clear water zone (h1), a separation and ox ygen tra n s fer
zone (h2), a sludge storage zone (h 3), and a may become limiting
thickening/sludge removal zone (h 4). When at MLSS above 6,000
the SLR exceeds the limiting flux, the sludge mg/L.
storage zone (h3) expands to accumulate the For a given
sludge and limits its conveyance to the bot- process requirem en t ,
tom of the tank. The continued expansion of a higher MLSS con-
h3 will result in the sludge interface reaching cen tra tion wo u l d
the effluent weir, causing a loss of solids (clar- require a smaller bio-
ification failure). logical reactor but a
During normal operation, the storage larger cl a ri f i er to
zone expands and contracts in r esponse to accommod a te the
the diu rnal flu ctu a ti on of solids loading; incre a s ed SLR. An
therefore, sufficient clarifier depth should be opti m i zed MLSS is
provided to accommodate the routine expan- one for wh i ch the
 Sludge settleability may be measured by
s everal met h od s , i n cluding the trad i ti on a l
(unstirred) Slu d ge Vo lume Index (SVI),
Stirred SVI (SSVI), Dilute SVI (DSVI), and
SSVI at 3,500 mg/L (SSVI3.5). The Traditional
SVI is the most commonly used method and
is defined as the volume (mL) occupied by 1
g of the MLSS following 30 minutes of set-
tling. Good and poor settleabilities are repre-
sented by SVI values of less than 100 mL/g
and more than 175 mL/g, respectively.

Hydrodynamic Considerations
The solids capture efficiency is strongly
impacted by hydrodynamic characteristics of
the cl a ri f i er. Fe a tu res that con tri bute to
improved clarification include:
Ø Even flow splitting to allow the full capaci-
ty of all clarifiers to be realized. Poor per-
formance of an overloaded clarifier gener-
ally can not be compensated by good per-
sludge settleability, even when present in sig- mass of solids to the activated sludge basin.
formance of an underloaded clarifier.
nificant numbers, as much as a smaller num- Also, for a given change in settleability, the
Ø Energy dissipating inlets to achieve uni-
ber of long and coiled filaments. Strategies change in RAS rate is more dramatic as the
form distribut ion of flow and enhanced
commonly used for improving sludge set- operating MLSS increases.
flocculation.
tleability are presented in Table 3. Steady-state clarifier operation is rarely
Ø S tra tegically placed internal baffles to min-
Sludge settleability impacts the operat- encountered in practice. Operating parame-
i m i ze short circ u i ting and den s i ty currents.
ing RAS flow rate (Qras). A mass balance ters fluctuate throughout the day. If the avail-
Ø Deep flocculating center well to enhance
around the clarifier provides the following able RAS flow range is limited, the operator
flocculation.
expression for Qras (mgd) in terms of influ- will not be able to maintain the desired MLSS
Ø Deep tanks (>15 feet) to allow the sludge
ent flow (Q, mgd), MLSS (X, mg/L), and RAS as changes in settleability are encountered. In
blanket to expand and contract in
solids (Xras, mg/L): addition, if the actual RAS rate is less than the
response to varying operating conditions
required rate, the resulting solids accumula-
without causing elevated ESS.
Qras = (Q*X) ÷ (Xras-X) (2) tion in the clarifier will cause the sludge blan-
Ø Rapid slu d ge rem oval mechanism (e.g.
ket to propagate to the surface (thickening
hydraulic suction, Tow-Bro™ type).
For example, as shown in Figure 4, a failure), resulting in loss of solids in the efflu-
decrease in RAS solids concentration (X ras) ent (clarification failure). This illustrates the
Floc Shear
from 8,000 to 7,000 mg/L, due to decrease in link between the performance of the clarifier
While it is important to en co u rage
settleability, will require an increase in Qras and the aeration basin and the need for oper-
strong floc formation, it is equally important
from 60 to 70 percent to transfer the same ational flexibility.
to preserve the integrity of the floc that is
formed. Aeration systems should be designed
to provide adequate air and mixing, while
avoiding floc breakup.
In diffused aerati on systems, air input
higher than 90 scfm/1,000 ft3 tank volume is
likely to cause floc shear. Likewise in mechani-
cal aeration systems, the typical volumetric
power input should not exceed 3.5 HP/1,000 ft3.
In addition, turbulence should be mini-
mized in mixed-liquor conveyance systems. If
pumping is required, proper pump selection
is critical. A gently aerated clarifier feed chan-
nel or clarifiers with flocculating feed wells
are likely to enhance floc formation.

State Point Analysis

Basic Concept
State Point Analysis (SPA) is a practical
tool available to designers and ope rators to
examine the behavior of the final clarifier
under various operating scenarios. Since it is
based on site-specific data, SPA can also be
Continued on page 38

37
Continued from page 37 ZSV = Vo e-kX (3) By performing a series of settling tests at
used to develop design criteria specific to a different MLSS concentrations, several com-
plant, thereby lowering design safety factors, Where Vo and k are settling constants binations of X and G values can be generated.
optimizing clarifier size, and enhancing con- obtained from a series of settling tests. A The solids flux curve is then dev eloped by
fidence in the design process. good settling sludge is characterized by high plotting G on the y-axis and the correspon-
SPA is an extension of the solids flux the- Vo and low k. The solids flux (G), lb/ft2/d, is ding value of X on the x-axis.
ory, which describes the movement of solids obtained by multiplying the zone settling The next step is to superimpose the two
through a clarifier. As stated before, Type III velocity by the solids concentration. key operating parameters of a clarifier, the
settling is the predominant solids removal OFR and underflow rate (UFR). These are
mechanism in final clarifiers. It involves set- G = (ZSV) X (4) shown as st raight lines with slopes de ter-
tling of flocculated particles as a zone or mined as follows:
bl a n ket, with parti cles maintaining thei r By combining equations (3) and (4), we
position relative to each other. The zone set- obtain: OFR = Q/A (6)
tling velocity (ZSV) is a function of MLSS UFR = -Qras/A (7)
con cen trati on (X) and is commonly G = (X*Vo)*e-kX (5)
expressed by the Vesilind equation: Continued on page 43

38
Continued from page 38 permit limits. At this operating point, of solids in the effluent (clarification
Where, peak flows will likely result in high ESS. failure).
Q = Influent flow, gpd • Overloaded: State Point located outside
Qras = RAS flow, gpd the flux curve. Settling Velocity < OFR. As illustrated in the Figure 5, a good set-
A = Clarifier surface area, ft2 Solids carryover resulting in high ESS. tling sludge (low SVI) will have a greater area
Ø Thickening condition is predicted by the below the solids flux curve, relative to a poor
The OFR line re presents the upward location of the UFR line in relation to the settling sludge (high SVI). This implies that
velocity (positive slope) of the water flowing descending arm of the solids flux curve. with a go od settling sludge, the State Point
through the clarifier and is drawn from the This analysis would allow site-specific SLR will have greater freedom of movement with-
origin with a slope of Q/A. The UFR repre- to be established. The different thickening in the solids flux curve and the clarifier will
sents the downward velocity (negative slope) conditions are: have a greater operating range.
of the solids due to sludge withdrawal. It is • Underloaded : UFR line contained A few examples of how SPA can be used
drawn with a negative slope of Qras/A, starting within the flux curve. SLR < Limiting to investigate and correct clarifier perform-
at the clarifier solids flux (G) on the y-axis, Flux. No significant solids accumula- ance issues are summarized in Table 4. The
which is calculated using Equation 1: tion and no appreciable sludge blanket. potential solutions, denoted (a) and (b), are
• Critically loaded: UFR line is tangent to shown in dashed line in the respective figures.
G = SLR = 8.34*(Q + Qras)*X/A (8) the descending arm of flux curve. SLR Increasing the RAS flow is a quick way to
= Limiting flux. A sludge blanket is transfer solids from the clarifier to the aera-
The various components of the SPA are form ed. This may be an accept a bl e tion basin to relieve thickening failure; how-
shown in Figure 5. The point of intersection operating point to cope w ith diurnal ever, this will also increase the solids loading
of the OFR and UFR lines is the State Point. peak solids load. Continued growth of rate to the clarifiers and may not be an effec-
The solids concentration (X-axis) at the State the sludge blanket should be avoided. tive long-term strategy.
Point is the aeration basin MLSS concentra- • Overl oaded: UFR line inters ects the
tion. The State Point represents the operating de s cending arm of flux curve . Conclusion
point of a clarifier. Because operating condi- Si gnificant solids acc u mu l a ti on and This article reviews the many interre-
tions are never constant, the State Point is deep sludge blanket. Net transfe r of lated factors that impact clarifier perform-
dynamic in nature. solids from aeration basin to the clari- ance and pre s ents the State Point An a lys i s
fier. Conti nu ed prop a ga ti on of the as a practical tool available to designers
Practical Application sludge blanket is likely to result in loss and operators for assessing cl a rifier beh av-
The SPA approach can be used ior under various opera ting scen a r-
by designers and operators to pre- ios. The State Point approach also
dict clarifier performance as follows: a ll ows site - s pecific de s i gn cri teri a
Ø Clarification condition is predict- su ch as solids loading rate to be
ed by the location of the State devel oped , b a s ed on the linked
Point in relation to the solids flux beh avi or of the activa ted slu d ge
curve. This analysis would allow basin and the cl a rifier.
site-specific OFR to be estab- The engineer’s goal should be to use
lished. The different clarification good design practices in the design of
conditions are: final clarifiers; however, poor sludge
• Underloaded: State Point con- settleability can curtail the operating
tained within the flux curve. range of even the best of clarifiers.
Settling velocity > OFR. Low Opera tors should strive to en h a n ce
ESS. settleability to the extent possible in
• Critically loa ded: State Point order to ensure stable clarifier opera-
on solids flux curve. Settling tion over a wide range of operating
velocity = OFR. ESS close to conditions. S

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