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Educational Linguistics

Slobodanka Dimova
Joyce Kling Editors

Integrating
Content and
Language in
Multilingual
Universities
Educational Linguistics

Volume 44

Series Editor
Francis M. Hult, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, USA

Editorial Board
Marilda C. Cavalcanti, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
Jasone Cenoz, University of the Basque Country, Leioa, Spain
Angela Creese, University of Stirling, Stirling, United Kingdom
Ingrid Gogolin, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
Christine Hélot, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
Hilary Janks, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
Claire Kramsch, University of California, Berkeley, USA
Constant Leung, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
Angel Lin, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada
Alastair Pennycook, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia
Educational Linguistics is dedicated to innovative studies of language use and
language learning. The series is based on the idea that there is a need for studies that
break barriers. Accordingly, it provides a space for research that crosses traditional
disciplinary, theoretical, and/or methodological boundaries in ways that advance
knowledge about language (in) education. The series focuses on critical and
contextualized work that offers alternatives to current approaches as well as
practical, substantive ways forward. Contributions explore the dynamic and multi-­
layered nature of theory-practice relationships, creative applications of linguistic
and symbolic resources, individual and societal considerations, and diverse social
spaces related to language learning.
The series publishes in-depth studies of educational innovation in contexts
throughout the world: issues of linguistic equity and diversity; educational language
policy; revalorization of indigenous languages; socially responsible (additional)
language teaching; language assessment; first- and additional language literacy;
language teacher education; language development and socialization in non-­
traditional settings; the integration of language across academic subjects; language
and technology; and other relevant topics.
The Educational Linguistics series invites authors to contact the general editor
with suggestions and/or proposals for new monographs or edited volumes. For more
information, please contact the Editor: Natalie Rieborn, Van Godewijckstraat 30,
3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/5894

Slobodanka Dimova • Joyce Kling
Editors

Integrating Content and

Language in Multilingual
Universities
Editors
Slobodanka Dimova Joyce Kling
University of Copenhagen University of Copenhagen
Copenhagen, Denmark Copenhagen, Denmark

ISSN 1572-0292     ISSN 2215-1656 (electronic)

Educational Linguistics
ISBN 978-3-030-46946-7    ISBN 978-3-030-46947-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46947-4

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Preface

In the early days of my career journey, universities were generally considered to be

nationally oriented. They did not compete with each other. They offered programs
and courses designed for a national market, and they scarcely looked across borders
to see what others were doing.
That was of course a myth.
Actors in the universities – students and staff – at least some of them did look at
what was happening elsewhere. I, for one, was excited and awakened by the inter-
nationalism among students during my time in Paris in 1968. Half a century ago.
But who wouldn’t be?
I recall a discussion, naturally in French, with a German and a Spanish colleague
at around the same time. I was amazed how different their degree programs were
from my own. Nominally, we were studying for comparable degrees in French in
our different countries, Northern Ireland, Germany, and Spain, but there were so
many differences and nuances. It was not easy to understand why one educational
system placed emphasis on this or that while another did not. In each country, the
focus was still resolutely national.
Since those days, however, we have witnessed a dramatic change in higher edu-
cation. Students, staff, institutions, and governing authorities do look across bor-
ders – every day. This is of course partly as a response to the challenges of
globalization and policy, both local and national. The tentacles of globalization seep
through every level of society, whether we like it or not.
To address this change, universities have adopted diverse internationalization
practices and policies. In so doing, they have become more competitive not only in
their research – for instance the publication pressure – but also in their recruitment
of students and staff. The increased competition has made it essential for institutions
to demonstrate the quality of their work and teaching, particularly in relation to
other institutions.
To demonstrate the quality of internationalization, universities are adapting the
content of educational programs so that they reflect transnational and global trends
and challenges in the disciplines concerned. Internationalization can of course be
effectively conducted through the language of instruction that an institution has

v
vi Preface

always used as the medium for education. Stakeholders – students, teaching staff, as
well as institutional management – in an internationalized program, however, will
be readily aware of the need to understand the language and culture of others, and
in doing so become cognizant of the impacts of their own cultures and languages on
members of other cultures.
Most universities indeed have long histories of offering courses in foreign lan-
guage and cultures, occasionally even directly linked to the disciplinary content.
The challenge today is how to amplify such a provision and make it soundly rele-
vant to today’s students and staff. Thus, institutions are increasingly offering higher
educational programs and courses where content and language are integrated. The
goal in this endeavor is to enable students to acquire not only disciplinary knowl-
edge but also become highly competent in an additional language, and specifically
in how the language encapsulates the discipline.
Universities have a choice about which language or languages to use when they
internationalize programs. In theory, they could use the local language. In practice,
it is “easy” for them to choose English. English is widely the most common foreign
language taught in secondary schools. Programs with English as the medium of
instruction are likely to attract foreign students, and the offer of English medium
instruction (EMI) courses and programs may well facilitate the recruitment of inter-
national faculty. In both cases, management will expect to recruit highly motivated
students and faculty of excellent quality. The institution would rise in the interna-
tional rankings, gain prestige in student guides, and acquire better accreditation. It
sounds like a win-win all round.
However, we need to take account of the impacts of teaching in one single com-
mon language. Even if programs are in English, we should consider how best to
design and implement content and language integrated programs so that they reflect
optimally the needs of future society both nationally and internationally. This likely
implies making increased provision in other languages too.
Moreover, there are the great societal challenges, such as the unequal distribution
of resources, poverty, and the environment. Addressing these is often part of the
mission statements of universities. The challenges need to be met locally and glob-
ally, drawing on English as a lingua franca and other languages. Therefore, it is
important for us to investigate what the optimal structure and the optimal process
for the integration of content and language in higher education might be.
My career journey started with straightforward language teaching, where I was
focused on the impact and effectiveness of my teaching on individual high school
students. I gradually became concerned with the broader impact, especially by
means of teaching methodologies that might work with different types of students
and teachers. In time, I grew interested in how multiple language learning has soci-
etal effects, and, later, in how societies and professions may impact the language or
languages used. My journey has not stopped.
The chapters in this book offer a timely insight for me to take stock of where my
next staging post might lie. Likewise, I hope, for you. Together, the authors depict
an awesome landscape for internationalized programs, especially with respect to
Preface vii

EMI, the design and the implementation of such programs, and their impacts on the
actors concerned.
Through this book, the editors Slobodanka Dimova and Joyce Kling lead us on
an exciting journey across different contexts to show the synergy and tensions
between local languages and English, and their relationship with other languages in
higher education contexts. Enjoy the adventure!

Maastricht, The Netherlands  Robert Wilkinson

Contents


Current Considerations on Integrating Content
and Language in Multilingual Universities ��������������������������������������������������    1
Slobodanka Dimova and Joyce Kling

Part I Theoretical and Political Underpinnings of Integrating

Content and Language

English Medium Instruction: Disintegrating Language
and Content?����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   15
Diane Pecorari

Integrating Content and Language: The Role of Other
Languages Than English in an International University ����������������������������   37
Anne Holmen

Part II Integrating Content and Language Across Contexts


Internationalizing Japan’s Undergraduate Education
Through English Medium Instruction ����������������������������������������������������������   53
Annette Bradford

The Benefits, Challenges and Prospects of EMI in Croatia:
An Integrated Perspective ������������������������������������������������������������������������������   75
Branka Drljača Margić and Irena Vodopija-Krstanović

Transitioning EAL Students from EFL Classes to EMI Programs
at the University of Iceland ����������������������������������������������������������������������������   97
Birna Arnbjörnsdóttir

English Medium Instruction in Higher Education in Qatar:
A Multi-­Dimensional Analysis Using the ROAD-MAPPING
Framework ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 115
Zohreh R. Eslami, Keith M. Graham, and Hassan Bashir

ix
x Contents


Internationalization Through Language and Literacy
in the Spanish- and English-­Medium Education Context���������������������������� 131
Davinia Sánchez-García

Part III Content Teachers’ Reflections


Acknowledging the Role of Language in English Medium Instruction:
Experiences from a Pilot Project Intervention at University
of Copenhagen�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 153
Sanne Larsen and Frank Jensen

English Medium Instruction Through the Lens of a Content Teacher:
Challenges, Adjustments, and Opportunities������������������������������������������������ 167
Cristina del Campo

Postscript: Moving Forward in Integrating Content
and Language in Multilingual Higher Education ���������������������������������������� 179
Emma Dafouz
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Contributors

Birna Arnbjörnsdóttir Vigdís Finnbogadóttir Institute, Department of Languages

and Cultures, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
Hassan Bashir Liberal Arts Program, Texas A&M University-Qatar, Doha, Qatar
Annette Bradford Oxford EMI, Tokyo, Japan
Cristina del Campo Department of Financial and Actuarial Economics and
Statistics, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Emma Dafouz Department of English Studies (Language and Literature),
Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Slobodanka Dimova Centre for Internationalisation and Parallel Language Use,
University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Zohreh R. Eslami Department of Teaching, Learning and Culture, Texas A&M
University and Texas A&M University-Qatar, Doha, Qatar
Keith M. Graham Department of Teaching, Learning and Culture, Texas A&M
University, College Station, TX, USA
Anne Holmen Centre for Internationalisation and Parallel Language Use,
University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Frank Jensen Department of Food and Resource Economics, University of
Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Joyce Kling Centre for Internationalisation and Parallel Language Use, University
of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Sanne Larsen Centre for Internationalisation and Parallel Language Use,
University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
Branka Drljača Margić Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of
Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia

xi
xii Contributors

Diane Pecorari Department of English, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon

Tong, Hong Kong
Davinia Sánchez-García Department of English Studies (Linguistics and
Literature), Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Irena Vodopija-Krstanović Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University
of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
Robert Wilkinson Retired (Maastricht University), Chair of ICLHE Association,
Maastricht, The Netherlands
Current Considerations on Integrating
Content and Language in Multilingual
Universities

Slobodanka Dimova and Joyce Kling

Abstract Local linguistic diversity and growing teacher and student mobility in
higher education (HE) around the world have resulted in increasingly multilingual
teaching and learning contexts. This has provided HE institutions opportunities to
offer instruction in more than one language—typically the local language(s) and
English, but also other languages. This chapter provides an overview of different
perspectives on integrating content and languages in multilingual HE institutions
across various contexts. The overview includes the history, the issues, and the future
considerations regarding integrating content and language in higher education
(ICLHE) across the different contexts in order to identify local contextual factors
that may contribute to the differences in the language policies and practices in HE.

Keywords Integrating content and language · ICLHE · Contextual factors

1 Introduction

This volume provides a global perspective on integrating content and languages in

multilingual higher education (HE) institutions. Local linguistic diversity and grow-
ing teacher and student mobility in HE around the world have resulted in increas-
ingly multilingual teaching and learning contexts. This has provided HE institutions
opportunities to offer instruction in more than one language—typically the local
language(s) and English, but also other languages.
Volumes focusing on Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) and
Integrating Content and Language in Higher Education (ICLHE) have traditionally
addressed issues related to how to teach English as an additional language in order to
improve content learning in English medium instruction (EMI) contexts in

S. Dimova (*) · J. Kling

Centre for Internationalisation and Parallel Language Use, University of Copenhagen,
Copenhagen, Denmark
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

S. Dimova, J. Kling (eds.), Integrating Content and Language in Multilingual
Universities, Educational Linguistics 44,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46947-4_1
2 S. Dimova and J. Kling

HE. Discussions in these volumes include student and teacher perceptions, teacher
training, staff effectiveness, learning effectiveness, and program development. The
volumes tend to address how focused language instruction and assessment can be
utilized as a foundation for disciplinary content learning, without specific consider-
ation of the diverse contexts (cf., Nikula, Dafouz, Moore, & Smit, 2016; Valcke &
Wilkinson, 2017; Wilkinson & Walsh, 2015). Where this volume is unique is that
across the chapters, the authors touch on areas that have been neglected, such as the
role of additional languages other than English in HE, the need for a bridge between
secondary and tertiary education in terms of adequate language training for content
learning, Integrating Content and Language (ICL) endeavors at institutions across
different educational contexts, and inclusion of the voices of content language
teachers. These aspects take us beyond initial concerns of program implementation
that include only the challenges and benefits of ICL.
The chapters in this book are organized under three sections: “Theoretical and
Political Underpinnings of Integrating Content and Language”, “Integrating Content
and Language Across Contexts, and Content Teachers’ Reflections”. The first sec-
tion consists of two chapters (“English Medium Instruction: Disintegrating
Language and Content?” and “Integrating Content and Language: The Role of
Other Languages than English in an International University”), which address the
theoretical frameworks and the role of policy in ICLHE. Given the rapid expansion
of ICL in HE, there has been a melding of ICL modes and methods in both terminol-
ogy and practice. During the initial stages of ICL implementation, researchers and
practitioners experimented with different theoretical frameworks and instructional
approaches. This resulted in inconsistent application of terminology. In an attempt
to remedy the inconsistency, authors have offered clear and compelling explana-
tions delineating and defining these practices (cf., Dafouz, 2014; Dafouz & Smit,
2020; Macaro, 2018; Pecorari & Malström, 2018). As we move forward now, in
what perhaps can be considered a next phase of research on ICLHE, we must recon-
sider the terminology we use to define the ICLHE constructs in order to establish
more precise and consistent reference to the constructs to enable us to have more
comparable research. In the chapter “English Medium Instruction: Disintegrating
Language and Content?”, Pecorari does just this by addressing different approaches
to ICL. She disambiguates the overlap and highlights the distinguishing features of
the different terms and concepts through an overview of the history of ICL. She then
exemplifies the application of these concepts through two comparative case studies
from very different contexts (Sweden and Hong Kong). While Pecorari provides a
clear explanation of immersion, CLIL, and EMI, in the chapter “Integrating Content
and Language: The Role of Other Languages than English in an International
University”, Holmen provides argumentation for and exemplification of a range of
FL teaching approaches taken at the University of Copenhagen (UCPH) in connec-
tion with a 5-year project governed by a local language policy and focused on
ICLHE and multilingualism.
Five chapters (“Internationalizing Japan’s Undergraduate Education through
English Medium Instruction”, “The Benefits, Challenges and Prospects of EMI in
Croatia: An Integrated Perspective”, “Transitioning EAL Students from EFL
Current Considerations on Integrating Content and Language in Multilingual Universities 3

Classes to EMI Programs at The University of Iceland”, “English Medium

Instruction in Higher Education in Qatar: A Multi-Dimensional Analysis Using the
ROAD-MAPPING Framework”, and “Internationalization through Language and
Literacy in the Spanish English Medium Education Context”) are included in the
second section, “Integrating Content and Language Across Contexts”. This section
provides a glimpse into key aspects of ICL in EMI courses and programs across
specific contexts. Given the current worldwide ideologies, English holds a unique
position across diverse disciplines. It is considered strongly desirable among gradu-
ates and has a strong influence on educational policy. However, with the implemen-
tation of EMI courses and degree programs being increasingly linked to
internationalization and the development of global citizens who are both linguisti-
cally and culturally savvy, we need to revisit the role of other languages in HE to
highlight how EMI reinforces multilingualism and draws on competencies and
skills of all the actors. Therefore, although the emphasis of most of the chapters is
EMI, we want to focus on the interaction of English and other languages in HE and
the integration of content. While EMI is at the heart of the collection in this volume,
the authors link the implementation of EMI in non-Anglophone HEs with a constel-
lation of other languages in their contexts.
The contexts represented in the chapters describe the challenge of not only main-
taining the local/national language(s) for educational purposes, but often additional
regional as well as other foreign languages (FLs) needed to address current disci-
plinary demands. Thus, this volume provides a broad perspective through a com-
parative overview of the political, socio-cultural, and academic similarities and
differences of EMI across different contexts (i.e., North-east Asia, Northern and
Southern Europe, and the Middle East) as well as the different ICL modes and
methods in HE.
The last section, “Content Teachers’ Reflections”, comprises two chapters
(“Acknowledging the Role of Language in English Medium Instruction: Experiences
from a Pilot Project Intervention at University of Copenhagen” and “English
Medium Instruction through the Lens of a Content Teacher: Challenges, Adjustments,
and Opportunities”) written by ICL practitioners. These chapters offer insiders’ per-
spectives of ICL from non-native English-speaking content teachers working with
non-native English-speaking students in EMI courses in Denmark and Spain,
respectively. These two chapters (especially “English Medium Instruction through
the Lens of a Content Teacher: Challenges, Adjustments, and Opportunities”)
include personal narratives and reflections on personal experiences working in ICL
settings.
Through the varied range of educational support projects and interventions, edu-
cational policies, and regional challenges presented in all chapters, the one-size-fits-
all fallacy becomes evident, because what could be considered an appropriate course
of action for one context may not be relevant for another. However, we can also see
commonalities that we can draw on and learn from, given our needs and context.
Thus, in addition to descriptions of immersion, CLIL, and EMI, the authors in this
volume also describe the need for models that build on aspects of language for
4 S. Dimova and J. Kling

academic purposes (LAP) and language for specific purposes (LSP) as elements of
Content Based Instruction (CBI).
CBI, like CLIL, is a language education approach designed to enhance FL profi-
ciency through content instruction so that students learn the language while using it
in relation to specific courses or concepts. Although the terms CBI and CLIL are
often used interchangeably, distinction between the two has been coined on the
European front as ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ CLIL. Hard CLIL has been described as an
approach that is linked directly to specific content courses, taught by trained content
teachers who are typically themselves bilingual speakers in a homogenous language
setting. In contrast, soft CLIL (i.e., CBI) is typically taught by language teachers
who may or may not share the students’ first language(s). In this setting, language
learning outcomes are at the forefront and content is not usually assessed (some-
times referred to as an adjunct CLIL model) (Dalton-Puffer, 2017). Since the 1980s,
CBI has been linked more directly with FL teaching approaches in North America
(cf., Brinton & Snow, 2017), while CLIL’s roots stem from European initiatives
established at the turn of the century to meet the increasing need for FL enhanced
content instruction. Regardless of the label and type of approach, the authors’
descriptions of ICLHE interventions and initiatives in this volume point to the need
for enhanced cooperation between content teachers and language teachers and
increased team-teaching and language support for both teaching and learning by
means of variations on this soft-CLIL/CBI model.

2 Methodology

As is apparent from the table of contents, this book is not a compilation of research
studies related to ICLHE. Instead, this volume includes chapters that provide com-
prehensive conceptual synthesis of contextual information, research findings, and
practical applications provided by leading ICLHE researchers from each repre-
sented setting. The chapters intentionally cover a wide range of geographically, cul-
turally, and educationally different areas in order to generate a new understanding
of the cross-contextual variation in ICL. The contextualized overviews of the status
of ICL across the geographic areas has helped us to identify patterns and advance
the scholarship in the field.
At first glance, the volume may appear to offer an unbalanced selection of chap-
ters due to the various degrees of awareness and focus on ICL. However, the per-
ceived lack of balance reflects the discrepant ICL realities found across different HE
settings. Juxtaposing ICL in two distinct contexts, one where English is an FL and
the other where English serves as an official language, the chapter “English Medium
Instruction: Disintegrating Language and Content?” (Sweden and Hong Kong) dis-
cusses the different dimensions in HE that can be applied for analysis of ICL. The
chapter “The Benefits, Challenges and Prospects of EMI in Croatia: An Integrated
Perspective” (Croatia) depicts a situation that commonly occurs during initial
implementation of FL medium instruction. At this stage, the focus on lecturers’ and
Current Considerations on Integrating Content and Language in Multilingual Universities 5

students’ attitudes towards the language shift dominates both in public debates and
in research, while selection of ICL approaches, methods, and practices fail to receive
relevant attention. Although researchers and practitioners from various European
contexts will find the Croatian situation all too familiar, it may be informative for
the many institutions in other contexts that lack experience and stand still at the
planning stages of ICL. On the other hand, the chapter “Internationalizing Japan’s
Undergraduate Education through English Medium Instruction” (Japan) explains
the possibility to establish different ICL models in order to address variation in
students’ educational backgrounds and FL proficiency levels. While the chapters
“Transitioning EAL Students from EFL Classes to EMI Programs at The University
of Iceland” (Iceland) and “English Medium Instruction in Higher Education in
Qatar: A Multi-Dimensional Analysis Using the ROAD-MAPPING Framework”
(Qatar) present a model of ICL based on offering courses of English for academic
purposes (EAP) or foundation courses, the chapter “Integrating Content and
Language: The Role of Other Languages than English in an International University”
(Denmark) offers examples of language for specific purposes (LSP) courses as an
ICL method. Instead of provision of separate EAP or LSP courses, the chapter
“Acknowledging the Role of Language in English Medium Instruction: Experiences
from a Pilot Project Intervention at University of Copenhagen” (Denmark) dis-
cusses the possible involvement of language teachers to support content learning in
an FL, and the chapters “Internationalization through Language and Literacy in the
Spanish English Medium Education Context” and “English Medium Instruction
through the Lens of a Content Teacher: Challenges, Adjustments, and Opportunities”
(Spain) discuss how content teachers themselves can integrate language and content
in their pedagogical approaches. In addition to the comprehensive overviews of ICL
in different contexts, two chapters, “Acknowledging the Role of Language in
English Medium Instruction: Experiences from a Pilot Project Intervention at
University of Copenhagen” and “English Medium Instruction through the Lens of a
Content Teacher: Challenges, Adjustments, and Opportunities”, represent the con-
tent teacher voices.
Finally, it is through a transparent clarification of the academic culture, opportu-
nities, and challenges faced in the diverse geographic regions represented in this
book that we can begin to draw on experience and learn from each other. Thus, the
structure of the chapters presented here was intentionally designed to allow for
comparable overview of the history, the issues, and the future considerations regard-
ing ICLHE across contexts in order to identify local contextual factors that may
contribute to the differences in the language policies and practices in HE.

3 History

National and/or university language policies play a role in the choice of language(s)
of instruction in HE. These language policies may be used to secure a reasonable
balance between the use of an FL and the use of the local language(s) for teaching,
6 S. Dimova and J. Kling

research, administration, and public outreach, or they may serve to support the pro-
motion of nationally- or institutionally-based strategies. The historical overviews
presented in the chapters throughout this volume provide the backgrounds and ratio-
nales behind the development of the language policies regarding language(s) of
instruction. In fact, the chapters suggest several different contextual patterns result-
ing from the different political, educational, and historical variables that contribute
to the development and ultimate implementation (or lack) of language policy and
support in HE: (1) EMI trends at non-Anglophone universities, (2) Anglophone
university branches, (3) post-colonial influences on policies, and (4) multilingual
practices in HE.
EMI Trends at Non-Anglophone Universities Most chapters discuss the policies
and practices related to EMI implementation at non-Anglophone universities, which
has been a growing trend in Europe and Asia (see chapters “Internationalizing
Japan’s Undergraduate Education through English Medium Instruction”, “The
Benefits, Challenges and Prospects of EMI in Croatia: An Integrated Perspective”,
“English Medium Instruction in Higher Education in Qatar: A Multi-Dimensional
Analysis Using the ROAD-MAPPING Framework”, “Internationalization through
Language and Literacy in the Spanish English Medium Education Context”, and
“English Medium Instruction through the Lens of a Content Teacher: Challenges,
Adjustments, and Opportunities”). According to the language policies in the coun-
tries discussed in this volume, English is introduced as an additional medium of
instruction to the local or national language(s) for the purpose of internationaliza-
tion of the HE, i.e., to increase international student and teacher recruitment, as well
as to obtain access to research published in international journals. Although some
similarities can be noted across these different contexts, the language policies and
practices associated with EMI vary. For instance, UCPH and the University of
Iceland (UI) include the local language, Danish and Icelandic, respectively, and
English as part of their HE language practices. UCPH refers to this practice as par-
allel language use (see chapters, “Integrating Content and Language: The Role of
Other Languages than English in an International University” and “Acknowledging
the Role of Language in English Medium Instruction: Experiences from a Pilot
Project Intervention at University of Copenhagen”) and UI the term simultaneous
parallel code use (see chapter “Transitioning EAL Students from EFL Classes to
EMI Programs at The University of Iceland”). In both cases, the education degrees
do not specify the medium of instruction, and both the national language and
English are operational languages at the university for administrative and instruc-
tional purposes.
Bachelor and Master’s degrees at Complutense University of Madrid in Spain
and Japanese universities can be offered in the national language(s), (e.g., Spanish
and Japanese, respectively) or in English. At Complutense University, students can
receive an EMI degree if 75% of their coursework is in English, which means they
are allowed to take some Spanish medium courses as well (see chapter, “English
Medium Instruction through the Lens of a Content Teacher: Challenges, Adjustments,
and Opportunities”). In Japan, on the other hand, different EMI models have been
Current Considerations on Integrating Content and Language in Multilingual Universities 7

established to cater to different student populations, ranging from full immersion in

English (the Deijima model), predominantly English with some Japanese medium
courses (the Crossroads program), and mostly Japanese with some English medium
courses (the Global Citizen model) (see chapter, “Internationalizing Japan’s
Undergraduate Education through English Medium Instruction”).
While language policies and practices may be evident in contexts where EMI has
been implemented for a decade or longer, in contexts such as Croatia, where EMI is
in its early days, the university language policies and practices are still at an intro-
ductory stage and are yet to be fully developed. As seen with other universities
across Europe (Dimova, Hultgren, & Jensen, 2015), during the implementation
stages, the focus rests mostly on identifying teachers’ and students’ needs and atti-
tudes towards EMI, as well as identifying possible consequences of teaching and
learning in English (see chapter, “The Benefits, Challenges and Prospects of EMI in
Croatia: An Integrated Perspective”).
Anglophone University Branches Foreign university branches (e.g., North
American, British) have also served as agents in the implementation of EMI in non-­
Anglophone countries. At first glance, these branch universities seem to share many
characteristics with the local non-Anglophone universities that have implemented
EMI, if we take into account that most students and a large percentage of teachers
are second language (L2) speakers of English. However, as Eslami, Graham, and
Bashir point out in the chapter “English Medium Instruction in Higher Education in
Qatar: A Multi-Dimensional Analysis Using the ROAD-MAPPING Framework”,
the EMI contexts at these branch universities are remarkably different than the EMI
contexts at national non-Anglophone universities because the branch universities
import the curricula, the educational values, and the educational and language poli-
cies from the Anglophone educational systems. In other words, a lack of alignment
between the local educational system and the university exists, and in some cases,
students need to attend foundation programs in order to be qualified to continue
their education in university programs at the branch university or in the United
States or the United Kingdom. Moreover, students pay high tuition fees to attend the
branch universities, which means these institutions carry more prestige than local
universities and only the affluent levels of the country’s population have access to
their educational programs. Sometimes the foreign branch universities can influ-
ence the language policies at local universities. For example, to compete with the
foreign universities, Qatar University has been changing the medium of instruction
back and forth between Arabic and English, which has also influenced decisions
about language instruction in elementary and secondary education in the country.

Post-colonial Influences The influences of the colonial past on current language

policies and practices in HE are evident in Pecorari’s chapter “English Medium
Instruction: Disintegrating Language and Content?” and Arnbjörndóttir’s chapter
“Transitioning EAL Students from EFL Classes to EMI Programs at The University
of Iceland”. Pecorari explains that English remains the medium of instruction in the
8 S. Dimova and J. Kling

HE in Hong Kong partly because the country was a British colony until 1997,
despite the population’s moderate proficiency in English and Cantonese as the L1 of
the majority. In Iceland, which was a Danish colony, on the other hand, the FL cur-
ricula put equal emphasis on learning English and Danish in primary and secondary
education, despite the students’ need to develop English academic skills for the EMI
programs at the university, as Arbjörnsdóttir notes in her chapter. Although students
may need to develop proficiency in Danish to enter universities in Denmark or for
business purposes later in their careers, Danish seems to lack direct connection with
HE within the country borders.

Multilingual Practices in HE Although most policies focus on the uses of the

local language(s) and English, a growing concern exists that other languages are
being neglected. Instruction in other foreign languages is lacking despite past tradi-
tions for teaching a number of modern and classical languages (see chapter,
“Internationalizing Japan’s Undergraduate Education through English Medium
Instruction”), and despite the recent needs analyses that point to the value of lan-
guages for research purposes as well as for students´ readiness for the global labor
market. For example, the chapter, “Integrating Content and Language: The Role of
Other Languages than English in an International University” provides insights into
university strategies that focus on developing new ways of combining different lan-
guage competences with subject-based learning.
Finally, in all contexts, regardless of their historical and socio-cultural influ-
ences, concerns regarding potential domain loss have been raised. Domain loss
refers to the loss of domain-specific terminology in the national language(s) due to
the widespread uses of EMI, or other FLs as media of instruction in HE. Therefore,
the centrality of including the local/national language(s) in HE is strongly recom-
mended, whether as part of a parallel language use policy, translanguaging, or
multiple-­language course offerings.

4 Current Issues

With the ever-increasing need for multilingualism to meet the demands of global-
ization, supporting language proficiency is at the heart of each of the chapters in this
volume. Alongside language proficiency, the chapters raise numerous contextual
issues stemming from political, financial, logistic, procedural, ideological, and ped-
agogical factors that are typically addressed in relation to two overarching themes:
(1) student readiness for learning through an FL and (2) support for teaching con-
tent in FL.
Student Readiness for Learning Through an FL Across contexts, there has been
a great deal of discussion related the role of FL instruction in secondary education
in relation to the development of academic language for HE (cf., Macaro, 2018). In
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Current Considerations on Integrating Content and Language in Multilingual Universities 9

this volume, two chapters specifically address this topic and offer insights from two
vastly different contexts. Eslami et al. (chapter “English Medium Instruction in
Higher Education in Qatar: A Multi-Dimensional Analysis Using the ROAD-
MAPPING Framework”) highlight the challenges that result from a shifting imple-
mentation of language policy for language of instruction in secondary school that
can leave students lacking adequate proficiency in the language of instruction for
content learning in both secondary and tertiary education. The authors call for more
specific policy development to ensure students’ FL proficiency for academic use in
genre specific content areas in HE. Similarly, Arbjörnnsdóttir (chapter “Transitioning
EAL Students from EFL Classes to EMI Programs at The University of Iceland”)
expresses concern regarding students’ readiness to study in an additional language
in HE and the lack of adequate FL instruction and exposure in specific academic
disciplinary literacies. The cases these authors present highlight student challenges
that arise when they are expected to be able to jump from foreign language (i.e.,
English) instruction for general purposes to discipline specific topics and courses
with little scaffolding in place. The described educational policies highlight the dis-
connect between the educational levels and the resulting gaps for students to meet
instructional goals and learning outcomes related to FL use in tertiary education
(see chapter, “English Medium Instruction: Disintegrating Language and Content?”).
Given the lack of appropriate development of academic FL proficiency at the
secondary level, several chapters emphasize the need to raise awareness for neces-
sary language support. Although courses on LAP or LSP are helpful, using different
ways of ICL in academic courses (i.e., soft- and hard-CLIL) enhances relevant lan-
guage development to support content learning. A soft-CLIL approach is exempli-
fied in the chapter “Acknowledging the Role of Language in English Medium
Instruction: Experiences from a Pilot Project Intervention at University of
Copenhagen”, in which Larsen and Jensen describe their experience in an applied
natural science course at Master’s level. For this course, language teachers and con-
tent teachers work together to provide language instruction developed specifically
to meet the needs of graduate students preparing to write their Master’s theses. In
the chapter “English Medium Instruction through the Lens of a Content Teacher:
Challenges, Adjustments, and Opportunities”, on the other hand, del Campo pro-
vides her reflections on implementing a hard-CLIL approach in teaching a bachelor
level course in social sciences. When teaching her content, del Campo addresses the
language challenges of a multilingual, multicultural student cohort. The descrip-
tions offered by these authors demonstrate the breadth of opportunities and chal-
lenges of providing language support for students to achieve the ICL learning goals.
Support for Teaching Content in an FL Throughout the book, we read about a call
for and implementation of competence development assistance for teachers includ-
ing: (1) identifying threshold FL proficiency for teaching content courses, (2) pro-
viding structured linguistic pedagogical training, and (3) implementing
team-teaching.
10 S. Dimova and J. Kling

In relation to EMI, several chapters address the need to establish language profi-
ciency certification for content teachers in order to identify their language needs for
teaching (see chapters “English Medium Instruction: Disintegrating Language and
Content?”, “The Benefits, Challenges and Prospects of EMI in Croatia: An
Integrated Perspective”, and “Internationalization through Language and Literacy
in the Spanish English Medium Education Context”). The authors stress the need
for assessment tools that provide formative feedback to content teachers regarding
the characteristics of their oral language production for teaching in a multilingual
classroom (e.g., the Test of Oral English Proficiency for Academic Staff [TOEPAS]
administered at UCPH [Dimova & Kling, 2018]). Such tools can function as a type
of systematic needs assessment that can serve as the foundation for tailor-made,
individualized, competence development training.
Another way of addressing the needs of current content teachers in HE is through
designated training schemes as described by Drljača Margić & Vodopija-Krstanović
in the chapter “The Benefits, Challenges and Prospects of EMI in Croatia: An
Integrated Perspective” and Sanchéz-Garciá in the chapter “Internationalization
through Language and Literacy in the Spanish English Medium Education Context”.
Content teachers tend not to consider themselves language teachers so they are
unsure how to proceed and address their students’ language issues in the classroom.
Therefore, training programs that raise awareness among content teachers to the
issues related to student learning through an FL are vital. For example, del Campo
(see chapter “English Medium Instruction through the Lens of a Content Teacher:
Challenges, Adjustments, and Opportunities”) recounts her colleagues’ apprehen-
sions about teaching in their FL and stresses her own progress as the result of tar-
geted competence development and subsequent experience in the EMI classroom.
Collaboration between language teachers and content teachers in ICL also pro-
vides opportunities for content teachers to become aware of the linguistic difficul-
ties students encounter and the available tools and strategies they can apply to
support their students (Swerts & Westbrook, 2013). These collaborations help con-
tent teachers develop appropriate language for effective classroom communication
through the use of both soft- and hard-CLIL approaches (see chapters,
“Internationalization through Language and Literacy in the Spanish English
Medium Education Context” and “English Medium Instruction through the Lens of
a Content Teacher: Challenges, Adjustments, and Opportunities”, and Kling &
Larsen, 2018). The chapters written by the content teachers present not only the
strength of these teachers’ agency in moving ICL forward but also their individual
and unique competence development needs.
Finally, while many of the current issues described across the chapters in this
volume require extensive planning and resources, institutions can promote ICLHE
through other incentives in order to enhance content teachers’ motivation to teach in
an FL. These incentives could be something as simple a reduction in teaching load
or establishment of curriculum and material development teams as applied in the
Croatian and Spanish examples (see chapters “The Benefits, Challenges and
Prospects of EMI in Croatia: An Integrated Perspective”, “Internationalization
Current Considerations on Integrating Content and Language in Multilingual Universities 11

through Language and Literacy in the Spanish English Medium Education Context”,
and “English Medium Instruction through the Lens of a Content Teacher: Challenges,
Adjustments, and Opportunities”).

5 Conclusions

The trend of internationalization and globalization of HE is evident across all con-

texts represented in the chapters of this volume, and EMI has become an instrument
for recruitment of international students and lecturers and an opportunity to access
international research. However, an increased acknowledgment of the multilingual
settings in the internationalized universities, as well as the role of other FLs can also
be noted. Instead of debates revolving around the negative impact of EMI on local
languages and educational systems, discussions begin to focus on how to balance
different languages at the university in a healthy linguistic ecosystem that enhances
students’ learning of disciplinary content (Dafouz & Smit, 2014). Moreover, the
differences between instruction at Anglophone and non-Anglophone universities
are recognized, so instead of trying to import foreign educational and pedagogical
values, the centrality of the local educational culture and language(s) are empha-
sized (see chapters “Internationalizing Japan’s Undergraduate Education through
English Medium Instruction” and “Internationalization through Language and
Literacy in the Spanish English Medium Education Context”).
Given the variation in historical and sociocultural factors that influence educa-
tional policies, one conclusion we reach is the strong need to recognize and identify
the local dimensions when planning content instruction and language support at
individual institutions. While there is much to learn from peer universities, there is
danger in adopting practices and procedures from other institutions without local
adaptations. Thus, when proceeding with educational policy initiatives, the needs
and requirements of the local stakeholders and context should be carefully
considered.
ICLHE made its mark at the turn of the century. Since that time, an abundance of
research expanded at an extraordinary rate seeking to determine the outcomes of
changing the medium of instruction in HE and to identify best practices regarding
ICL in teaching and learning. We have learned what we can from surveying the
actors. Twenty years since the promotion of student and teacher mobility with the
Bologna declaration, this book provides insights into current practice. The follow-
ing chapters, though written by authors from around the world, show common pat-
terns of both growth and concern. Concerns regarding student proficiency and
content achievement, as well as content teacher proficiency and professional com-
petencies and identities abound. While these concerns are well-founded, students
and teachers involved in ICLHE, working through an L2, should not be scrutinized
more than those working in their L1 (and vice-versa). We believe this volume pro-
vides some evidence about how these concerns can be addressed in a broad range of
12 S. Dimova and J. Kling

approaches; there is no one way – context determines the path. We hope that this
volume provides a foundation that aids in proceeding to the next stage.

References

Brinton, D., & Snow, A. M. (2017). The evolving architecture of content-based instruction. In
A. M. Snow & D. M. Brinton (Eds.), The content-based classroom: Perspectives on integrating
language (2nd ed., pp. 2–20). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Dafouz, E. (2014). Integrating content and language in European higher education: An overview
of recurrent research concerns and pending issues. In A. Psaltou-Joycey, E. Agathopoulou, &
M. Mattheoudakis (Eds.), Cross-curricular approaches to language education (pp. 289–304).
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Scholars.
Dafouz, E., & Smit, U. (2014). Towards a dynamic conceptual framework for English-medium
education in multilingual university settings. Applied Linguistics, 37(3), 397–415.
Dafouz, E., & Smit, U. (2020). ROAD-MAPPING English medium education in the international-
ized university. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan.
Dalton Puffer, C. (2017). Same but different: CLIL and CBI. In A. M. Snow & D. M. Brinton (Eds.),
The content-based classroom: Perspectives on integrating language (2nd ed., pp. 151–164).
Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
Dimova, S., Hultgren, A. K., & Jensen, C. (Eds.). (2015). English-medium instruction in European
higher education (Vol. 4). Berlin, Germany: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.
Dimova, S., & Kling, J. (2018). Assessing English-medium instruction lecturer language profi-
ciency across disciplines. TESOL Quarterly, 52(3), 634–656. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.454
Kling, J., & Larsen, S. (Eds.). (2018). The language strategy – More languages for more students.
University of Copenhagen. https://cip.ku.dk/english/morelanguages/
Macaro, E. (2018). English medium instruction. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Nikula, T., Dafouz, E., Moore, P., & Smit, U. (Eds.). (2016). Conceptualising integration in CLIL
and multilingual education. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
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tion. TESOL Quarterly, 52(3), 497–514.
Swerts, S., & Westbrook, P. (2013). Preparing students and lecturers for English medium instruc-
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tion: From theory to practice. Frankfurt-am-Maim, Germany: Peter Lang.
 Part I
Theoretical and Political Underpinnings
of Integrating Content and Language
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
childish memories. On the left were more trees, beeches
and sycamores, and a great cedar which stood as a
patriarch among his brethren. I knew those trees quite well.
The cedar boughs darkened the study window where the
rector sat to write his sermons, and shadowed that very
"guest chamber" wherein I hoped to sleep to-night.

And, indeed, it was time for me to go to sleep. I was so

tired that my limbs seemed to be clogged with iron fetters,
and my feet found it hard to keep to a straight line. The
gate of the rectory garden stood wide open, and the friendly
old trees rustled a welcome as I passed under their boughs
and made my way, feebly and unsteadily, to the house door.

After some searching, I found the bell-handle, hidden

somewhere in the thick ivy leaves, and gave it a pull. A
muffled peal met my dull ears, and at length there were
footsteps, and the heavy oaken door slowly opened. I was
conscious of a dim light shining out of a dark entry, and of
the face of an elderly woman-servant, whose eyes looked
inquisitively into mine.

Gathering up all my forces, I spoke in a clear voice,

eager to make myself known and understood at once.
 I BROKE OUT INTO AN EXCEEDING BITTER CRY.

"I want to see Miss Drury. Please go and tell her that
Louie Coverdale has brought her some honeysuckle, and
ask her to come quickly."

"Lord, have mercy upon us!" ejaculated the woman, in

great dismay. And then she disappeared for a moment, and
her trembling voice went echoing through the long passages
of the old house, while I, faint and weary, stood leaning
against the post of the door.
 A man came out next, a venerable man, with delicate
features and snow-white hair; and at the sight of him, I
broke out into an exceeding bitter cry.

"You are the rector," I wailed, "and you are angry with
me. If Miss Drury would come, she would understand
everything. Why don't you send for her? Why is she not
here?"

Even while I was pouring out these wild words, I felt the
rector's hands upon my arm, and I was drawn gently
indoors and nearer to the light. But somehow the kind
hands seemed not to be strong enough to hold me, and the
light melted into darkness. There came a sound in my ears
like the roaring of many waters, and then I knew no more.

Once or twice I was vaguely aware that one or two

people were busy about me, and that I was in great pain of
body and trouble of mind. But nothing was clear and plain.
And once I dreamed a feverish dream of the house in the
dreary London street where Ronald had lain sick unto
death; and I thought that he was really dead, and that I
was dying and going straight to him.

How long these strange fancies lasted I do not know. It

seemed to me that I was a long while in a land of
phantoms, where the dead and the living drifted about
together; and their words had no meaning, their forms no
substance. But at last I awoke, and the waking was as
bewildering as the dreams had been.
 CHAPTER XVII.
AWAKING.

OUT of the world of phantoms, I came one day into the

familiar old work-a-day world again.

It was a world of softly-tempered light and shade. I

became, at first, vaguely conscious of two open windows
half veiled by lace curtains, and on each broad window-sill
there stood a quaint old red-and-blue vase, holding roses
and myrtle. Above a high chimney-piece hung a faded piece
of crewelwork, framed and glazed, and representing (as I
discovered afterwards) the Walk to Emmaus, and below the
picture was a formidable row of medicine-bottles, some of
them nearly empty.

I must, I suppose, have uttered some inarticulate words

when I first saw these things around me. Anyhow, two
persons, one on the right side of the bed and one on the
left, rose quietly and bent over me.

One of these two faces, framed in an old-fashioned cap,

was rosy and wrinkled like an apple from a store-room. The
other was young and comely, although the kind eyes looked
upon me through a mist of tears, and the pleasant lips were
trembling.

It was Marian Bailey's face; but never before had I seen

the calm Marian so deeply moved.

"How did you come here, Marian?" was the first

question I asked.

I did not even know where "here" was. I could not tell
how I came to be lying in this sunny old-world room, nor
why all those bottles were ranged upon the mantelpiece.
And yet I had an indistinct notion that Marian must have
had some trouble in finding me.

"Never mind now, dear," said my friend, soothingly.

"You have been ill, and mustn't talk much. But you are
going to get well soon, and be very happy."

"Very happy." As she uttered those words I began to

collect my scattered thoughts. What did happiness mean? It
has a separate and distinct meaning for every human being
who has ever tasted it. To me it meant life with Ronald,
loving him and being entirely beloved in return.

But that kind of happiness could never again be mine.

My song was ended; my tale was told. I suffered acutely
under the first pangs of remembrance.

All the events of those last two days, before I fled from
London, came crowding back into my weak head until I
could hardly bear the burden of existence. The elderly body
in the cap (who was the rector's housekeeper) gently raised
me in the bed and brought me chicken-broth, and Marian
watched patiently by my side. Perhaps she understood
some of the thoughts that were in my mind, for she gave
me a reassuring smile. How I longed to be alone with her
and open my heart to this true friend!

Then the doctor came, and after he had seen me, I

heard Marian conferring with him in a low tone at the end of
the room. And when she came back to my side her face was
brighter, and her smile had a new meaning.

"Cheer up, Louie," she whispered. "You are getting

better fast, and you will soon be able to see Ronald."

"He does not want to see me any more," I said, sadly.

"My dear child, there have been terrible

misunderstandings; but everything will be set right. Trust
me, Louie, your husband has never truly loved any woman
but yourself, and he has been suffering acutely since you
left him."

"Suffering? Oh, Marian! Send for him; tell him to come

at once!"

"Hush, hush, Louie. You must wait until you are a little
stronger. He will be quite happy when he knows that you
want him back again."

I closed my eyes and gave myself up to the new,

blissful sense of thankfulness and peace. Somehow—I knew
not in what way—my Ronald would be given back to me.

That night I had a sound sleep, and when I woke up, it

was bright morning. Delicate perfumes came stealing in
through the open windows; I could see the tops of fruit-
trees gently stirred by a soft wind, and between the boughs
I caught a glimpse of the grey chump tower.
 Looking round fur Marian, I saw her entering the room
with a basket of freshly-gathered roses and honeysuckle—
such roses as are not to be found in every garden. Seeing
that my eyes were open, she brought the basket to my side
and let me bury my face in the great, sweet crimson
flowers. She herself looked very fresh and pleasant in her
pretty chintz gown, and there was a quiet expression of
content on her face as she hovered round my pillow.

"Old times seem to have come back, Louie," she said,

cheerfully. "We might fancy ourselves in your grandfather's
cottage. Don't you remember that I used sometimes to play
at being nurse there?"

I did remember it, and the recollection of those simple

girlish days was like balm to the spirit. It was good for me
to dwell on that time, and turn my thoughts away from the
weary trials and anxieties that had beset my married life. At
present, I was too weak to take in the fact that I was the
uninvited guest of the rector, and that I had literally forced
myself on the hospitality of an old friend who was
displeased with me.

Nursed and soothed and petted, I found my strength

coming back faster than those around me had dared to
expect. And when the evening was closing in again, I called
Marian to my bedside and assured her (in a somewhat
unsteady voice) that I was well enough to bear a good long
talk.

"Not a long talk, Louie," she answered. "But I think we

may venture to say a few words to each other. Of course
you want to know about Ronald, first of all?"

"Yes, yes," I whispered, pressing her hand.

 "Well, I will begin with your departure from Chapel
Place. Nobody missed you—nobody knew you had gone till
your husband returned from the City. The first thing that he
saw was your note on the mantelpiece, and the first thing
that he did was to rush out of the house, call a hansom, and
drive to Curzon Street to me."

"Did he think that I had gone to you, Marian?"

"I fancy that he did. He seemed sorely distressed to find

that I could tell him nothing. At his request, I returned with
him to Chapel Place, and found that nurse had just come
home. She, too, was greatly troubled; but her quick instinct
put us at once on the right track. She was sure you had fled
to the dear old village, hoping there to find rest and peace."

"Ah, she knew my longing for this place!" I said, faintly.

"Then," Marian continued, "we lost no time in following

you—Ronald and I."

"Did he come with you? Oh, Marian!"

"Did you suppose he could remain contentedly in town

and wait for news? I don't tell you how distracted he was, it
is because I fear to agitate you. But if you could have seen
his misery and heard his self-reproaches, you would have
felt your last doubt swept away. Ali, Louie, a wife should be
very slow to doubt a husband's love. She may have a great
deal to endure (most wives have), but she should guard her
heart against jealousy, which is the worst foe of married
life."

"He gave me cause to be jealous, Marian," I said. "You

did not go to that dreadful picnic; you did not see his
attentions to his old love."
 "I know he was foolish, but not guilty. It is a mistake for
a married man to be too intimate with an old sweetheart,
even if he knows that he only gave her half a love, and that
his wife has his entire heart. People are always ready to talk
about those who have once been lovers; and Ida Lorimer
was weak enough to want a little of the old homage."

"She was more than weak," I said, with a passion that

made Marian lift a warning finger. "She is a wicked, bold
woman. On Thursday night—after the picnic—she wrote a
shameful letter to my husband."

"That letter, Louie, is a puzzle to us all. You referred to

it in your farewell note to Ronald; and he, poor fellow, sent
me to Ida to know what was meant. He had received no
letter from her, and she declares she never wrote one."

"How can she dare to say she did not write it? Marian,
you will find the letter in the inner pocket of my hand-bag.
Take it and read it for yourself."

She rose to do my bidding; and then, pausing a

moment, fixed a steadfast look on my face. "Tell me first,
Louie," she said, "how this letter came into your
possession."

"It was brought to me by William Greystock. Ronald

dropped it in his office on Friday morning."

"It is as I suspected," said Marian, in a low voice. "That

man was at the bottom of all this mischief. Well, he will do
no more!"

She opened the bag, found the letter, and read it

attentively once or twice before she spoke again.
 "Yes, this is really Ida's handwriting," she admitted at
last. "Yet I am bound to believe her when she solemnly
declares that she never wrote to Ronald after the picnic.
Louie, you will let me send this note to her?"

"I don't know," I said, doubtfully. "I want Ronald to see

it; I want to hear what he will say to it."

"You shall see Ronald to-morrow, my dear child, and he

will set all your doubts at rest. I freely confess that this
note bewilders me, but I am, at any rate, quite certain that
it was never received by Ronald, nor dropped by him in
William Greystock's office. Louie, did not your heart tell you
that William Greystock was not a good man?"

At the recollection of that last interview with Greystock,

and our parting words to each other, I was covered with
confusion and shame. How had I suffered this man to
influence me? Why did I let him give me that hateful letter?
I saw now that I had done a great wrong in stealing away
from home, without first seeking an explanation from
Ronald.

"Marian," I said, "I have not done well. But I was ill and
over-excited and Ronald and I had been drifting farther and
farther apart before that dreadful day came. I am calmer
now, clear, although I am very, very weak."

While I spoke these words the tears were fast running

down my cheeks, and Marian kissed me and wept too.

"It is the old story, Louie," she said, with a sigh:

"And constancy lives in realms above;

And life is thorny, and youth is vain;
 And to be wroth with one we love
Doth work like madness on the brain."

CHAPTER XVIII.
HEART TO HEART.

NEXT day, they moved me from the bed to a large old

sofa near the window, and found that I was recovering fast.
The hope of happiness renewed was a better tonic than any
that the doctor could give me; and, following Marian's good
counsel, I resolutely put all minor worries out of my mind.

"The first thing to think of is health," she said, firmly.

"When that comes back, perhaps you will find that Ronald's
affairs are looking better than they have been for some
time. But, of course, you can neither be well nor happy till
you have had a perfect understanding with your husband."

"When shall I see him?" I asked.

"Will you be very good and composed if I bring him to

you now, Louie? He naturally objects to being kept out of
the room; but we dared not let him see you till your mind
was quite clear and tranquil."

"Indeed," I said, earnestly, "I will put out all my powers

of self-control—I will not even speak many words if I may
but see his face for a minute. Oh, Marian, I am hungering
for a sight of him!"

"And oh, Louie, how can I trust you when you show me
such flushed cheeks and tearful eyes? But be quiet a little
while, dear, and he shall come."

She went away, and I turned my hot face to the

window, and tried to steady my nerves as well as I could.

It was an exquisite August morning, hazy and soft, with

a sky of deepest blue, and a lovely purple mist clouding all
the boundary lines of the distant fields. Below me lay the
rectory garden, with its cool shadows and morning lights;
the dew had but just dried on the leafy boughs of apple and
pear trees, and from the herb beds came up the sweetness
of mint and thyme, and the old-fashioned fragrance of
lavender. I leaned back on my cushions and unconsciously
enjoyed all these fresh, delicate scents, while my heart
throbbed faster at the slightest sound.

How long would it be before Ronald came? I felt

convinced that waiting must be much worse for me than the
excitement of our meeting. I could hear the sound of voices
in the garden, but it was only the rector holding a
consultation with his gardener. And then it occurred to me
to wonder, for the first time, whether my host and my
husband had yet met, and whether they liked each other?
Perhaps Mr. Drury might be disposed to think less harshly of
my marriage if he really knew Ronald. Perhaps this illness of
mine, and this enforced stay at the old rectory, might be the
means of reviving a dead friendship. I thought that it
would; I could not believe that the rector's kind heart could
be completely hardened against me.

How blue the sky looked between the twisted boughs of

the tall pear tree! Marian and I had often sat under that
tree when we were children, reading a fairy tale together;
and kind Miss Drury would come to look for us, and fill our
hands with cakes. Just as my thoughts were wandering
back into my childhood, the sound of footsteps in the
corridor recalled them, and set my heart beating afresh.

It was Ronald—really Ronald—who came quietly into the

room and moved towards me with a grave face. I was not
prepared to see him looking so worn and wasted, and at the
sight of his altered countenance my feeble strength gave
way. Speechless, I could only stretch out a thin hand, and
welcome him with eyes full of tears.

Our meeting was a very quiet one. He knelt down

beside the sofa, and folded me gently in his arms.
 The silence, that lasted for some seconds, was only
broken by the sweet rustle of the leaves outside the
window. There was much to be said between us; but we
were not, after all, in haste to begin the explanation which
had been so eagerly desired by both. In truth, I believe that
if that explanation had been altogether denied us, we
should have taken each other "for better, for worse" again,
quite contentedly, and walked side by side to our life's end.

"How could you have left me, Louie?" he murmured at

last.

"Because I thought you did not want me any more," I

answered, with my face pressed close to his.

It is needless to tell what he said in reply; but I was

thoroughly convinced that he did want me. There was
another silence; and when he spoke again, it was in the old
easy tone of authority.

"Now tell me, Louie, what on earth is the mystery about

that letter? How could Greystock have made you, believe
that I dropped it in his office?"

I produced the letter, and my husband studied it

attentively for a moment or two. Still holding it in his hand,
he looked at me with a puzzled expression in his eyes.

"There is no doubt that Ida did really write this letter,"

he said, frankly. "One can't mistake her hand. I see that it is
supposed to have been written on Thursday night, and, to
tell you the truth, Louise, I can understand your
indignation."

"Then, Ronald, you will promise never to see her again!

She must have lost all sense of shame when she wrote such
a thing to my husband."
 "Wait a second, little woman. She never would have
written such a thing to your husband—I am certain of that.
But she might have written it to her lover in days gone by."

"You were her lover, Ronald, in days gone by."

"Yes; but I am sure I never received this letter. You say

that Greystock gave it to you? Well, he used, sometimes, to
act as our postman; can this be a note which was entrusted
to him and never delivered to me?"

"If you think so, Ronald," I said, struck with this new
idea, "you ought to ask him to explain the whole matter. I
know now that he is your enemy and mine. Do not be afraid
to let him see that you distrust him."

My husband waited for a moment before he spoke

again. "Louie," he said at last, "you do not know that
Greystock has gone beyond my reach. Don't be shocked,
little woman; I must tell you an awful thing."

"Has he left the country?" I asked, eagerly.

"He has left the world! A few hours after you last saw
him, he was found in his chambers quite dead. He died of
heart disease, and his doctor proved that he had been
suffering from it for a long time."

I shivered from head to foot; and Ronald, frightened at

the effect of his words, began to soothe me by every means
in his power. But although I clung to him, and realised to
the full the happiness of having him with me, I could not
help picturing that parting scene with William Greystock. He
had gone out of my presence with all the savage misery of a
disappointed man burning in his heart, and thus had
hastened the death that had been ever near at hand.
 It was no fault of mine that had hurried on his end, yet
I must have been a far harder woman than I was, if I could
have heard of that end unmoved. We were set free for ever
from the baneful spell that he had exercised over our lives;
and there came to me at that moment a prophetic
conviction that all our doubts and misunderstandings would
be buried with him.

"And now," said Ronald, still stroking my hair with his

old fond touch, "let us talk of happier things, Louie. I have
something else to tell you that will drive all sad thoughts
away. Your good old friend, the rector, has taken me into his
favour and—"

"Then he is going to help you! Oh, Ronald, he has

influence, but he seldom cares to use it."

"He has already used it for our sakes. This morning he

put a letter into my hand, offering me the post of secretary
to a rich company. I will tell you all about the company later
on; at present you certainly are not strong enough to be
bothered with business details."

"I don't care in the least about details," said I, nestling

up to him in an ecstasy of delight. "I know all that I want to
know, Ronald."

"Not quite all, little woman. We must solve the mystery

of that letter from Ida. But as it is a delicate matter, I think
it will be well to entrust it to Marian; she has perfect tact,
and Ida will be frank with her."

I was quite satisfied with this arrangement; and just

then Marian herself entered the room.

"You two have talked long enough," she said, in that

kindly domineering way, which she often had with me.
"Ronald must go downstairs to the rector, who is waiting for
him in the study; and you, Louie, must be put to bed."

"Not yet," I pleaded. "Wait till it grows darker. It is so

lovely to see the day dying behind the dear old trees."

But Marian was inexorable, and Ronald seconded her by

rising and bidding me good-night. His parting words and
kisses left me with a heart at peace, and I went quietly to
rest.

In a few days, Marian had an answer from Miss Lorimer,

which cleared up for ever the mystery of the letter.

Ida acknowledged that she had written the note in

those bygone days when she and Ronald were lovers,
tasting the sweetness of "stolen waters," and carrying on a
clandestine intercourse, shrewdly suspected by the lady's
guardian. At that time, William Greystock had been their
confidential friend, and to his hands Ida committed the
letter which was destined to work such terrible mischief at a
later period.

She remembered that William had come to her with a

grave face and a thousand apologies, confessing that he
had lost the letter. At first she had felt uneasy about the
loss; but as time passed on, and the romantic attachment
on both sides began to cool, the circumstance faded out of
her mind. She had never for a moment suspected William
Greystock of anything like treachery, and the revelation of
his base conduct to me came as a shock. Then followed
kind messages to Mrs. Hepburne—regrets for the suffering
that had arisen—hopes for my future happiness. And so the
matter ended.

So, also, ended all intercourse between Miss Lorimer

and ourselves. She never met us again; and I felt sure that
she avoided a meeting with infinite pains and care.
Heartless as she was, I believe she had grace enough to be
ashamed of the part she had played at the Richmond picnic.
And although she never confessed the fact, I was certain
that Greystock's subtle influence had made her act as she
did that day.

CHAPTER XIX.
THE OLD ALBUM.

I CAME downstairs two days after my reconciliation with

my husband, and was received affectionately by the good
rector. Lady Waterville, too, was so moved by the account of
my illness that she actually exerted herself enough to write
a kind note, saying that she had quite forgiven me and
taken me back again into favour. The sudden death of
William Greystock had shaken her nerves; life was short;
and she wanted to be at peace with all those whom she had
ever known and loved.

She added that, among her poor nephew's effects,

there had been found an album which had been given by
Inez Greystock to her sister, Estella Hepburne. The book
was full of scraps of prose and verse, all in the handwriting
of the ill-fated Inez, and the name of Estella was written on
the fly-leaf, followed by an urgent injunction to her husband
to place the volume in Mrs. Hepburne's hands if Inez were
the first to die. The Colonel had, no doubt, instructed
William Greystock to fulfil that earnest request; and William
(for reasons of his own) had failed to obey him.

"We have so few relics of your aunt Inez that we shall

value that album," I said to Ronald.

"Yes," he answered, thoughtfully. "But what a strange

fellow Greystock was! What possible motive could he have
had for keeping a book which was useless to him?"

"He was full of mysteries, Ronald; let us try to banish

him from our thoughts entirely," I said, with an involuntary
shudder. "As soon as we return to London, you shall call on
Lady Waterville, and get the album. I long to see it—I think
it may tell us more of Aunt Inez than we have ever yet
known."

September had set in, and the woods about my old

country home were taking their first autumn tints, when I
said good-bye to the rectory. Dear, peaceful house, in which
Ronald and I had begun a new and better life together! I
felt that I should love those ivied walls to the very last day
of my life, and thank God that I had found a shelter there in
the hour of my sharp distress.

Marian had gone back to her aunt, in Curzon Street,

and I travelled back to London alone. Memories came
rushing in upon my heart as the train bore me back again to
the home of my wedded life. New thoughts, new prayers,
new resolutions, made the journey seem short to me. There
was a clearer light shining now upon the path which the
young wife had to tread—a path in which her feeble feet
had often stumbled, and her hands groped blindly for some
guiding touch. But experience had taught me where the
dangerous places were to be found; and the mist of doubt
and fear would obscure my way no more.

It did not trouble me to know that we should have to

live as cheaply as possible for many a month to come.
Ronald had declared himself heartily willing to economise,
and save enough out of his salary to pay off all that we
owed. My health, still delicate, would oblige me to lead the
quietest of lives, and my husband repeatedly assured me
that he desired nothing better than home-like peace and
rest. We had promised each other to begin a fresh
existence, making light of small crosses, and thinking the
most of every joy that came to our lot.

Ronald had already entered into his new employment

heart and soul; and as his presence was required at his
office, it was nurse who came to meet me at the railway-
station.

It was between two and three in the afternoon when the

train arrived at its destination, and I caught sight of a well-
known, comely face, and a portly figure on the platform.
There was a suppressed rapture in nurse's greeting, which