HISTORY OF ANCIENT INDIA UPTO 1206 C E

Author

Dr.P.RAMESH,

Assistant Professor [ T], Department of History

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University

Tirunelveli – Tamil Nadu

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY
MANONMANIAM SUNDARANAR UNIVERSITY

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE AND CONTINUING

EDUCATION TIRUNELVELI – TAMIL NADU -627 012.

DECEMBER-2023
Sl.No Unit Content Page No
Geographical Features – Sources of Indian History – Pre-
1. I and Proto History - Harappan Civilization - Megalithic 1-45
Culture– Ancient Tamil Civilization – Early Vedic Age –
Later Vedic Age..

2. II Buddhism and Jainism – Greek and Persian Invasions of

India– Alexander’s Invasion - Rise of Mahajanapadas -
Magadhan Empire – Nandas - Mauryas – Chandragupta 46-69
Maurya – Asoka – Mauryan Administration – Art and
Architecture

3. III Satavahanas – Kushanas – Kanishka-I – Gupta Empire –

Chandragupta Vikramaditya -Samudragupta –Kumara
Gupta - Administration – Social, Economic and Cultural 70-90
Developments – Vakatakas - Nalanada, Vikramasila and
Valabhi Universities
4. IV Vardhanas - Harshavardhana – Administration –
Religious Contributions –Provincial Dynasties –
Chalukyas – Rashtrakutas - Paramaras – Palas – Senas - 90-113
Art and Architecture - Cultural contributions.

5. V Rajputs – Cultural Contributions - Arab Conquest of Sind

- Mahmud of Ghazni – Invasions – Mohammed of Ghor 114-132
– Battles of Tarain

6. Annexure References 133

 UNIT – I
 Geographical Features – Sources of Indian History – Pre- and Proto History -
Harappan Civilization - Megalithic Culture– Ancient Tamil Civilization – Early
Vedic Age – Later Vedic Age.
OBJECTIVES
 Discuss the physical features of India
 Define the term topography
 Discuss the impact of geography on Indian history
 Explain the important features of the Peninsular Plateau

Geographical Features
The Indian mainland extends between 8°4′ North and 37°6′ North latitudes and from
68°7′ East and 97°25′ East longitudes. Thus, the latitudinal and the North-south extent is 3214
km and East-west extentis 2933 km. India accounts 2.42% of the total world land area India lies
entirely in the northern hemisphere, and eastern hemisphere. The Tropic of Cancer (23°30′
North) passes through the centre of the country. It divides the country into almost two equal parts
Northward of this latitude is North India and South of it is known as South India. Similarly
82°30′ East longitude passes almost from the middle of the country. It is known as Standard
Meridian of India. India is the largest country in terms of area and population in South-Asia. It is
surrounded by the ocean. India is strategically located in the Indian Ocean. It commands sea
routes between Europe and Africa, SouthEast Asia, far East Asia and Oceania. It is because of
this that India shares good trade relation between many countries since ancient times.
India’s Neighbours
India has 28 states and seven Union Territories. India shares its land boundaries with:
 Pakistan and Afghanistan in the northwest
 China (Tibet), Nepal and Bhutan in the north
 Myanmar and Bangladesh in the east
Physical Features of India
 Physiography of an area is the outcome of structure, process and the stage of
development. The land of India exhibits great physical variations.

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  Indian landmass was the part of great Pangaea (entire landmass) which broke into two
parts in the Carboniferous Period due to the force of gravity and buoyancy. The northern
and southern parts were subsequently called as Laurasia and Gondwanaland, respectively,
leaving Tethys Sea in the middle.
 Based on these macro variations, India can be divided into the following physiographic
divisions: The Northern and North-eastern Mountains, The Northern Plain, The
Peninsular Plateau, The Indian Desert, The Coastal Plains, The Islands.
 Geologically, The Himalayan mountains represent a very youthful topography with high
peaks, deep valleys and fast-moving rivers. The Himalayas and the Northern Plains are
the most recent landforms. The Peninsular Plateau constitutes one of the ancient
landmasses and most stable land blocks on the earth’s surface. The Northern Plains are
formed of alluvial deposits and the Peninsular Plateau is composed of igneous and
metamorphic rocks with gently rising hills and wide valleys.
 Gondwanaland further broke up into the peninsular India, Madagascar, Australia,
Antarctica etc in the Jurassic Period.
 Peninsular part of India is a part of Gondwanaland, formed from igneous rocks of
Archean era which were transformed into Gneiss and Schist.
Northern Mountain Ranges
 The Himalayas stretching over the northern borders of India are geologically young and
structurally fold mountain ranges of the world. The formation of Himalayas took place
due to the collision of the Indian plate and the Eurasian plate.
 Himalayas extending from the Indus Gorge in the west Brahmaputra Gorge in the east
terminates suddenly taking sharp southward bend. These bends are called Syntaxial bends
of the Himalayas.
Trans-Himalayas
 Trans-Himalayas are the northern parts of the Great Himalayas. These ranges have been
formed from sedimentary rocks. Antecedent rivers like Sutlej, Indus, Brahmaputra or
Tsangpo originate from this region.
 It is separated in the north from Great Himalayas by the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone
(ITSZ) or Kailash mountain ranges are categorized under this Himalayas.

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  Karakoram ranges are known as the backbone of the Asia. The highest mountain peak of
India or Godwin Austen is located in this range.
 Karakoram ranges meet the Pamir knot in the west whereas it is extended in the southeast
as Kailash range. In the south of this range, Ladakh range acts as a water divide between
Indus River and its tributary Shyok River.
Greater Himalayas
 These are also known as Inner Himalayas or Himadri. This is the highest range of
Himalayas. The average height of this range is 6,100 m. It contains all the major ranges
of the Himalayas. It ranges 120 km to 190 km.
 Great Himalayan range, also known as the Central Axial range, extends from the gorge of
Indus River to the bend of Brahmaputra River in Arunachal Pradesh.
 Almost all the lofty peaks of the world are located in this range. Mt Everest,
Kanchenjunga, Nanga Parbat, Nanda Devi, Kamet and Namcha Barwa are its important
range.
Middle or the lesser Himalayas
 These are also known as Himachal.
 Greater Himalayas is separated from the Middle Himalayas by the Main Central Thrust.
Its breadth is 60-80 km and average height is 3,000-4,500m.
 Some peaks in this range are more than 5,000 m high and the river flow through deep
gorges upto 1,000 m.
 These are part of the Himalayan mountain system having their general alignment form
north to south direction.
 In the north, they are known as Patkai Bum, Naga Hills, the Manipur hills and Mizo or
Lushai hills. These are low hills, inhabited by numerous tribal groups practicing Jhum
cultivation.
 Most of these ranges are separated from each other by numerous small rivers like Barak
which is an important river of Manipur and Mizoram.
 Mizoram is also known as the Molassis basin, which is made up of soft unconsolidated
deposits.
Peninsular Plateau

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  The formation of peninsular plateau can be traced to the Paleozoic era. It was formed due
to the breaking and the drifting of the Gondwanaland because of which it is a part of an
old landmass.
Aravalli Ranges
 Aravalli ranges are located on the western and north-western side of the Peninsular
plateau which are highly dissected and are relict of the world’s oldest mountain.
 Aravalli hills extend upto 800 km from south-west in Gujarat to north-east in Delhi. They
are known as Delhi Ridge near Delhi. The average height of Aravalli is 300-920 m. its
highest peak, gurushikhar near Mt. Abu is 1,722 m high.
 These ranges were formed 600 to 570 million years ago during Pre-Cambrian period.
 Mahi and Luhi River originates from the west of Aravallies. Luni river disappears in the
Rann of Kutch.
Vindhayan Ranges
 These ranges extend parallel to the north of the Narmada-Son rift valley form west to
east. They are old residual fold mountains. It extends in the north of Malwa Plateau in
Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. It separates North India from South India. Its
average altitude is 450-600m.
 It extends from west to east upto 1,200 km in the form of Bhander, Kaimur and Parasnath
hills.
Satpura Ranges
 Satpura ranges are a part of Deccan plateau. The rift valley of Narmada and Tapi
surrounds it from both the sides.
 Structurally, Satpura has been divided into three parts. Rajpipla hills in the west,
Mahadeo hills at the centre and Maikal hills in the east. Dhupgarh (1,350 m) is the
highest peak of Satpura ranges located on the pachmarhi hills.
 Mailkal range is located in the state of Chhattisgarh. The highest peak of Maikal range is
Amarkantak (1,036 m).
 The Eastern Ghats along this plateau are highly dissected. The plateaus are highly
dissected. The slope of the peninsular plateau in the Northern part is from south to north
as depicted form the flow of Son, Chambal and Damodar rivers.

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  Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri rivers flow through these hills and form fertile
plains.
Deccan Plateau
 It is bordered by the Western Ghats in the west, Eastern Ghats in the east and the Satpura,
Maikal range and Mahadeo hills in the north.
 Anaimudi (2,695 m) is the highest peak of Peninsular plateau which is located on the
Anaimalai hills of the Western Ghats. It is followed by Doddabetta (2,637 m) on the
Nilgiri hills.
 The mojar parts of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Western Andhra Pradesh along with
parts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu comes under Deccan plateau.
 Krishna River originates from Mahabaleshwar (1,438 m) which is the major peak of
Sahyadri. The eastern part of the plateau is known as Vidarbha.
 Dharwar plateau is located in Karnataka which is made up of metamorphic rocks. Baba
Budan Hills and Brahmagiri Hills are located to its west.
The North-Eastern Plateau
 Meghalaya Plateau is the extension of the peninsular plateau which is separated by a
fault, Malda Gap, from the Penninsular plateau.
Eastern Ghats
 The average height of the Eastern Ghats is 900-1,100 m which extends for 1,800 m,
parallel to the eastern coastal plain from Mahanadi Valley to Nilgiri in the south.
 Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari and Kaveri Rivers have eroded it at various places.
 Eastern Ghats are residual mountains. The highest peak is Jindhagoda Peak (1,680m) and
Mahendragiri in (1,501m) is the second highest peak.
 It is highly dissected and present in the form of hills. Mahendragiri in Odisha, Nallamala,
Palkonda in Andhra Pradesh and Anaimalai, Javadi, Shevroy, Palni, Velangiri in Tamil
Ndu are major peaks of Eastern Ghats. These hills are separated by Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna and Kaveri rivers.
Western Ghats
 The average heights of Western Ghats are 1,000 m to 1,300 m as compared to Eastern
Ghats which are 600 m high. Western Ghats extend for a length of 1,600 m from the Tapi
river valley in the north to Nilgiri Hills in the South.

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  The four important passes from north to south are Thalghat, Bhorghat, Palghat and
Senkota.
 The highest peak of Northern Sahyadri is Kalsubai (1,646 m) whereas the highest peak of
southern Sahyadri is Kudremukh (1,892 m). The second highest peak of Southern
Sahyadri is Pushpagiri (1714 m). Kaveri river originates near Pushpagiri.
 Cardamom Hills are located in the south of Western Ghats in Kerala and the south of the
Annamalai hills in Tamil Nadu. Annamalai is located to its south west, Palani hills to the
north-east and the Agasthyamalai is located to its south.
Island Groups
 There are 1,256 islands in the Indian Territory. They are mainly categorized under two
groups i.e. Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. Along with that there are many islands in the
Ganga-Sagar and Mahanadi delta.
 There are around 572 islands in the Bay of Bengal in which human habitation is found
only in 36 islands. These islands are located between 6°45’-14°N latitude and 92°- 94°E
longitude.
 The islands of the Bay of Bengal reflect the land characteristics of the submerged tertiary
mountain ranges. Arakan Yoma is an example of remains of submerged highlands.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Andaman and Nicobar islands are located in Bay of Bengal near the Myanmar coast. The
prominent ranges of this island are Saddle peak (North Andaman – 732 m), Mount
Diavalo (Middle Andaman – 515 m), Mount Koyob (South Andaman – 460 m) and
Mount Thullier (Great Nicobar – 642 m). Andaman Islands.
North Andaman, Middle, South and Little Andaman Island all constitute Andaman group
of Island. Port Blair is the capital of this union territory, which is the largest Island of the
South Andaman. Duncan Strait is located between South Andaman and Little Andaman.
Narcondam, which is a dormant volcano, is also located in Little Andaman Island.
Landfall Island is the northern most island of the Andaman Nicobar Island group,
separated by the Coco Island of Myanmar through Coco Strait.
Nicobar Islands
 10° channel separates Andaman Islands (Little Andaman) from Nicobar Islands (Car
Nicobar). Nicobar Islands are located south of the Andaman Islands.

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  The Southern part of India is the Indira point or Pygmalion point or Parson Point. The
highest peak of Nicobar group is Mount Thullier (642 m).
 Sagar Island is located on the mouth of river Hugli.
 The New Moore Island has been formed due to the depositions at the mouth of river
Ganga.
 Pamban Islands are situated in Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka.
 Sriharikota Island is located on the eastern side of the Pulicat Lake along the Andhra
coast. It is the satellite launching Centre of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
 Wheeler’s Island is located at the mount of Brahmani River at the Odisha coat. This
Island as highlighted in newspapers because of regular missile testing. Recently, the
Island has been renamed as Abdul Kalam Island.
 Willington Island: It is one of the largest man-made Islands in Kochi, Kerala.
 Kori Creek is a tidal creek in the Kutch region. It is a marshy tract which demarcates the
boundary between India and Pakistan.
Classification of Indian Rocks
Archean Rocks
 These are the oldest and primary rocks. The cooling and solidification of the upper crust
of the earth‘s surface in the pre-Cambrian era resulted in formation of Archean rocks.
About 86.7% part of the earth’s historical formation has been done in the Pre-Cambrian
era (Archena era).
 The tow-third part of Indian Peninsula is made up of Archean rocks. The three fully
defined types of Archean rocks found in peninsular India are- (i) Bengal Gneiss (ii)
Bundelkhand Gneiss (oldest) (iii) Nilgiri Gneiss
 Archean rocks are the repository of India’s mineral wealth. These rocks have abundance
of metallic and non-metallic mineerals like Iron, Copper, Manganese, Asbestos,
Dolomite, Zinc, Silver and Gold.
 These rocks are found mainly in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Odisha, Chotanagapur Plateau, South Easten Rajasthan.
Dharwar Rocks
 These are the oldest metamorphosis sedimentary rocks formed from the erosion and
deposition of the Archean rocks. These are highly metamorphosed and are devoid of

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 fossils. These rocks are found in Dharwar and Bellary districts of Karnataka, Aravalli
Range, Balaghat, Rewa, Chottanagur, etc. Iron ore, copper and gold are the major
minerals found in these rocks.
 Aravalli Mountains are formed in this rock system, which are the oldest fold mountains
of the world. These rocks are found in Dharwar and Shimoga districts of Karnataka. This
has been found in both peninsular and extra peninsular region.
 Dharwar rocks are found in three regions:
a. In Dharwar and Bellary districts of Karnataka which spreads into Nilgiri and Madurai
districts of Tamil Nadu.
b. It has expanded to Middle East regions of Chhotanagapur, Meghalaya Plateau and
Mikir hills.

Cuddappah Rocks
 These rocks reach upto the Aravallis of Delhi, Delhi ridge to Alwar and Himachal
Pradesh. Cuddappah Rocks.
 These rocks have been formed by the erosion and deposition of Dharwar rocks. They are
less metamorphosed but still devoid of fossils. These rocks are found in Krishna valley,
Nallamalai hills, Papadahani and Cheyyar valleys. A Cuddappah rock of Rajasthan is also
known as Delhi Ridge. These are also sedimentary rocks.
 It is famous for sandstone, limestone, marble and asbestos. Diamonds are also found in
same rocks system.
Vindhyan Rocks
 It is named after Vindhyan Mountain which acts as water-divide between the Gangetic
plains and the Deccan plateau.
 It is famous for limestone, china clay, dolomite etc.
 These are sedimentary rocks formed by the deposition of silt of river valleys and shallow
oceans. These rocks are spread form Chittorgarh of Rajasthan to Sasaram of Bihar.
Gondwana Rocks
 These are the rocks formed in Upper Carboniferous to Jurassic era, hence these are
especially important for coal deposits.

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  About 98% of the coal deposits of India are found in these rocks. These are stratified
rocks in which the fossils of fishes and reptiles are found.
Deccan Trap
 This was formed in Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic era. At the end of the Mesozoic
era, an extensive volcano erupted through fissure and a vast area of about 10 lakh km got
buried under the lava.
 In this region, the thickness of basaltic lava is 600- 1,500 m and even at some places it is
3,000 m. this region is known as Deccan Tap. The Raj Mahal trap was formed even
earlier in the Jurassic period.
 The Deccan Trap is found in most parts of Maharashtra, Gujarat and South-western
Madhaya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
 This structure is made up of Basalt and Dolomite rocks. These rocks are quite harsh.
 Black soil has been formed by the fragmentation of these rocks, which is known as Black
Cotton Soil or Regur Soil.
Tertiary Rocks
 The tertiary rocks have been formed between the Eocene era and the Pliocene era.
 The tertiary rocks are found mainly in the Himalayan region. In peninsular India, these
are only limited to coastal areas. Petroleum is also found in this series or rocks. This
series is found in a developed form in the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand where it is
known as the Lilang series.
Quaternary Roacks
 The quaternary rocks include Pleistocene and the current Holocene age rocks. The
expansion of the Pleistocene series is found in the upper valleys of Jhelum in Kashmir,
Ganga, Brajhmaputra, Narmada, Tapi, Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna.
 During Pleistocene period, the entire Kashmir Valley was a lake. Due to endogenetic
forces, the lake drained through Baramullah gorge leaving lacustrine deposits called
Karewas. These rocks are useful for the cultivation of Zafran (a local variety of saffron),
almonds and walnut.
Climatic Condition
Climate is long term pattern of weather in a particular area or it is also defined as the
average atmospheric conditions of a particular region over a considerable time period, usually

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taken over 35 years. Weather is short term (minutes to months) change in the atmosphere. It
includes sunshine, rain ,cloud cover, wind, hail, snow, sleet etc.
Monsoon
The word monsoon originates from the Arabic word mausim which connotes the climate
associated with seasonal reversal in the direction of winds. The Arabian geographer Al Masoodi
was the first to study monsoon. Indian Monsoon is the most prominent example of the world’s
monsoon system, which primarily affects season, vegetation and lifestyle of the country. The
monsoons are seasonal wind which blows from south-west during summers and reverse its
direction during cooler month.
The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone or ITCZ is a belt of low pressure which encircles
the earth generally near the equator where the trade winds of northern and southern hemispheres
converge. It is characterized by convective activity which often generates vigorous
thunderstorms over large area. It is most active over continental land masses and least over the
oceans.
Trade wind
Trade winds blow steadly towards the equator from the north-east in the northern
hemisphere and from the southeast in the southern hemisphere. These winds blow between 5° to
30° N and S latitude.
Impact of Coriolis force
 An apparent (rather than real) force which cases the deflection of moving objects,
especially of air streams, due to the rotation of the Earth on its axis.
 It shows up, for example in the movement of an air stream, relatives to the rotating Earth
beneath it. Because of Coriolis force, all the wind are deflected towards right in northern
hemisphere and towards left in southern hemisphere.
Onset of Monsoon
 ITCZ shifts towards northward and hence South-East trade winds began to cross equator.
 Tibetan plateau absorbs and radiates heat that is to the development of anticyclone
conditions. The out flow above this plateau moves over north-east India as Tropical
Easterly Jet.
 Low pressure development over entire north India.

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  With the heating of Tibetan plateau, the sub-tropical jet stream suddenly changes its
course to the north of Tibetan highland (due to anticyclone ridge).
 In June, these easterly Jets get firmly established. Also pressure gradient (or low
pressure) attracts the wind blowing from different direction to fill the intense low
pressure over north India. South-East trade wind after crossing the equator, deflect
towards right (because of carioles effect) and moves toward low pressure (Monsoon
trough) region as South-West Monsoon.
 In June, easterly jet streams flows in southern part of peninsular India with 90 km/h
velocity of wind. The presence of easterly jet stream intensifies the over the surface. Its
subsidence over the Mascarene Island increases the high pressure condition over sub-
tropical high pressure belt. The position of Easterly jet controls the location of monsoonal
rains.
 The south westerly winds are very strong and humid (as they carry moisture from
Arabian Sea) before reaching the Malabar Coast (southern portion of Western Ghats).
These unstable winds than brings around 80% humidity, causing sudden and heavy
rainfall with thunder and lighting. This sudden phenomenon is known as Burst of
Monsoon.
Branches of South – West Monsoon
Arabian Sea Branch Monsoon winds originating from the Arabian Sea are further divided into
their sub-branches:
Its one branch is obstructed by the Western Ghats. It climbs 900-1,200 meter above the
slope of the entire Western Ghats. Therefore, these winds immediately cool down along the
hillsides of Sahyadri and causes heavy rainfall (between 250-400 cm) in the western coastal
plains.
After crossing the Western Ghats, this wind descends and begins to which reduces the
humidity of these winds. As a result, this area receives less rainfall and is known as rain-shadow
region (leeward side to the east of the Western Ghats. The second branch of the monsoon that
arises from the Arabian Sea causes rainfall far in Central India through the valleys of Narmada
and Tapi rivers to the north of Mumbai.
The Chotanagpur Plateau receives 15 cm rainfall from this branch where it enters the
Gangetic plain and meets the Bay of Bengal branch. The third branch of this monsoon strikes the

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Saurashtra Peninsula and Kutch region from where it crosses western Rajasthan moving parallel
to Aravallis and cause very little rainfall.
Bay of Bengal
Branch Monsoon winds of the Bay of Bengal branch strikes along the coast of Myanmar
and southeastern Bangladesh. The Arakan Mountains located in Myanmar deflects a large part of
this branch towards the Indian subcontinent. Thus, the monsoon enters from south and southeast
direction (rather than south west direction) in West Bengal and Bangladesh. One branch moves
along the Gangetic plains and reaches the Punjab plains.
Its second branch goes towards the north-east of the Brahmaputra valley. This branch
causes rain in the extensive area and its other sub-branch causes rain in Mawsynram. It receives
highest annual rainfall in the world located in the Garo hills of Meghalaya. During south-west
monsoon period, after having rainfall for few days, if rain fails to occur for one or more weeks, it
is known as Breaks in the Monsoon.
Retreat of Monsoon
By first week of September with apparent shift of sun towards south, ITCZ also shifts to
the south, as a result of which Tibetan plateau starts cooling which ultimately results into
weakening and disappearance of easterly jet stream. In the sub tropical region of Himalayas, the
jet stream get bifurcated into tow branch of which one flows to north of Himalayas and southern
branch flows along the foot-hills of Shiwaliks. These branches flow over Bay of Bengal and pick
up moisture and cause rainfall along the Coromandle Coast as North-East Monsoon.
Seasons in India
The Cold Weather Season (Winter)
 The cold weather season begins from mid- November in northern India and stays till
February. December and January are the coldest months in the northern part of India.
 The temperature decreases from south to the north. The average temperature of Chennai,
on the eastern coast, is between 24° – 25° Celsius, while in the northern plains, it ranges
between 10° – 15° Celsius.
 Days are warm and nights are cold. Frost is common in the north and the higher slopes of
the Himalayas experience snowfall.
 During this season, the northeast trade winds prevail over the country.

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  They blow from land to sea and hence, for most part of the country, it is a dry season.
Some amount of rainfall occurs on the Tamil Nadu coast from these winds as, here they
blow from sea to land.
 In the northern part of the country, a feeble high-pressure region develops, with light
winds moving outwards from this area.
 Influenced by the relief, these winds blow through the Ganga valley from the west and
the northwest.
 The weather is normally marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low humidity and
feeble, variable winds.
 A characteristic feature of the cold weather season over the northern plains is the inflow
of cyclonic disturbances from the west and the northwest.
 These low-pressure systems, originate over the Mediterranean Sea and western Asia and
move into India, along with the westerly flow.
 They cause the much-needed winter rains over the plains and snowfall in the mountains.
 Although the total amount of winter rainfall locally known as ‘mahawat’ is small, they
are of immense importance for the cultivation of ‘rabi’ crops. The peninsular region does
not have a well-defined cold season.
 There is hardly any noticeable seasonal change in temperature pattern during winters due
to the moderating influence of the sea.
The Hot Weather Season (Summer)
 Due to the apparent northward movement of the sun, the global heat belt shifts
northward.
 As such, from March to May, it is hot weather season in India.
 The influence of the shifting of the heat belt can be seen clearly from temperature
recordings taken during March-May at different latitudes.
 In March, the highest temperature is about 38° Celsius, recorded on the Deccan plateau.
In April, temperatures in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh are around 42° Celsius.
 In May, temperature of 45° Celsius is common in the northwestern parts of the country.
 In peninsular India, temperatures remain lower due to the moderating influence of the
oceans

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  The summer months experience rising temperature and falling air pressure in the northern
part of the country.
 Towards the end of May, an elongated low-pressure area develops in the region
extending from the Thar Desert in the northwest to Patna and Chotanagpur plateau in the
east and southeast.
 Circulation of air begins to set in around this trogh.
 A striking feature of the hot weather season is the ‘loo’. These are strong, gusty, hot, dry
winds blowing during the day over the north and northwestern India. Sometimes they
even continue until late in the evening.
 Direct exposure to these winds may even prove to be fatal Dust storms are very common
during the month of May in northern India. THE SEASONS OF INDIA
 These storms bring temporary relief as they lower the temperature and may bring light
rain and cool breeze
 This is also the season for localised thunderstorms, associated with violent winds,
torrential downpours, often accompanied by hail.
 In West Bengal, these storms are known as the ‘Kaal Baisakhi’.
 Towards the close of the summer season, pre-monsoon showers are common especially,
in Kerala and Karnatka. They help in the early ripening of mangoes, and are often
referred to as ‘mango showers’.
The Rainy Season
 By early June, the low-pressure condition over the northern plains intensifies.
 It attracts, the trade winds of the southern hemisphere. These south-east trade winds
originate over the warm subtropical areas of the southern oceans.
 They cross the equator and blow in a south westerly direction entering the Indian
peninsula as the south-west monsoon. As these winds blow over warm oceans, they bring
abundant moisture to the subcontinent.
 These winds are strong and blow at an average velocity of 30 km per hour.
 With the exception of the extreme north-west, the monsoon winds cover the country in
about a month. The inflow of the south-west monsoon into India brings about a total
change in the weather.

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  Early in the season, the windward side of the Western Ghats receives very heavy rainfall,
more than 250cm.
 The Deccan Plateau and parts of Madhya Pradesh also receive some amount of rain in
spite of lying in the rain shadow area.
 The maximum rainfall of this season is received in the north-eastern part of the country
Mawsynram in the southern ranges of the Khasi Hills receives the highest average
rainfall in the world.
Retreating / Post Monsoons (The Transition Season)
 During October-November, with the apparent movement of the sun towards the south, the
monsoon trough or the low-pressure trough over the northern plains becomes weaker.
 This is gradually replaced by a high-pressure system. The south-west monsoon winds
weaken and start withdrawing gradually. By the beginning of October, the monsoon
withdraws from the Northern Plains.
 The months of October-November form a period of transition from hot rainy season to
dry winter conditions.
 The retreat of the monsoon is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature. While day
temperatures are high, nights are cool and pleasant. The land is still moist.
 Owing to the conditions of high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes rather
oppressive during the day aka ‘October heat’. THE SEASONS OF INDIA.
 In the second half of October, the mercury begins to fall rapidly in northern India.
 The low-pressure conditions, over northwestern India, get transferred to the Bay of
Bengal by early November.
 This shift is associated with the occurrence of cyclonic depressions, which originate over
the Andaman Sea.
 These cyclones generally cross the eastern coasts of India cause heavy and widespread
rain.
 These tropical cyclones are often very destructive. The thickly populated deltas of the
Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri are frequently struck by cyclones, which cause
great damage to life and property. Sometimes, these cyclones arrive at the coasts of
Orissa, West Bengal and Bangladesh. The bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandel Coast is
derived from depressions and cyclones.

15
Sources of Indian History
The word archeology is the combination of two word ‘Archaios’ and ‘Logia’, where
archaios means ancient and logia means knowledge. There are two methods of excavations-
Horizontal and Vertical excavations.
Inscriptions
Inscriptions are the most important part of archeological sources. They can be considered
as the most authentic and reliable source. These are comparatively less biased. In the series of
inscriptions, the oldest inscriptions belongs to Emperor Ashoka. His maximum number of
inscription is in Brahmi script, which exhibit the information about Ashoka’s rule, administration
and ‘Dhamma’. Few inscriptions besides Ashokan inscriptions are Prayag Prashshti of
Samudragupta, Hathigumpha inscription of Kharvela, Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin, etc. The
entire history of Satvahanas is based on their archeological source. Similarly, the inscription of
rulers of ‘Pallavas’, ‘Chalukyas’, ‘Pandyas’, ‘Cholas’ also proved to be of importance in the
formation of their history.
Coins
Coins are of immense importance in information of ancient Indian history. With the help
of coins we not only get to know about the trade and commercial activities of the time but also
get to know about the economic and technological development of the time through the shape,
material and technology involved in minting these coins. The dates mentioned on the coins help
us to know about the chronology of the king. Coins also helps us to interpret about the religious
ideologies of the rulers with the help of dates inscribed on them. The first coin of India was
known as ‘Punchmarked coins’. Since, it was made by the method of punching thus, was known
as Punchmarked coins. These coins were possibly introduced by the trading guilds and not by
any ruler. The ratio of purity in coins enables us to interpret about the economic condition of the
ruler and his time. The example: The first gold coin was introduced by Indo-Greek the first ruler
of Indo-Greek who introduced gold coins. The purest gold coins were issued by the ‘Kushanas’
and the maximum number of gold coins but also most impure were issued by the ‘Guptas’.
Monuments or Memorials
Monuments are one of the most important elements of archeological sources. The study
of these monuments not only helps us to interpret about the technical skills, living standard,
economic condition of the time but also help us to know about the architectural style of the time.

16
Where the magnificent monuments depicts the prosperity of a ruler or the dynasty on the
improvement of the empire. There were three styles of architecture in India:
 Nagar style in the North.
 Dravid style in the South.
 And in Deccan i.e, in central part of India, a new style developed which came to be
known as baser style.
There are few temples of Indian deity in South-East Asia and Central Asia for
exampleBorobudur Temple in Java, Ankorwat Temple in Combodia.

Potteries
Potteries are one of the important part of archeological sources. These potteries help us to
know about the spread of the culture and civilization. These potteries are available right from
prehistoric period to historic period. For example- in Rig vedic period BRW, OCP, PGW
potteries were used. In later vedic period BW, RW, BRW and PGW potteries were used during
the period of Buddhism NBPW culture was formed. Thus, it signifies that potteries play a vital
role in reformation of history.
Sculpture
Sculpture is the important element of Ancient Indian History. The statues made of that
time provides us information about the religious conditions of the time.
There were three styles of Sculptures:
 Gandhar style
 Mathura style.
 Amravati style.
Paintings
This art is also an important elements of history. Ajanta paintings are beautiful example
of Ancient Indian History. In these paintings various natural and humanitarian scenes are painted
which is extremely unique to witness. Thus, archeological sources, forms a huge part of ancient
Indian sources, which can be considered as more authentic more reliable and less biased. But
inorder to study ancient Indian history, literary sources are equally important as archeological
sources.

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Literary Sources
Religious Sources: Vedic texts (four Vedas) Epics, Puranas, Smriti texts, Buddhist texts,
Jain texts
Non-religious Sources: Arthashastra- Kautilya, Rajtarangini – Kalhana, Nitisara- Kamandaka,
Mahabhshya- Patanjali, Mudrarakshasa- Vishakhdutta, Ashtadhayayi- Panini.
Prehistoric India
History (from the Greek word – Historia, meaning “inquiry”, knowledge acquired by
investigation) is the study of the past. History is an umbrella term that relates to past
events as well as the discovery, collection, organisation, presentation and interpretation of
information about these events. Pre-history – Events that occurred before the invention
of writing are considered pre-history. Pre-history is represented by the three stone ages.
Ancient history can be divided into different periods according to the tools used by people then.
1. Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age): 500,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE
2. Mesolithic Period (Late Stone Age): 10,000 BCE – 6000 BCE
3. Neolithic Period (New Stone Age): 6000 BCE – 1000 BCE
4. Chalcolithic Period (Stone Copper Age): 3000 BCE – 500 BCE
5. Iron Age: 1500 BCE – 200 BCE.
Stone Age
The Stone Age is the prehistoric period, i.e., the period before the development of the
script; therefore the main source of information for this period is the archaeological
excavations. Robert Bruce Foote is the archaeologist who discovered the first palaeolithic tool in
India, the Pallavaram handaxe.
On the basis of geological age, the type and technology of stone tools, and subsistence
base, the Indian stone age is classified primarily into three types-
 Palaeolithic age (old stone age): Period – 500,000 – 10,000 BCE
 Mesolithic age (late stone age): Period – 10,000 – 6000 BCE
 Neolithic age (new stone age): Period – 6000 – 1000 BCE
Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age)
The term ‘Palaeolithic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘palaeo’ which means old and
‘lithic’ meaning stone. Therefore, the term Palaeolithic age refers to the old stone age. The Old
Stone Age or palaeolithic culture of India developed in the Pleistocene period or the Ice

18
Age, which is a geological period of the age when the earth was covered with ice and the
weather was so cold that human or plant life could not survive. But in the tropical region, where
ice melted, the earliest species of men could exist.
Main characteristics of the Palaeolithic age
1. The Indian people are believed to have belonged to the ‘Negrito’ race, and lived in the
open air, river valleys, caves and rock shelters.
2. They were food gatherers, ate wild fruits and vegetables, and lived on hunting.
3. There was no knowledge of houses, pottery, agriculture. It was only in later stages they
discovered fire.
4. In the upper palaeolithic age, there is evidence of art in the form of paintings.
5. Humans used unpolished, rough stones like hand axes, choppers, blades, burins and
scrapers.
Palaeolithic men are also called ‘Quartzite’ men in India as the stone tools were made of
a hard rock called quartzite.
The Old Stone Age or palaeolithic age in India is divided into three phases according to
the nature of the stone tools used by the people and also according to the nature of the change of
climate.
1. Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to 100,000 BC
2. Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BC – 40,000 BC
3. Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC – 10,000 BC
Lower Palaeolithic Age (Early Palaeolithic Age)
 It covers the greater part of the Ice Age.

 Hunters and food gatherers; tools used were hand axes, choppers and cleavers. Tools

were rough and heavy.

 One of the earliest lower Palaeolithic sites is Bori in Maharashtra.

 Limestone was also used to make tools.

 Major sites of lower Palaeolithic age

Soan valley (in present Pakistan), Sites in the, Thar Desert, Kashmir, Mewar plains,
Saurashtra, Gujarat, Central India, Deccan Plateau, Chotanagpur plateau, North of the Cauvery
River, Belan valley in UP, There are habitation sites, including caves and rock shelters An
important place is Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh.

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Middle Palaeolithic age
 Tools used were flakes, blades, pointers, scrapers and borers.
 The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner.
 There was a decrease in the use of hand axes with respect to other tools.
 Important middle Palaeolithic age sites
Upper Palaeolithic age
 The upper palaeolithic age coincided with the last phase of the ice age when the
climate became comparatively warmer and less humid.
 Emergence of Homo sapiens.
 The period is marked by innovation in tools and technology. A lot of bone tools,
including needles, harpoons, parallel-sided blades, fishing tools and burin tools.
Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age)
The term Mesolithic is derived from two Greek words – ‘meso’ and ‘lithic’. In Greek
‘meso’ means middle and ‘lithic’ means stone. Hence, the Mesolithic stage of prehistory is also
known as the ‘Middle Stone Age’.
Both Mesolithic and Neolithic phases belong to the Holocene era. In this era, there was a
rise in temperature, the climate became warm which resulted in melting of ice and also brought
changes in flora and fauna.
Characteristic Features of the Mesolithic Era
 The people of this age lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering initially but later on
they also domesticated animals and cultivated plants, thereby paving the way for
agriculture.
 The first animal to be domesticated was the wild ancestor of the dog. Sheep and goats
were the most common domesticated animals.
 The Mesolithic people lived in semi-permanent settlements along with occupying caves
and open grounds.
 The people of this era believed in life after death and hence they buried the dead with
food items and other goods.
 The characteristic tools of this era were microliths – the miniature stone tools usually
made of crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony or chert, both of geometrical and non-
geometrical shapes. They were not only used as tools but were also used to make

20
 composite tools, spearheads, arrowheads, and sickles after hafting them on wooden or
bone handles. These microliths enabled the Mesolithic man to hunt smaller animals and
birds.
 The Mesolithic men started to wear clothes made of animal skin.
 The Mesolithic people were art lovers and initiated rock art. The subject matter of these
paintings was mostly wild animals and hunting scenes, dancing and food collection were
also depicted in such paintings. These rock paintings give an idea about the development
of religious practices and also reflect the division of labour on the basis of gender.
 The first human colonization of the Ganga Plains happened during this period.
Important Mesolithic Sites
 Bagor in Rajasthan is one of the biggest and best-documented Mesolithic sites in India.
Bagor is on river Kothari where microliths along with animal bones and shells have been
excavated.
 Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh provides the earliest evidence for the domestication of
animals.
 There are about 150 Mesolithic rock art sites across India, with a rich concentration in
Central India such as Bhimbetka caves (Madhya Pradesh), Kharwar, Jaora and Kathotia
(M.P), Sundargarh and Sambalpur (Odisha), Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala).
 Microliths have also been found in some valleys of river Tapi, Sabarmati, Narmada, and
Mahi.
 Langhnaj in Gujarat and Biharanpur in West Bengal are also important Mesolithic sites.
Bones of wild animals (rhinoceros, blackbuck, etc.) have been excavated from Langhnaj.
Several human skeletons and a large number of microliths have been recovered from
these places.
 Though pottery is absent at most Mesolithic sites, they have been found in Langhnaj
(Gujarat) and in the Kaimur region of Mirzapur (U.P).
Neolithic Period (New Stone Age)
The term Neolithic is derived from the Greek word ‘neo’ which means new and ‘lithic’
meaning stone. Thus, the term Neolithic Age refers to the ‘New Stone Age’. It is also termed as
‘Neolithic revolution’ since it introduced a lot of important changes in man’s social and
economic life. The Neolithic age saw man turning into a food producer from food gatherer.

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Characteristic Features of the Neolithic Age
 Tools and Weapons – The people used microlithic blades in addition to tools made of
polished stones. The use of celts was especially important for ground and polished hand
axes. They also used tools and weapons made of bones – such as needles, scrapers,
borers, arrowheads, etc. The use of new polished tools made it easier for humans to
cultivate, hunt and perform other activities in a better manner.
 Agriculture – The people of the Neolithic age cultivated land and grew fruits and corn
like ragi and horse gram (kulati). They also domesticated cattle, sheep and goats.
 Pottery – With the advent of agriculture, people were required to store their food grains
as well as to cook, eat the product, etc. That’s why it is said that pottery appeared in this
phase on a large scale. The pottery of this period was classified under greyware, black-
burnished ware, and mat impressed ware. In the initial stages of the Neolithic age,
handmade pottery was made but later on, foot wheels were used to make pots.
 Housing and Settled Life – The people of Neolithic age lived in rectangular or circular
houses which were made of mud and reeds. Neolithic men also knew how to make boats
and could spin cotton, wool and weave cloth. The people of the Neolithic age led a more
settled life and paved the way for the beginning of civilization.
The neolithic people did not live far away from the hilly areas. They inhabited mainly the hilly
river valleys, rock shelters and the slopes of the hills, since they were entirely dependent on
weapons and tools made of stone.
Important Neolithic Sites
 Koldihwa and Mahagara (lying south of Allahabad) – This site provides evidence of
circular huts along with crude hand made pottery. There is also evidence of rice, which is
the oldest evidence of rice, not only in India but anywhere in the world.
 Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan) – The earliest Neolithic site, where people lived in
houses built of sun-dried bricks and cultivated crops like cotton and wheat.
 Burzahom (Kashmir) – The domestic dogs were buried along with their masters in their
graves; people lived in pits and used tools made of polished stones as well as bones.
 Gufkral (Kashmir) – This neolithic site is famous for pit dwelling, stone tools and
graveyards in houses.
 Chirand (Bihar) – The neolithic men used tools and weapons made of bones.

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  Piklihal, Brahmagiri, Maski, Takkalakota, Hallur (Karnataka) – The people were
cattle herders. They domesticated sheep and goats. Ash mounds have been found.
 Belan Valley (which is located on the northern spurs of the Vindhyas and middle part of
Narmada valley) – All the three phases i.e., palaeolithic, mesolithic and neolithic ages are
found in sequence.
Chalcolithic Age (Stone Copper Age)
The Chalcolithic Age marked the emergence of the use of metal along with stone
tools. The first metal to be used was copper. The chalcolithic age largely applied to the pre-
Harappan phase, but in many parts of the country, it appears after the end of the bronze
Harappan culture.
Characteristics of the Chalcolithic Age
 Agriculture & cattle rearing – The people living in the stone-copper age domesticated
animals and cultivated food grains. They domesticated cows, sheep, goats, pig and
buffaloes and hunted deer. It is not clear whether they were acquainted with the horse or
not. People ate beef but did not take pork on any considerable scale. The people of the
Chalcolithic phase produced wheat and rice, they also cultivated bajra. They also
produced several pulses such as lentil (masur), black gram, green gram, and grass pea.
Cotton was produced in the black cotton soil of the Deccan and ragi, bajra and several
millets were cultivated in the lower Deccan. The people belonging to the stone-copper
phase in the eastern regions lived mainly on fish and rice, which is still a popular diet in
that part of the country.
 Pottery – The people of the stone-copper phase used different types of pottery, one of
which is called black and red pottery and seems to have been widely prevalent in that era.
The ochre-coloured pottery was also popular. The potter’s wheel was used and painting
with white linear designs was also done.
 Rural settlements – The people living in the stone age were characterised by rural
settlements and were not acquainted with burnt bricks. They lived in thatched houses
made of mud bricks. This age also marked the beginning of social inequalities, as chiefs
lived in rectangular houses while the commoners lived in round huts. Their villages
consisted of more than 35 houses of different sizes, circular or rectangular in shape. The
chalcolithic economy is considered as a village economy.

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  Art and Craft – The chalcolithic people were expert coppersmiths. They knew the art of
copper smelting and were good stone workers as well. They knew spinning and weaving
and were well acquainted with the art of manufacturing cloth. However, they did not
know the art of writing.
 Worship – Small clay images of earth goddesses have been found from the chalcolithic
sites. It is thus possible to say that they venerated the Mother Goddess. In Malwa and
Rajasthan, stylised bull terracottas show that the bull served as a religious cult.
 Infant mortality – Infant mortality was high among the Chalcolithic people, as is evident
from the burial of a large number of children in West Maharashtra. In spite of being a
food-producing economy, the rate of infant mortality was very high. We can say that
the Chalcolithic social and economic pattern did not promote longevity.
 Jewellery – The Chalcolithic people were fond of ornaments and decoration. The women
wore ornaments of shell and bone and carried finely worked combs in their hair. They
manufactured beads of semi-precious stones such as carnelian, steatite, and quartz crystal.
Important Chalcolithic Sites
 Ahar (Banas valley, South Eastern Rajasthan) – The people of this region practised
smelting and metallurgy, supplied copper tools to other contemporary communities. Rice
was cultivated here.
 Gilund (Banas valley, Rajasthan) – Stone blade industry was discovered here.
 Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) – The largest Jorwe culture site in Godavari
valley. It is famous for recovery of bronze goods such as bronze rhinoceros, elephant,
two wheeled chariot with a rider and a buffalo.
 Malwa (Madhya Pradesh) – The settlements of Malwa culture are mostly located on
the Narmada and its tributaries. It provides evidence of the richest chalcolithic ceramics,
and also spindle whorls.
 Kayatha (Madya Pradesh) – The settlement of Kayatha culture was mostly located on
the Chambal River and its tributaries. Houses had mud-plastered floors, pre-Harappan
elements in pottery along with copper objects with sharp cutting edges were found.
 Chirand, Senuar, Sonpur (Bihar), Mahishdal (West Bengal) – These are the
prominent chalcolithic sites in these states.

24
  Songaon, Inamgaon and Nasik (Maharashtra) – Large mud houses with ovens and
circular pit houses have been discovered here.
 Navdatoli (on Narmada) – It was one of the largest chalcolithic settlements in the
country. It was spread over 10 hectares and cultivated almost all food grains.
 Nevasa (Jorwe, Maharashtra) and Eran (Madhya Pradesh) – These sites are known
for their non-Harappan culture.
Prehistoric Period – Iron Age
 Arrival of the Aryans: Vedic Period
 Jainism, Buddhism
 Mahajanapadas: the first major civilization on the banks of the river Ganga after the
Indus Valley.
Proto history
 The reasons for his remark are, while the Pre- history of Western Asiatic countries like
Mesopotamia, Egypt etc. ended immediately after 3000 B. C. when records of dynasties,
King-lists came to be written which can be interpreted to form the outline of a fairly
reliable chronology in terms of years before the Christian era while in India although
writing was known in the third millennium B.C. as is evident from the seals of Harappan
civilization, these have not yet been deciphered to help us in preparing an outline of a
reliable chronology in terms of years.
 In India Proto-History spans the period around from 3000 B.C. to 600 B.C. covering the
Bronze Age and Chalcolithic culture from the beginning of Harappan civilization up to
the beginning of the historical period in 6th century B.C. which is the period of Buddha
and Mahavira.
 The sites having the archaeological remains of Harappans, Ochre colour Pottery (OCP),
Painted Grey Ware (PGW) and Chalcolithic culture, are included in proto-historic period
and they are called proto- historic settlements.
 it is not applicable to whole period which falls between Pre-History and Historic phase in
India, like Painted Gray Ware Phase, OCP, and Chalcolithic cultures don’t have the
written record.
 Proto-Historical period is designated as the starting of the use of metal by human with the
continuity of lithic-industry, to the beginning of understandable written recoded.

25
  It can be divided into three categories on the basis of metallurgical development firstly
Charcolithic phase, secondly Bronze Age and finally Iron Age.
 In this context duration of period which is tied around 7000 B.C. to 600 B.C. in India
should be considered in proto-historic period.
 The term ‘la Protohistorique,’ was first coined by the French, to refer to a period
transposed between prehistory and true historical Period.
 The Vedic literature was in an oral state up to the 4th century AD or so, its antiquity goes
back to the second millennium B.C.
 Hence, this period should be legitimately included in as Protohistory.
 Moreover, contemporary with much of the Vedic literature there is evidence from all over
India about the early metal-using communities.
 However, this is certainly prehistory in one sense, because there is no trace of writing in
any case but since this period also runs parallel with the Vedic literature, it has been
included under Protohistory.
 According Sankalia, Protohistory defined the period between prehistoric stage and the
historical stage covering archaeological record of post- Mesolithic and pre-Mauryan
cultures, between 3500 or 3000 B.C and 300 BC.
Harappan Civilisation (Bronze Age) – c.2600 – 1900 BCE
Earlier historians had called this civilization “The Indus Valley Civilization”, but later on,
major settlements have been excavated in the Ghaggar – Hakra belt that spread beyond the Indus
region. The Harappan civilization was the first urban civilization in South Asia, contemporary to
Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) and Egyptian civilization. Among the three civilizations, the
Harappan civilization occupied about 8,00,000 sq. km, a larger area than the other two
civilizations. It rose in the North-Western part of the Indian sub-continent. It is called Harappan
because this civilization was first discovered in 1921 at the modern site of Harappa situated in
the province of West Punjab in Pakistan. It forms a part of the proto-history of India and belongs
to the Bronze Age. Although it is regarded as older than the chalcolithic cultures, it was far more
developed than these cultures.
General Features of the Harappan Civilisation The Harappan culture covered parts of Punjab,
Sindh, Balochistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the fringes of western Uttar Pradesh. It extended
from Jammu in the north to the Narmada estuary in the south, from the Makran coast of

26
Balochistan in the west to Meerut in the north-east. The area occupied by the Harappan
civilization was triangular in shape. No other cultural zone in the third and second millennium
BCE in the world was as large as the Harappan culture.
Town Planning
The Harappan civilisation is known for its urban outlook and sophisticated sense of town
planning and organisation. In most cases, the Harappan city had its own citadel or acropolis,
which was possibly occupied by the members of the ruling class. Below the citadel, in each city
lay a lower town with brick houses (burnt brick), which were inhabited by the common people.
The remarkable thing about the arrangement of the houses in the cities is that they followed a
grid system, roads cut across one another almost at right angles and the city was divided into
many blocks. The drainage system was very impressive. The drains were made of mortar, lime
and gypsum and were covered either with brick slabs or stone slabs. Perhaps no other civilisation
gave so much importance to health and hygiene as the Harappans. Houses were often of two or
more storeys, though varied in size but quite monotonous. The houses had bathrooms and some
even had their own wells, but no window faced the streets.
Agriculture
Agriculture was the important source of subsistence for the Harappan. The Harappan
villages, mostly situated near the flood plains, produced sufficient food grains not only to feed
themselves but also to meet the requirements of the town people. The Harappans produced wheat
(especially in Mehrgarh), barley, peas, sesame, mustard, millets, rice (Lothal). The surplus grains
were stored in granaries as is evident from the discovery of granaries at the sites of Harappa,
Mohenjo-Daro, and Lothal.
 The Harappan people were the earliest to produce cotton. Because cotton was first
produced in this area, the Greeks called it Sindon, which is derived from Sindh.
 The Harappan people sowed seeds in the floodplains in the month of November, when
the floodwater receded and reaped their harvests of wheat and barley in April before the
advent of the next flood. The Harappans probably used the wooden ploughshare to
plough the fields.
 The Harappan people consumed milk, curd and were fond of non-vegetarian food, fish-
eating was common and molluscs were an important source of protein for the people in
the coastal regions of Gujarat.

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Technology and Craft
The Harappans showed mastery skills in arts and crafts.
 The Harappan people were well acquainted with the manufacture and use of bronze (an
alloy of copper and tin). The craftsmen used to make artifacts from pure copper as well as
bronze, like spears, knives, axes, etc.
 The goldsmiths made jewellery of silver, gold and precious stones. Ornaments like
necklaces, bracelets, pendants, brooches have been excavated.
 The Harappans were also experts in bead making. Bead making shops have been
excavated at Chanhudaro and Lothal.
 The Harappan people loved to decorate themselves and hair dressings by both men and
women are evident from figurines found at different sites.
 A well-known piece of art of the Harappan period is the stone sculpture of a bearded
man, discovered at Mohenjo-Daro, which is having an embroidered cloak over his left
shoulder and his eyes are half-closed indicating a posture of meditation.
 The potter’s wheel was in full use, and the Harappans produced their own characteristic
pottery, which was made glossy and shining? The red ware potteries painted with black
designs were popular. Jars, plates, bowls and pots of different shapes and sizes were
made as utility items.
Economy
Trade
There was no metallic money in circulation and they carried on all exchanges through
barter. The Harappan civilization had flourishing relations with its contemporary Mesopotamian
and Persian civilizations. The Mesopotamian records refer to the trade relations with Meluha (the
ancient name given to the Indus region). The Mesopotamian texts also speak of the two
intermediate trading stations called Dilmun (probably Bahrain on the Persian Gulf) and Makan
(probably Makran coast, Oman). It also indicates Mesopotamia imported copper, ivory, shell,
pearls and ebony from Meluha and exported garments, wool, perfume, leather products and
silver to Harappans. Inland transport primarily employed bullock carts.
Seals
The greatest artistic creation of the Harappan culture are the seals. About 2000 seals have
been found and the majority of these carry short inscriptions with pictures of one-horned bull, the

28
buffalo, the tiger, the rhinoceros, the goat and the elephant (excluding horse). In Mohenjo-Daro,
three cylindrical seals of the Mesopotamian type have been found which depict their trading
relations. Weights & Measures
The Harappan people used weights and measures for trade and other transactions.
Numerous articles used for weights have been found. They show that in weighing mostly 16 or
its multiples were used, for instance, 16, 64, 160, 320 and 640. The Harappan also knew the art
of measurements. Measures of length were based on the foot (37.6 cm) and the cubit (51.8 – 53.3
cm). A shell scale has been found at Mohenjo-Daro, a shell object probably used to measure
angles has been found at Saurashtra and an ivory scale has been discovered at Lothal
Society
The Harappan society was an urban society and appears to have been divided into three
sections – an elite class associated with the citadel, a well-to-do middle class (rich merchants),
and a relatively weaker section occupying the lower towns (labourers). The Harappan society is
believed to be matriarchal in nature as a large number of terracotta (fire-baked earthen clay)
female figurines have been excavated which are representations of the Great Mother Goddess.
The terracotta figurines and the stone sculptures indicate the dressing style of the people. The
men are mostly shown wearing a dress wrapped around the lower half of the body with one end
worn over the left shoulder and under the right arm. The garment was made of cotton, silk and
wool. A woven cloth has been found at Mohenjo-Daro and the Harappan people were well
acquainted with spinning and weaving.
Script
The Harappan script was not alphabetical but mainly pictographic and logosyllabic (each
symbol stood for a word/a syllable). The Harappan people used graphic symbols or characters to
convey the idea. The Harappan writing is believed to be boustrophedon i.e, right to left and left
to right in alternate lines. The evidence of common script points to the great cultural integrations.
It virtually disappeared by c. 1700 BCE indicating that this form of writing did not percolate
downwards.
Religion
1. One of the cardinal features of the Harappan religion was the worship of the Mother
Goddess. A large number of terracotta figurines have been excavated which are
representations of the Mother Goddess.

29
 2. The Harappans looked upon the earth as a fertility goddess and worshipped her in the
same manner as the Egyptians worshipped the Nile goddess Isis.
3. The seal of Pashupati Mahadeva is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhino, a buffalo,
and a deer and it is likely that these animals were also worshipped. The images of bulls or
oxen on the Harappan seals prove that they were worshippers of Shiva.
4. Nother peculiarity of the Harappan religious belief was the worship of stones in the form
of linga (phallus) and yoni (fertility). One terracotta piece from Kalibangan shows
pictures of ling and yoni together.
5. A large number of figurines show the individuals in various yogic asanas (postures). The
Harappans practised yoga both for physical exercise as well as religious rites.
6. Sacred ritual spots included the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro, where the elite in all
likelihood undertook ritual activity that included ceremonial bathing. The Great Bath is
considered to be an important public place of Mohenjo-Daro, comprising the tank which
is situated in the citadel mound. It is in example of beautiful brickwork.
Harappan Civilisation
The Harappan decline is roughly dated around 1900 BCE. There is no unanimity among
historians on the exact reason for the decline of this civilization. Different scholars have put
forward different theories of decline of this civilization.
Possible causes for the decline of the Harappan civilization
Aryan Invasion
According to one of the theories, the Aryans must have invaded the Harappan territory
and that had led to the destruction of the civilization. This theory is put forward as it is
commonly believed that Aryans were the next settlers. They were skilled fighters and are known
for invading and occupying great cities. There is archaeological proof of genocide and unburried
skeletal remains in Mohenjo-Daro. The study of the skeletal remains indicates that damages are
caused by sharp objects or weapons. The knowledge and use of iron as weapons was known to
the Aryans, not to the Harappans. Defeat and death must have come at the hands of invading
Aryans.
Epidemic

30
 According to another theory, an uncontrollable epidemic must have spread in the
Harappan cities. Due to lack of medical facilities, the entire population must have been wiped
out.
Earthquake
Geographically, the Harappan civilization occupied an area that was prone to earthquakes
as it came under seismographic zones. The repeated seismographic vibrations must have led to
erosion that brought down the buildings. The earthquake theories constitute an important theory
for the decline of the Harappan civilization.
Floods
The massive and frequent floods in the Indus river is said to be one of the possible
reasons for the collapse of harappan civilization. The point is proven by the silt clay that covers
the collapsed houses at Mohenjo-Daro. The repeated floods must have forced the people to flee
the inundated areas and set up permanent habitat elsewhere.
Less rainfall
According to one of the theories, there was a fall in the average rainfall in cities leading
to the formation of desert like conditions. This led to the decline in agriculture on which most of
the trade was dependent. Owing to this, people of the Harappan civilization started shifting to
other locations leading to the decline of the entire civilization.
Change in the course of the River
As per some scholars, the reason for the decline is the change in the course of the river
Ghaggar - Hakra that led to an increase in the aridity of the place. The location where the
Harappan culture once flourished is a desert today. India and the world marvels at the wonder of
the Harappan culture. Yet, this culture could not defeat the law of nature and was, as such, not
imperishable. The succession of rise and fall is the law of nature.
Ancient Tamil Civilization
The salient features of the ancient Tamil civilization are widely known among the
scholars. The geologists, the zoologists and the botanists have stated with evidences and clarity
about the existence of the land mass, called Lemuria Continent, beyond the present day
Kanyakumari and that Lemuria Continent had submerged under the sea.

31
 The Tamil and Sanskrit literature also attest to the fact of the existence of the land mass
beyond Kanyakumari in the ancient times. But some historians refuse to accept the Lemurian
theory and simply dismiss it as a mere myth, raising three objections.
According to some scholars, Atlantic Ocean has also submerged a land mass, called
Lemuria Continent. It means that two land masses were submerged by the sea, and both the land
masses were called Lemuria Continent. It would be incredible to call two submerged continents
by a single name-Lemuria Continent.

To avoid this confusion, it would be better to reject the name Lemuria Continent to the
land mass sunken by the Indian Ocean and call that land mass by another appropriate name.
Since the Kumari hills and Kumari river were there on the sunken land beyond kanyakumari,
according to the Tamil literature, that land could be called Kumari Land.
The second objection of the historians is the unbelievable nature of the sea engulfing the
whole continent. But, on 26 December 2004, we were the witness to the huge seismic waves,
triggered by a massive under-sea earthquake off Sumatra in Indonesia, hitting the coastal areas of
half a dozen littoral countries of the Indian Ocean, washing away a number of villages and
towns, killing more than three lakhs of people and causing destruction of properties worth
several thousand crores of rupees.
Likewise, as described in Tamil and Sanskrit literature, several tsunami hit the Kumari
Land and devoured it completely. According to the commentary on Iraiyanavar Agapporul, three
tsunamis hit and submerged Kumari Land. The first tsunami hit Thenmadurai, the first capital of
Pandyas and devoured a part of the Kumari Land; the second tsunami hit Kapatapuram, the
second capital of Pandyas and submerged some more parts of the Kumari Land; and the third
tsunami hit Manalur and submerged the remaining parts of the Kumari land.
The Third objection of the historians is about the vastness of the land mass engulfed by
the sea. The theory that the Kumari Continent extended from the present day Kanyakumari to the
eastern shores of Africa before millions of years may be rejected as there are doubts about the
existence of human beings at that time. Further, our period of study starts only from the historic
period, at which time the Kumari Land was not as big as a continent, but a compact land mass
extending from the present day Kanyakumari.

32
 This is also confirmed by SM. Ramasamy in his article Satellite Sensed Landmass –
South of Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari). The studies so far carried out by the geosciences of
different parts of the world have brought a hierarchy of information that the sea bed is not a plain
or a trough, but rather has folded mountains, submarine volcanoes, mid-oceanic ridges,
submarine canyons, etc. The studies by the earlier researchers also have brought out many such
topographic features below the sea in between Kanyakumari in the north and the Antartica in the
south. SM. Ramasamy informs that the satellite pictures taken over the Indian Ocean had shown
mountains lying at a depth of about 4000 meters below the present mean sea level. Hence, there
is no possibility to consider these folded and cliffed mountains of Kumari Continent, as these are
not suitable for human settlements and for human civilization.
But a plain sea floor extending to about 20,000 Sq.Km. between Kanyakumari and the
cliffed mountains is found. This widespread land could be the Kumari Land described in Tamil
and Sanskrit literature. Successive tsunamis hit the first two ancient capitals of Pandyas –
Thenmadurai and Kapatapuram were situated.
Synchronizing the information of SM. Ramasamy with the table of deluges provided by
S. Gurumurthy and the statement of the commentator of Irayanar Agapporul, it may be assumed
that Thenmadurai was engulfed by the sea around 3000 B.C. and Kapatapuram around 1500 B.C.
and Manalur at a later date. Therefore, any unbiased historian would accept the rational opinion
of the scholars about the then possible existence of Kumari land beyond the present day
Kanyakumari and its submersion by the sea.
According to SM. Ramasamy, the cliffed mountains in the Kumari Land were not
suitable for human settlements. Hence, those Kumari mountains could be considered as the
southern boundary of the Kumari Land and thereby the Tamil land. Third conclusion also
coincides with Tolkappiyam which demarcates the boundaries of Tamil Lands as Venkata hills
in the north and Kumari hills in the south. It was in that Tamil Land, including the Kumari Land
and the modern Kerala state, the ancient Tamil civilization flourished.
Date
Next, we have to fix the date of the ancient Tamil civilization Thenmadurai, the first Pandya
capital submerged under the sea around 3000 B.C. Adding atleast 500 years more to that for the
development of civilization in Thenmadurai, it may be stated that civilization had began there
around 3500 B.C. According to K. Nedunchezhian, around 500 B.C., a new religion Ajvika (a

33
cult of Iyanar worship) began to spread in Tamil Land. So, 500 B.C. may be fixed as the closing
date of the ancient Tamil civilization flourished in Tamil Land approximately between 3500 B.C.
and 500 B.C.
People
The ancient Tamil land was wholly peopled by the Tamils only. They were Tamils by the
language they had spoken and Dravidians by race. On this, there is a general agreement among
scholars. But, on the question of the original home of the Dravidians, differences of opinion
persist among scholars. Some scholars consider the megalithic culture of South India as posterior
to the megalithic cultures of Europe and Central Asia and so the Dravidians hailed either from
Europe or from Central Asia.
But, the recent scientific dating of the Adittanallur megalithic culture puts it around 2000
B.C., which is approximately the same period of the megalithic cultures of Europe and Central
Asia. So, we surmise that the megalithic cultures of Europe, Central Asia and South India
evolved independently and more or less at the same time. Therefore, the theory that the
Dravidians carried the megalithic culture from Europe to South India via Central Asia is not
valid any more.
Another view was the Dravidians entered India through the north west, developed Indus
valley civilization and settled in North India. Later, the Dravidians were driven to South India by
the invading Aryans. But the scholars failed to note that at the time of invasion of the Aryans
around 1500 B.C., the Adittanallur culture was in full blossom. At that time the Dravidians were
already in South India as a highly civilized society. So, the theory that the Aryans drove away
the Dravidians to South India is not correct.
Certain similarities between the place-names, social customs, religious beliefs and spoken
words are also cited as evidences for the foreign origin of the Dravidians. But it could be the
other way also. These similarities may be due to the movement of the Dravidians from the south
to the north and may also be due to the commercial interactions and movement of the people
from one place to another, either way.
The ancient Tamil Land was equally a fertile land like that of the Mediterranean region
and Central Asia for the emergence and development of human civilization. Therefore, ancient
Tamil civilization evolved independently and nearly around the same time of the Sumerian,
Babylonian, Egyptian and Indus valley civilizations. So, the recent evidences and interpretations

34
are strongly in favour of the theory that the ancient Tamil Land was the original home land of the
Dravidians.
Excavations
Dr. Jagor of Berlin was the first to visit and excavate the ancient urn burial site at
Adittanallur in Tuttukudi district in 1876. He has taken all the articles found at Adittanallur to
the Berlin Museum. Next, M. Louis Lapicque of France conducted excavations at Adittanallur
during 1903-1904, and also took some more articles unearthed from explorations at many sites
situated along the course of the Tamaraparani river from Palayamkottai to the sea at intervals
from 1899-1904. As thousands of urns were buried on the slope of a hillock, it may also be
called as Mound of Dead, like that of Mohenjodaro, which means a Mount of Dead. Therefore,
Adittanallur may be described as the Mohenjodaro of South India.
It was reported that about 9000 objectives were discovered during the excavations. The
objects, yielded from the burial sites, are finely made pottery of various kinds in great number,
many iron implements and weapons; vessels and personal ornaments in bronze; a few gold
ornaments; a few stone beads; pieces of clothes; bones; ivory; sandalwood; and some household
stone implements used for grinding.
Accordingly, 2000 B.C. has been fixed as the date of Kapatapuram, the second capital of
the ancient Pandyas. Therefore, we may conclude that the Adittanallur culture flourished along
with the Kumari Land culture and even after the submersion of the latter by the sea.
About twenty Copper antennae swords of 4000 years old were found at Shavinipatti village in
Sivagangai district in 1980; Appukkal village in Vellore district in 2000; and Kuppuchipudur
village in Coimbatore district in 2001.
The ancient site at Korkai was first excavated in 1827 by R. Caldwell, who found a few
urns of giant size. Next, during 1968-69 a team of archaeologists led by R. Nagasamy conducted
excavations at Korkai. They discovered a number of inscribed potsherd with Tamil scripts,
various objects of copper and iron, perforated terracotta tiles, beads of crystal, conch sheels, and
pearl-oysters. The charred pieces found at korkai gave C14 determinant of 2755+- 95 i.e. 785
B.C.
Tolkappiyam
Tolkappiyam was written prior to Rig Veda, which was composed in fourteenth century
B.C. Several seals discovered in the Indus valley indicate certain religious traditions mentioned

35
in Tolkappiyam, which prove that Tolkappiyam belonged to the age of the last phase of the Indus
valley civilization i.e. 1500 B.C. Almost all Tamil scholars agree that Tolkappiyam belonged to
the last phase of the Second Tamil Sangam held at Kapatapuram, which was engulfed by the sea
around 1500 B.C.
Therefore, we may safely conclude that Tolkappiyam was written in 1500 B.C. So, we
may attempt to construct the social and cultural history of the Tamils in the ancient Tamil Land
on the basis of the vivid picture on the social and cultural life of the Tamils portrayed in
Tolkappiyam and also on the basis of the artifacts and other materials discovered from the
megalithic sites in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Society
The ancient Tamils divided the Tamil Land into four divisions viz, Kurinji (the hilly
region), Mullai (the forest land), Mardam (the cultivable land) and Neidal (the sea-shore). The
people of Kurinji, Mullai, Marudam and Neidal were called Vettuvar, Ayar, Uzhavar and
Paravathavar respectively. The Vettuvar or hunters, Aayar-shepherds, Uzhavar-farmers, and
Parathavar-fishermen. There were also potters, balck-smiths, gold-smiths, weavers, carpenters
and merchants. There was no caste system in ancient Tamil Land.
The people wore cotton and muslin clothes. They adorned their neck and predominant
parts of their body with ornaments made of beads, copper and bronze. They were accustomed to
the use of sandal paste and perfumes. They knew the use of metal mirrors. Ladies used to colour
their eyelashes with the black dye and were fond of wearing jewels such as necklaces and
bangles. Their household utensils included pottery of various kinds, and vessels made of bronze.
The life of the ancient Tamils was generally divided into two namely, Aham and Puram. Aham
dealt with love-life and Puram with profession and worldly life; war and peace; charity and
doings of royalty with reference to the interests and problems of society. The ancient Tamils
knew the meteorological science. They keenly observed climatic changes and divided a year of
twelve months into six seasons of each having two months on the
basis of climatic change. Even full day was divided by them into six equal parts.
Cities
The ancient Tamil Land was dotted with many villages as well as big fortified capital
cities such as Thenmadurai, Kapatapuram, Madurai, Uraiyur and Vanji. There were also port
cities like Korkai, Tondi and Musiri and industrial city-Adittanallur. The burnt bricks were used

36
for the construction of houses. Besides king’s palaces, there were mansions for the nobles and
big merchants. The ordinary people lived in round-shaped or rectangular huts. The rich decorated
their houses with saucer lamps of different types and vase stands.
Industry
Along with agriculture, which was the main occupation of the people, industries and
crafts also thrived. The smithy was an important industry, were agricultural implements and
weapons of war were forged and repaired. The other smiths made artistic ornaments in gold,
bronze and copper. Adittanallur was a famous mining and industrial centre. The carpenters
designed doors, windows and other wooden articles. Spinning and weaving were the widely
practiced crafts. Pearl-diving was another activity, which led to the collection of valuable gems.
Salt was manufactured along the coastal belt.
Disposal of the Dead
The cremation of dead bodies was unknown to the ancient Tamils. They buried the dead
bodies at the burial ground which was in a separate place away from the city or from the
dwelling places. The dead bodies were kept in specially made conffins of black and red ware
called Emathazhi (urn). The things used and dear to to dead person such as clothes, weapons,
utensils, ornaments, food etc were placed inside and outside the urn. If the dead were persons of
rank of importance, a practice of Pattayam Kattaradu i.e., tying a strip of gold diadems, an inch
or two in length, on the forehead of the dead was in vogue among the Tamils. On the burial place
of a soldier, who had valiantly fought and died on the battlefield, a hero stone was erected to
honour him.
Language
The language spoken by the people of ancient Tamil Land was Tamil. Most of the
scholars consider that the early script of the Tamil language was Tamil Brahmi which was
derived from Asokan Brahmi. But the recent researches proved that Tamili was the script of the
Tamil language, which was independent of Asokan Brahmi and in fact pre-Asokan Brahmi by
several centuries. This has been attested to by the potsherds with Tamil scripts discovered at
Adittanallur and other megalithic burial sites. Regarding education, it was open to all sections of
the people, including women and in all the regions of Tamil Land, both in urban and rural areas.
Tamil Academies

37
 The commentator on Iraiyanar Agapporul was the first to describe the three Tamil
Sangams (Academies) which existed in ancient Tamil Land. After him, we find many references
in Tamil literature about Tamil Sangams. But doubts are raised over the existence of the
Sangams, pointing to the legend that Gods were members of the Sangam and the long regnal
years given to the kings. We shall neglect those two and try to deduce the truth from the
literature about the Sangams.
The Pandyan kings patronized the poets and extended all help to the growth of Tamil
language and literature. The Tamil poets and scholars quite often assembled at the king’s court
and held literary discussions there. Such a meeting of poets presided over by the king was
poetically described as Sangam. Unfortunately the Pandayan capitals, Thenmadurai and
Kapatapuram, were violently hit by successive tsunamis and engulfed by the sea.
Therefore, the Pandyas have to shift their capitals first from the Thenmadurai to
Kapatapuram and then from Kapatapuram to the present- day Madurai. As a result of this
shifting, the Pandyas had three capital cities-Thenmadurai, Kapatapuram and modern Madurai
and consequently by the assembly of poets also met in the Pandayan courts in these three places,
which lent to the title three Sangams. If the Pandyas had only one capital, then there would be
only one Sangam. However, it is a historical fact that the first Tamil Sangam functioned at
Thenmadurai; the second at Kapatapuram and the third and the last at the modern Madurai.
Literature
Though many literary works were said to have been produced during the first Tamil
Sangam period, none of them are available today, except their names. During the second Tamil
Sangam period, Tolkappiyam was written by Tolkappiyar. No other literary works are available
in that period also. But during the third Tamil Sangam period, abundant literature were produced.
Since our scope of study extends only upto sixth century B.C., it would not be possible to cull
out and list the literature chronologically that belongs to our period of study.
Link with Indus Valley Civilization
There are many things common between the Indus valley civilization and the ancient
Tamil civilization to prove the links that existed between the two great civilizations. The authors
of both the civilizations were Dravidians. The black and red ware tradition, the handmade
earthenware vessels like food plates, incense burners, lotas, flat based bowels, multiple pots were

38
common to both the civilizations. The excavations at Adittanallur, Korkai and Sanur have
yielded tangible evidences to connect these two civilizations.
There are representations of Mother Goddess, tress, animals etc. on the seals of the Indus
valley, which can also be found on artefacts discovered at Adittanallur, Korkai and other urn
burial sites. Tolkappiyam gives a detailed account of the religion of the ancient Tamils, most of
which correspond to the religious life of the people of the Indus valley.
B.B. Lal points out the similarities between the graffiti of ancient Tamil Land and
Harappan script. Iravatham Mahadevan concludes that the inscription of the Neolithic axe found
at Sembiyan kaniddyur was closely a related to the Indus script. Poornachandra Jeeva opines that
the Tamili script was a descendant of the Indus script.
The Indus valley civilization is known as city civilization. Though the ancient Tamil
Land was dotted with many villages, it also had fortified great cities like Thenmadurai,
Kapatapuram, Madurai, Vanji and Uraiyur.
All these point to the fact that the ancient Tamil Civilization was contemporary to the
Indus valley civilization. But the Indus Valley civilization collapsed and disappeared around
1500 B.C, whereas the ancient Tamil civilization continues to grow and flourish without any
break till date. Only a few ancient civilizations of the world continue to flourish even today. A
Tamil civilization is one among them. It continues to zealously safeguard its uniqueness and
contribute its share to the human civilization of the world in modem times.
The Vedic Age
1. Early Vedic Literature/Rig Vedic Culture (c. 1500 – 1000 BCE) – It includes the Rig
Veda Samhita and other texts of the family. They are called family books since they are
believed to have been composed by the families of a few seer poets like Atri, Vasishtha,
Vishvamitra, Bharadvaja and Gritsamada.
2. Later Vedic Literature/Later Vedic Culture (c. 1000 – 500 BCE) – It includes books
1, 8, 9, & 10 of the Rig Veda Samhita, the Samhitas of the Sama Veda, the Yajur and the
Atharva Vedas and the Aranyakas, Brahmanas & Upanishads attached to the 4 Vedas.
Vedic Literature
The Vedic literature is the most significant source of information about the Vedic
civilisation. The word “Veda” means knowledge. The Vedic literature has evolved in the course
of many centuries and was handed down from generation to generation by the word of mouth.

39
Later, they were compiled and written down, and the earliest surviving manuscript is from the
11th century.
There are 4 Vedas and each Veda generally has 4 parts – Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka,
and Upanishads. The four Vedas are – Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda.
Rig Veda
 It is the oldest Veda and depicts the life of early Vedic people in India. UNESCO has

included the Rig Veda in the list of literature signifying World Human Heritage.
 Its text consists of 1028 hymns (Sukta) which are divided into ten Mandalas or books.

 Mandalas 2 – 7 form the oldest part of the Rig Veda Samhita and are called “family

books” as they are ascribed to particular families of seers/rishis.

 Mandala 8 – Here, the hymns are dedicated to various gods and have been
mostly composed by the Kanva clan.
 Mandala 9 – All the hymns are dedicated entirely to Soma.

 Mandala 1 – It is primarily dedicated to Indra and Agni. Varuna, Surya, Mitra, Rudra,

and Vishnu have also been mentioned.

 Mandala 10 – It contains Nadi Stuti Sukta praising the rivers. It also contains Nasadiya

Sukta and Purush Sukta. It contains hymns that are traditionally chanted during marriage
and death rituals.
 Only surviving recension of Rig Veda is the Shakala Shakha.

 The Upaveda of Rig Veda is the Ayurveda.

Sama Veda
 The Sama Veda or the “Veda of Chants” is the collection of verses drawn almost

wholly from the Rig Veda, that are provided with musical notations and are intended as
an aid to the performance of sacred songs.
 It contains the famous Dhrupada Raga, later sung by Tansen in medieval times.

 Recensions (Shakhas) of the Sama Veda are Kauthuma, Ranayaniya and Jaiminiya

(Talavakara).
 Sama Veda’s Upaveda is the Gandharva Veda.

Yajur Veda (Worship or ritual knowledge)

 This Veda deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices. It is further divided
into-

40
  Shukla Yajur Veda/ Vajasaneya / White Yajur Veda – it contains only the mantras. It
contains the Madhyandina and Kanva recensions.
 Krishna Yajur Veda / Black Yajur Veda – it includes mantras as well as
prose explanations/commentary. It contains Kathaka, Maitrayani, Taittiriya and
Kapishthala recensions.
 The Upaveda of the Yajur Veda is the Dhanur Veda.
Atharva Veda
 It concerns itself with magic spells to ward off evil spirits or dangers.

 It is considered to be a non-Aryan work and is classified into 20 kandas or books, with

711 hymns.
 It contains Shaunaka and Paippalada recensions.

 Shilpa Veda is the Upaveda of Atharva Veda.

Brahmanas
The Brahmanas consist of details about the meaning of Vedic hymns, their applications and
origin stories. Every Veda has several Brahmanas attached to it.
 Aitareya or Kaushitaki Brahmanas were allotted to Rig Veda for detailing.

 Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas to Sama Veda for detailing.

 Taittiriya and Shatpatha Brahmanas to Yajur Veda for detailing.

 Gopath Brahmana to Atharva Veda for detailing.

Aranyakas
The Aranyakas are also called “forest books” as they were written chiefly by hermits
residing in the forests for their students. They lay emphasis not on sacrifices but on meditation.
They are in fact, opposed to sacrifices and many of the early rituals. They are the concluding
portion of the Brahmanas and interpret rituals in a philosophical way.
Upanishads
The literal meaning of Upanishad is to “sit near someone”. There are 108 Upanishads, of
which 13 are the most prominent. It introduces the concept of ‘Atman’ and ‘Brahman’. It states
that the core of one’s self is neither the body nor the mind, but the Atman or the “soul”. It further
points out that the core of all creatures is the Atman itself and can be experienced through
meditation. According to the Upanishads, the Brahman is the underlying substance of the

41
universe. It is an unchanging ‘Absolute being’. The Upanishads are mainly philosophical in
nature and speak of the highest knowledge.
 Satyamev Jayate in the National Emblem is taken from Mandukyopanishad.
 The Chandogya Upanishad clearly refers to the first 3 ashrams and discusses
the (mainly two) types of marriage:
 Anuloma marriage – the marriage of a man in his own varna or below his varna. It is
the most accepted and common form of marriage in society.
 Pratiloma marriage – the marriage of a woman in a varna lower than her own. It is not
sanctioned by the Vedas.
Vedanta
The Vedanta reveals the final aim of the Vedas and signifies the end of the Vedas. It
condemns sacrifices, ceremonies and denotes the last phase of the Vedic period.
Vedanga
The literal meaning of the word Vedanga is “limbs of the Vedas”. Just like the limbs of
the body, they perform various supportive and augmenting functions in the study, preservation
and protection of the Vedas and the Vedic traditions. They are considered to be of human origin
and are written in the form of Sutras (short condensed statements used to express different
ideas). There are 6 Vedangas as follows:
 Shiksha (Phonetics)
 Kalpa (Ritualistic science)
 Jyotisha (Astronomy)
 Vyakaran (grammar)
 Nirukta (Etymology)
 Chhanda (Metrics)
The Kalpa Sutra is further divided into:
1. Shrauta Sutra – prescribes rules for the performance of different types of sacrifices and
rituals.
2. Grihya Sutra – concerned with comparatively simpler domestic sacrifices. It includes
rituals pertaining to crucial life stages (Samskaras) such as Upanayana (initiation),
Vivaha (marriage), and Antyeshti (funerary practices).
3. Dharmasutra – pertaining to the rituals’ Dharma.

42
Puranas
The word Purana literally means ‘ancient’ or ‘old’.
 Traditionally, Puranas are considered to be composed by Ved Vyasa.
 The Puranas treat various topics concerning religious developments that occurred around
the 5th and 6th centuries.
 The Puranas reflect the growth of Hindu Dharma, the condition of society in ancient
times, social customs, religious ceremonies as well as yogic methods of discipline.
 Traditionally, a Purana discusses five subjects or “five signs” in the time span of 4
ages/yugas (Satya, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali):
 Sarga – the primary creation of the universe.
 Pratisarga – recreation, secondary creation after annihilation.
 Manvantaras – the reigns of the various Manus.
 Vamsha – the genealogy of gods and rishis.
 Vamshanucharita (Royal lineage) – the history of Solar (Suryavanshis) and Lunar
(Chandravanshis) dynasties.
 All Puranas are strongly sectarian – some are devoted to Shiva, some to Vishnu and some
to a goddess. However, the Purana that is devoted to a particular god often pays
considerable attention to other gods as well.
 It is commonly accepted that four yugas make up a Mahayuga, that 1000 Mahayugas
make a Kalpa, that every Kalpa is further divided into 14 Manvantaras which are
presided over by a specific Manu. Each yuga is periodically destroyed and again, the
recreation of the world occurs with the cyclic decline and revival of Dharma.
 The Puranas are divided into 18 Mahapuranas (such as Vishnu, Brahma, Narada, Padma,
Garuda, Matsya, Kurma, Shiva, Agni, Bhagavata, etc.) and numerous Upapuranas
(secondary Puranas).
 The Puranas are regarded as post-Vedic texts.
Know the differences between the Vedas and the Puranas here.
Dharmashastra
 The Dharmashastra are the Sanskrit texts about morality and religious duty. They provide
guiding rules and principles for the order and regularity of society and righteous conduct.

43
  Dharmashastra refers to the fulfilment of Purusharthas (life goals) such
as Dharma (righteous conduct), Artha (material well being), Kama (desires, sensual
pleasures) and Moksha (liberation from the cycle of life and death).
 The Dharmashastra are subdivided into Dharmasutras (c. 600 – 300 BCE) and Smritis (c.
200 – 900 BCE). They recognise three sources of Dharma – the Vedas (Shruti – what is
heard), Smriti (what is remembered) texts and Shistachara (good manners and practices
of cultured people).
 A person’s Dharma was dependent on many factors such as gender, marital status, varna
and ashram. Out of the four varnas, three varnas – Brahmanas, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas
were considered Dvija (twice-born, as they had the right to the sacred thread ceremony
considered akin to second birth), while the fourth varna – Shudras were burdened with
many civil disabilities.
 The four ashrams dividing the life of a male Dvija were:
 Brahmacharya (celibate student hood)

 Grihastha (household caretaker)

 Vanaprastha (partial renunciation)

 Sanyasa (complete renunciation)

The different ashram stages were not followed by all and it was not applicable to women and
Shudras.
Epics
The other important literature of ancient India is the Great Epics – the Mahabharata and
the Ramayana. Both were written in the form of long poems and took place in ancient Hindu
Kingdoms on the Indian subcontinent. They describe the political, social and economical
structure of ancient India.

44
 Check Your Progress
1. How did India's diverse geographical features influence the development of ancient
civilizations?
………………………………………………………………

2. Discuss the significance of India's geographic diversity in shaping its historical narrative.
………………………………………………………………

3.What are the primary sources used by historians to reconstruct India's ancient history?
………………………………………………………………

45
 UNIT – II
 Buddhism and Jainism – Greek and Persian Invasions of India– Alexander’s Invasion -
Rise of Mahajanapadas - Magadhan Empire – Nandas - Mauryas – Chandragupta Maurya
– Asoka – Mauryan Administration – Art and Architecture
Objective
 Discuss the Greek and Persian Invasions of India
 Define the Alexander’s Invasion
 Discuss the impact of Rise of Mahajanapadas
 Explain the important features of the Mauryan Administration

Buddhism and Jainism

The sixth century B.C. was an important stage in Indian history as far as the development
of new religions is concerned. In this period, we notice a growing opposition to the ritualistic
orthodox ideas of the Brahmanas. This ultimately led to the emergence of many heterodox
religious movements. Among these Buddhism and Jainism developed into well organised
popular religions. This Unit attempts to analyse the emergence and significance of these new
religious ideas. Firstly it deals with the factors that were responsible for the emergence and
growth of heterodox ideas. Then it goes on to explain how Buddha and Mahavira tried to find a
solution in their own ways to end human suffering. Since the causes for the emergence of the two
religions are common in nature, the? is some similarity in the principles adopted by these
religions. However, they differ completely on some of the basic principles. We have discussed
these points in the book. The other heterodox religious ideas which were current during the sixth
century B.C. have also been dealt with. Finally we examine the impact of these religious
movements on contemporary economy and society.
Rise of new Religious Ideas
The new religious ideas during this period emerged out of the prevailing social, economic and
religious conditions. Let us examine some of the basic reasons which contributed to their
emergence:

46
 I. The Vedic religious practices had become cumbersome, and in the context of the new
society of the period had become in many cases meaningless ceremonies. Sacrifices and
rituals increased and became more elaborate and expensive. With the breakup of
communities, the participation in these practices also became restricted and as such
irrelevant to many sections in the society.
II. Growing importance of sacrifices and rituals established the domination of the
Brahmanas in the society. They acted both as priests and teachers and through their
monopoly of performing sacred religious rites, they claimed the highest position in the
society which was now divided into four vamas.
III. Contemporary economic and political developments, on the other hand, helped the
emergence of new social groups which acquired considerable economic power. You have
seen that merchants living in cities or even rich agricultural householders possessed
considerable wealth. Similarly, the Kshatriyas, whether in the monarchies or in the gana-
samghas, came to wield much more political power than before. These social groups
were opposed to the social positions defined for them by the Brahrnanas on the basis of
their heredity. As Buddhism and Jainism did not give much importance to the notion of
birth for social status, they attracted the Vaisyas to their folds. Similarly, the Kshatriyas
i.e. the ruling class were also unhappy with Brahmanical domination. Briefly put, it was
basically the discontent generated hy the dominant position of the Brahmanas in the
society, which contributed to the social support behind the new religious ideas. It is worth
remembering that both Buddha and Mahavira came from Kshatriya class but in their
search for answers to the pressing problems of society they went beyond boundaries set
by their birth. Further, when we try to find out how their ideas were received by their
contemporaries, we notice that they had a range of people responding to them: Kings, big
merchants, rich householders, Brahmans and even courtesans. They all represented the
new society which was emerging in the sixth century B.C. and Buddha and Mahavira,
and other thinkers of those times, in their own ways, responded to the problems of a new
social order. The Vedic ritualistic practices had ceased to be of much relevance to this
new social order.
Buddha and Mahavira, were by no means, the first to criticise the existing religious
beliefs. Many religious preachers before them, like Kapila, Makkali Gosala, Ajita Kesakambalin

47
and Pakuda Kachchayana had already highlighted the evils of the Vedic religions. They also
developed new ideas on life and God. New philosophies were also being preached. iiowever, it
was Buddha and Mahavira, who provided an alternative religious order. This was the
background which helped the emergence and establishment of new religious orders in the sixth
century B.C. Among these Buddhism and Jainism were most popular and well organised. We
will now discuss the origin and development of Buddhism and Jainism separately.
Gautama Buddha and Origin Of Buddhism
Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha who had been given the name Siddhartha by
his parents. His father was Suddhodana, the chief of the Sakya clan and mother was Maya,
princess of the Koliya clan He was born in the Lumbini grove (modem Rumindei) in Nepal
Tarai. We know this through an inscribed pillar of Asoka. The date of birth of Buddha is a matter
of dispute but most of the scholars place it about 566 B.C. he was deeply affected by the sight of
an old man, a sick person, a dead body and an ascetic. The misery of the human life cast a deep
spell on Gautama. In order to find a solution to the misery of-mankind, he left home at the age of
29.
Gautama spent six years as a wandering ascetic. From a sage named Alara Kalama he
learned the technique of meditation and the teachings of the upanishadas. Since these teachings
did not lead Gautama to the final liberation, he left him with five Brahmana ascetics.
He practised rigid austerities and resorted to different kinds of self torture to find the truth.
Ultimately abandoning this he went to Uruvela (near, modem Bodh Gaya on the banks of
Niranjiina river) and sat under a pipal tree (Bodhi tree-). Here he attained the supreme
knowledge (Enlightenment) on the 49th day of his continuous meditation. Since then he was
called the Buddha (the enlightened one). From here he proceeded to the Deer park at Sarnath
near Varinasi and gave his first sermon which is known as 'Dharmachakra Pravartana' (setting in
motion the wheel of Dharma). Asvajit, Upali, Mogallana. Sari-putra and Anada were the first
five disciples of Buddha. Buddhl hid the foundations of the Buddhist Sangha. He preached most
of his sermons at Srdvasti. Anathapindika. The rich merchant of Sravasti became his follower
and made liberal donations to the Buddhist order.
Kings like Bimbisara, Ajatasatru (Magadha), Prasenajita (Kosala) and Udayana
(Kausarnbi) accepted his doctrines and became his disciples. He also visited Kapilavastu and
converted his foster mother and his son Rahula to his faith. At the age of 80 (486 B.C.) he died at

48
KusinagaraQCasia in Deoria district in Uttar Pradesh), the capital of the Mallas. Let us examine
the teachings of Buddha which became popular and gave a new direction to the religious ideas of
the time.
Teachings of Buddha
The basic teachings of Buddha are contained in:
 Four Noble Truths, and
 Eight Fold Path The following are the Four Noble Truths:
 The world is full of sufferings.
 All sufferings have a cause: desire, ignorance and attachment are the causes of sufferings.
 The suffering could be removed by destroying its cause.
 In order to end sufferings one must know the right path. This path is the Eight Fold Path
(Ashtangika Marga).
The Eight Fold Path consists of the following principles:
 Finding the right view. It is to understand that the world is filled with sorrow generated
by desire. The ending of desire will lead to the liberation of the soul.
 Right aim. It seeks to avoid the enjoyment of the senses and luxury. It aims to love
humanity and increase the happiness of others.
 Right speech, which seeks to emphasise the speaking of truth always.
 Right action, which is understood to be unselfish action. V) Right livelihood. It instructs
that a man should live by honest means.
 Right effort. It is the proper way of controlling one's senses so as to prevent bad thoughts.
It is through correct mental exercises that one can destroy desire and attachment.
 Right mindfulness. It is the understanding of the idea that the body is impermanent and
meditation is the means for the removal of worldly evils.
 Right concentration. The observation of it will lead to peace. Meditation will unravel the
real truth.
Buddhism laid great emphasis on the law of 'karma'. According to this law present is
determined by the past actions. The condition of a man in this life and the next depends upon his
own actions. Every individual is the maker of his own destiny. We are born again and again to
reap the fruits of our 'karma'. If an individual has no sins, he is not born again. Thus the doctrine
of kma is the essential part of the teachings of Buddha. Buddha preached 'nirvana', the ultimate

49
goal in the life of a man. It means the shedding of all desires, and ending of sufferings, which
finally leads to freedom from rebirth. By a process of elimination of desire, one can attain
'nirvana'. Therefore, Buddha preached that annihilation of desire is the real problem. Prayers and
sacrifices will not end the desire. So unlike the emphasis on rituals and ceremonies in Vedic
religion he laid emphasis on the moral life of an individual. Buddha neither accepted nor rejected
the existence of God. He was more concerned about the individual and his actions. Buddhism
also did not believe in the existence of soul.
Besides these Buddha laid stress on certain other aspects:
 Buddha emphasised on the spirit of love. Love could be expressed on all living beings by
following 'ahimsa' (non-killing). Though the principle was well understood, it was not
emphasised as much as in Jainism.
 An individual should pursue the middle path and both severe asceticism as well as
luxurious life is to be avoided.
Teachings of Buddha put forward a serious challenge to the existing Brahmanical ideas:
 Buddha's liberal and democratic approach quickly attracted the people of all sections. His
attack on the caste system and the supremacy of the Brahmins was welcomed by the
people of the lower orders. Irrespective of caste and sex people were taken into the .
Buddhist order. In Buddhism salvation lay in one's good deals. So there was no need of a
priest or middle man to achieve 'nirvana' the ultimate goal of life.
 Buddha rejected the authority of the Vedas and condernnccl animal sacrifices. He
protested against the complicated and meaningless. He said that neither a sacrifice to
gods can wash away sin or any prayer of any priest do any good to a sinner.
Buddhism in a very short period emerged into an organised religion and Buddha's teachings were
codified
The Buddhist canons (collection of teachings) are divided into three sections namely:
 The Sutta Pitaka consists of five sections (nikayas) of religious discourses and sayings of
Buddha. The fifth section contains the Jataka tales (birth stories of Buddha).
 The Vinaya Pitaka contains the rules of monastic discipline.
 The Abhidhamma Pitaka contains the philosophical ideas of teachings of Buddha. It is
written in the form of questions and answers.
Development of Buddhism

50
Spread of Buddhism
Even during the life time of its founder, Buddhism was accepted by a large section of
people. For example people of Magadha, Kosala and Kausambi had embraced Buddhism. The
republics of Sakyas, Vajjis and Mallas also followed the process. Later on, Asoka and Kanishka
made Buddhism state religion and it spread into central Asia, West Asia and Sri Lanka. This
appeal of Buddhism to a large section of population was because of the following factors.
 Emphasis on practical morality, an easily acceptable solution to the problems of mankind
and a simple philosophy, attracted the masses towards Buddhism.
 The ideas of social equality laid down in the codes of Buddhism made many lay
followers accept Buddhism.
 Merchants, like Anathirpindika, and courtesans, like Amrapali, accepted the faith because
they got due respect in this religion.
 The use of popular language (Pali) to explain the doctrines also helped in the spread of
the religion. This was because the Brahmanical religion had limited itself so the use of
Sanskrit which was not the language of the masses.
 The patronage extended by kings was another important reason for the rapid growth of
Buddhism. For example according to tradition Asoka sent his son Mahendra and his
daughter Sangamitra to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism. He also established many
monastries and contributed liberally to the Sangha.
 The institution of Sangha had helped to organise the spread of Buddhism effectively.
Buddhist Cauncils
According to tradition shdy after the death of Buddha the first Buddhist Council was held
in 483 B.C. in the Saptapmi cave near Rajagriha. Mahakassapa presided over the assembly. All
the teachings of Buddha were divided into two Pitakas, namely. Vinaya Pitaka, and Sutta Pitaka
The text of Vinaya Pitaka was established under the leadership of Upali and those of
Sutta Pitaka was settled under the leadership of Ananda. The second Council was held at Vaisali
in 383 B.C. The monks of Vaisali and Pataliputra had accepted certain rules which were declared
as contrary to the teaching of Buddha by the monks of Kausarnbi and Avanti. The Council failed
to bring about a compromise between the two opposing groups; Nence the council ended in a
permanent split of the Buddhist order into Sthaviravadins and Mahasangikas. The former upheld
the orthodox Vinaya Pitaka while the latter favoured the new rules and their further relaxation.

51
The third Council was held at Pataliputra during the reign of Asoka under the chairmanship of
Moggaliputta Tissa. In this Council the philosophical interpretations of the doctrines of Buddha
were collected into the third Pitaka called Abhidhamma Pitaka. An attempt was made in this
Council to free the Buddhist order from the dissidents and innovations. Heretical monks
numbering sixty thousand were expelled from the order. The true canonical literature was
defmed and authoritatively settled to eliminate all disruptive tendencies. The fourth Council was
held during the reign of Kanishka in Kashrnir. This council was a gathering of Hinayanists of
North India. It compiled three commentaries (Vibhashas) of the three Pitalcas. It decided certain
controversial questions of differences that arose between the Sarvastivada teachers of Kashrnir
and Gandhara.

Buddhist Schools
In the second Council held at Vaisali, the Buddhist order was split into two schools
namely:
Sthaviravadins,
Mahasangikas
 The Sthaviravadins followed strict monastic life and rigid disciplinary laws as originally
prescribed.
 The group which followed a modified disciplinary rules was called the Mahasangikas.
Mahayanism developed after the fourth Buddhist Council. In opposition to the group
(Hinayana sect) who believed in orthodox teaching of Buddha those who accepted the new ideas
were called the Mahayana sect. They made an image of Buddha and worshipped it as god. In the
first century A.D., during the period of Kanishka some doctrinal changes were made.
Origins of Jainism
According to Jaina traditions, twenty four Tirthankaras were responsible for the origin
and development of Jaina religion and philosophy. Of these, the fust twenty two are of doubtful
historicity. In the case of the last two, Parsvanatha and Mahavira, Buddhist works also confirm
their historicity.
Mahavira

52
 The twenty-fourth Tirthankara was Vardhamana Mahavira. He was born in Kundagrama
(Basukunda), a suburb of Vaisali (Muzzaffarpur district, Bihar) in 540 B.C. His father,
Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrikas, a Kshatriya clan. His mother was Trishala, a Lichchhavi
princess. Vardhamana was given a good education and was married to Yashoda. He had a
daughter by her.
Mahavira
The twenty-fourth Tirthankara was Vardhamana Mahavira. He was born in Kundagrama
(Basukunda), a suburb of Vaisali (Muzzaffarpur district, Bihar) in 540 B.C. His father,
Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrikas, a Kshatriya clan. His mother was Trishala, a Lichchhavi
princess. Vardhamana was given a good education and was married to Yashoda. He had a
daughter by her. At the age of thirty, Vardhamana left his home and became an ascetic. At first
he wore a single garment which he abandoned after 13 months and began to wander as a 'naked
monk'. For twelve years he lived the life of an ascetic following severe austerities. In the 13th
year of his asceticism, at the age of 42, he attained the 'supreme knowledge'. He was later known
as 'Mahavir' (the supreme hero), or 'Jina' (the conqueror). He was also hailed as 'Nugrantha' (free
from fetters). For the next thii years he moved from place to place and preached his doctrines in
Kosala, Magadha and further east. He wandered for eight months in a year and spent the four
months of the rainy season in some famous town of eastern India. He often visited the courts of
Bimbisara and Ajatasatru. He died at Pawa (near Rajagriha) in Patna district at the age of 72 (468
B.C.).
Teachings of Mahavira
Mahavira accepted most of the religious doctrines laid down by Parsvanatha. However,
he made some alterations and additions to them.
Parsvanatha advocated the following four principles: Truth, Non-violence, Non-
possession, and Not to receive anything which was not voluntarily given. To this Mahavira
added celibacy (brahmacharya).
According ta Jainism, man is the creator of his own destiny and he could attain 'moksha'
by pursuing a life of purity, virtue and renunciation. Moksha (nirvana) can be attained by
observing the following three principles (ratnatraya): Right belief. Right knowledge and Right
action. He advocated a life of severe asceticism and extreme penance for the attainment of

53
'nirvana' or the highest spiritual state. He believed that the world was not created by any supreme
creator. The world functions according to an eternal law of decay and development.
He thought that all objects, animate and inanimate had a soul. He believed that they feel
pain or the influence of injury. He rejected the authority of Vedas and objected to Vedic rituals
and the supremacy of the Brahmanas. A code of conduct was prescribed both for householders
and for monks. For the purpose of avoiding evil karmas, a householder had to observe the
following five vows: Non-injury , Non-stealing, Non-adultery , Speaking the truth, and Non-
possession.
It was also prescribed that a householder should feed cooked food to the needy everyday.
He preached that lay worshippers should not take to agriculture, since this involved the dehction
of plants and insects. A monk had to observe certain strict rules. He had to abandon all worldly
possessions. He had to root out every hair of his head by his own hands. He could walk only
during the day, taking care that he did not kill or injure any being. He had to train himself so as
not to be affected by objects of the senses. Jainism believed that the monastic life was essential
to attain salvation and a householder could not att;tin it. According to tradition the original
doctrines taught by Mahavira were contained in 14 old texts known as 'purvas'. In the first
Council at Pataliputra, Sthulabhadra divided the Jaina canon into 12 'angas' or sections. This was
accepted by Svetambaras. However, the Digambaras refused to accept this claiming that all the
old scriptures were lost. At the second Council held at Vallabhi new additions were made in the
fom of 'Upangas' or minor sections.
Among the 12 angas the Acharanga sutta kd Bhagavati sutta are the most important.
While the former deals with the code of conduct which a Jaina monk is required to follow, the
later expounds the Jaina doctrines in a comprehensive manner.
Development of Jainism
Teachings of Mahavira became very popular among the masses and different sections of
the society were attracted to it. Like Buddhism in Jainism also with the change of time a lot of
changes came in. We will now see what contributed to the spread of this religion and what were
the developments in it.
Spread of Jainism
Mahavira had eleven disciples known as Ganadharas or heads of schools. Arya Sudharma
was the only Ganadhara who survived Mahavira and became the first 'Thera' (chief preceptor) of

54
the Jaina order. He died 20 years after Mahavira's death. The Jain order in the days of the late
Nanda King was administered by two Theras. Sambhutavijaya, and Bhadrabahu. The sixth Thera
was Bhadrabahu, a contemporary of the Maurya King Chandragupta Maurya. The followers of
Mahavira slowly spread over the who?e country. In many regions royal patronage was bestowed
upon Jainism. According to Jain tradition, Udayin, the successor of Ajatsatru was a devoted Jain.
Jain monks were seen on the banks of the river Indus, when Alexander invaded India.
Chiindragupta Maurya was a follower of Jainism and he migrated with Bhadrabahu to the South
and spread Jainism. During 'the early cent dies of the Christian era Mathura and Ujjain became
great Fentres of Jainism. The success of Jainism was more remarkable than Buddhism. One of
the important causes for the success was the popular dialect (Prakrit, Religious literature was
also written in Ardhamagadhi) used in place of Sanskrit by Mahavira and his followers.
Jain Councils
Towards the close of Chandragupta Maurya's rule a terrible famine broke out in South
Bihar. It lasted for about 12 years. Bhadrabahu and his disciples migrated to Sravanabelgola in
Karnataka. Other Jains remained in Magadha with Sthulabhadra as their leader. They summoned
a council at Pataliputra at about 300 B.C. In that council the sacred teachings of Mahavira were
divided into twelve angas. The second Jain Council was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) in 5 12 A.D.
and was presided over by Devardhi Kshemasarmana. The purpose of this Council was to collect
the Sacred texts and write them down systematically. However this time the 12th anga drawn at
the first Council was lost. All the remaining angas were written in Ardhamagadhi.
Sects
The split in the Jaina order is widest from the third century B.C. The differences over
wearing a garment was apparent even during the times of Mahavira. The followers of
Bhadrabahu, after their return from Sravanabelgola to Magadha refused to acknowledge the
canon holding that all the 14 purvas were lost. Moreover a wide gulf had developed between
those who emigrated and those who stayed in Magadha. The latter had becoine accustomed to
wearing white garments and made a departure from Mahavira's teachings, while the former still
continued going naked and strictly followed his teachings. Hence, the first split in the Jaina order
was between the Digambaras (sky clad or naked) and Svetambaras (clad in white). During the
later years further splits took place among both the sections, the most important of them being
one that renounced idol worship altogether and devoted itself to the worship of the scriptures.

55
They were called the Terapan this among the Svetambaras and the Samaiyas among the
Digambaras. (This sect came into existence about the sixth century A.D.).
Greek and persian Invasions of India
The Persian and Greek invasion of India was an important event in Indian history which
had far reaching consequences. The Persian and Greek invasion of India began in the Sixth
Century B.C. when the North-west region of India was fragmented and small principalities such
as Gandhara, Kamboja were fighting over each other. Since it was easy to enter India via the
passes in Hindukush, many foreign invasions began to happen in the Northwest Frontier of India.

The Persians were the first to invade India and were followed by the Greeks. The Persian
invasion of India took place in two phases. The first phase was carried out by Cyrus around 535
BCE and the second phase by Darius in 518 BCE. The Greek invasion of India was carried out
by a famous ruler, Alexander.

Persian Invasion of India

 In the Sixth Century B.C. the Persians began their eastward and westward invasions.

 The North western part of India which was wealthy did not have any powerful kingdom

like Magadha to bring the entire region under one organised Kingdom. There were many
small principalities who were fighting with each other.
 The Achaemenid rulers of Iran (Persians) took advantage of the political disunity in the

region and began their invasions.

Cyrus
 Cyrus was the founder of the Achaemenid empire in Iran.

 The Persian invasion of India was first led by him.

 He invaded the Indian borderland and captured the Gandhara region.

 Cyrus invaded as far as the river Indus and the Indian tribes living to the west of the river

submitted to him.
 Behistun Inscription mentions that all the region conquered by Cyrus in India was

brought under the satrapy of Gandhara. (Satrapy means province and Satrap was the
provincial governor in ancient Persian empire)

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Darius
 Cyrus’ son Cambyses paid no attention towards India. Thus the grandson of Cyrus,

Darius I conquered the Indus valley in 516 B.C.

 Punjab, West of Indus and Sindh were annexed by Darius and these areas constituted the

20th satrap of Iran.This area became the most fertile area of the Persian empire.
 360 talents of gold was paid as a tribute to the Persian empire which constituted one third

of their revenue from Asian provinces.

 The Indians were employed in the Persian army

 Darius explored the Indus by sending a naval expedition under Skylax.

Xerxes
 Indian Provinces were used by him to strengthen his positions

 Indian Cavalry and Infantry who were sent to Greece to fight his opponents retreated

after the defeat of Xerxes.

 With this failure, the forward policy of Persians was hampered in India.

Effects of the Persian Invasion

 This contact lasted for about 200 years and thus resulted in the Indo – Iranian trade and

commerce. It is evident from the Iranian coins found in the northwest Frontier of India.
 The Kharoshthi script which was written from right to left was an Iranian form of writing

and was introduced in India by the Iranian scribes.

 Mauryan sculptures and monuments, particularly those of Ashoka’s time were heavily

influenced by the Iranian models.

 The idea of issuing edicts and the terms used on them traced to have the Persian

influence.
 The Greeks came to know about India and its wealth from the Persians which paved the

way for the Greek invasion of India.

Greek Invasion of India
Alexander’s Invasion
1. Alexander succeeded his father Philip to the throne in 334 B.C.
2. In the Fourth century B.C. the Persians got into war with the Greeks.
3. The Greeks under the leadership of Alexander of Macedonia defeated the Persian empire
and conquered Asia, Iran and Iraq.

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 4. In the Battle of Arbela, he defeated Darius III and conquered the entire Persia.
5. He was attracted by the wealth of India.
6. It was also believed that there was a continuation of sea to the East of India which made
him believe that by conquering India, the Eastern boundary of the world would be
Conquered.
7. Thus from Iran he moved towards Kabul and from there via Khyber pass he marched into
India.
8. The entire North India was divided into so many independent monarchies and tribal
republics which favoured the intentions of Alexander.
Battle of Hydaspes:
I. Porus refused to submit his kingdom to Alexander and this led to a battle between them.
II. The Battle of Hydaspes was fought on the plains of Karri and Porus lost the battle.
III. Alexander was impressed by the courage of Porus and restored him back to his throne.
 He marched and conquered the areas as far as the river Beas.
 The soldiers grew tired of war and refused to fight. Thus Alexander was forced to retreat
and he decided to return home with his soldiers.
 Most of the states were restored back to the rulers who accepted his sovereignty. The
remaining areas of his possessions were divided into three and were placed under three
Greek governors.
 On his way back, he fell ill and died at Babylon in 323 B.C.
Effects of Greek Invasion
 In several fields Direct contact was established between India and Greece.

 Four distinct routes by land and sea were opened up as a result of Alexander’s expedition.

 Greek invasion resulted in establishment of Greek settlement in the North western region

who continued to live under Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka.

 Valuable account was left by the historians of Alexander which gives important

information regarding the social and economic conditions of India back then.
 The influence of Greek art and architecture in India can be seen in Gandhara school of art

which is associated with the Greco – Roman style of art.

 The Greek invasion resulted in political unification of North India under the Mauryas.

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 The Persian and Greek invasions of India had a huge impact particularly in terms of
culture and politics. According to the traditions Chandragupta Maurya is said to have acquired
some knowledge from the working of the military machine of Alexander which helped him to
destroy the Nanda Empire.
Rise of Mahajanapadas
Mahajanapadas are the kingdoms that rose to fame from the 6th century BC onward.
Mahajanapadas signify the tribes came together to form various groups and later gave rise to
permanent settlement areas called ‘states’ or ‘Janapadas’.
 In Vedic India, Janapdas were the main kingdoms. At that period, Aryans were the most
powerful tribes and they were referred to as ‘Janas’.
 By the 6th century BCE, there were 22 distinct Janapads,
 The increasing socioeconomic achievements, political & religious advances, and
increased use of iron instruments led to the establishment of Mahajanapadas from small
kingdoms known as Janapadas,
 After Harappa Civilizations, it is considered the 2nd urbanization era.
Below we have provided a complete list of the 16 Mahajanapadas with capital:
There are several kingdoms in ancient India in the 6th Century BC. This era saw
socioeconomic growth along with political and religious developments. This resulted in the
growth from Janapadas to Mahajanapadas. By 6th BC, the major focus of chief political activity
shifted from the western part of Genetic plain to the Easter part. The main reason behind the shift
was for a better climate, fertile lands, and typography conditions bestowed with rainfall and
rivers. Additionally increased use of iron tools empowered the development of small states as a
kingdom and which later was known as Mahajanapadas.
Anga
 It finds its reference in Atharva Vega and Mahabharata
 Anga was taken over by Magadha Empire during the Bimbisara rule.
 It is currently located in Bihar and West Bengal.
Magadha
 Atharva Veada mentions the Magadha was semi-Brahmanical habitation.
 Magadha became a center of Jainism.
Kasi

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  Kasi was located in Varanasi
 It got its name from the rivers Asi and Varuna.
Vatsa
 It is also known as Vamsa
 This Mahajanapada followed the monarchical form of governance
The capital of Vatsa is Kausambi
 Vasta was the center of economic activities at that time.
Kosala
 Its capital was Sravasti and it was situated in the modern Awadh region of UP.
Saurasena
 Saurasena was the center of Krishna worship, and this region also saw dominant
followership of Buddha.
Panchala Mahajanapada
 It is located in the present day Uttar Pradesh
 In the later period, the nature of governance shifted from monarchy to republic.
Kuru
 Kuru moved to a republic from governance.
Matsya Mahajanapada
 Matsya is situated in the present-day Jaipur
 It was located to the west of Panchalas and south of the Kurus.
Chedi
 Chesi was located in the Rigveda
Avanti
 It has a huge relation to the rise of Buddhism
 It was located in the present-day Malwa and Madhya Pradesh.
Gandhara
 Here the people were trained for war, and it was an ideal place for international
commercial activities.
Kamboja
 According to some literary sources Kamboja wasa republic.
Malla Mahajanapada

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  It was a republic, and it finds its mentions in the Jains Texts, Buddhist texts, and
Mahabharata.
Vajji
 Vajji included main races like Licchavis, Vedehans, Jnatrikas, and Vajjis.
Ashmaka or Assaka
 This Mahajanapada was located on the bank of Godavari
Magadha Empire
The four Mahajanapadas - Magadha, Kosala, Avanti and Vatsa were vying for supremacy
from the 6th century BCE to the 4th century BCE. Finally, Magadha emerged victorious and was
able to gain sovereignty. It became the most powerful state in ancient India. Magadha is situated
in modern Bihar. Jarasandha, who was a descendant of Brihadratha, founded the empire in
Magadha. Both are talked about in the Mahabharata.
By the end of the sixth century BC, the north-western part of India had been included
into the Persian Achaemenid Empire and had been made one of its satrapies. It led to the
beginning of administrative association between Central Asia and India. Magadha, which
was situated on fertile alluvial soil and near mineral deposits, particularly iron, was the
centre of flourishing commerce and trade.
Extent of the Empire
Magadha transformed from a small kingdom into a major power in .North India,
covering the districts of Patna and Gaya in Bihar. It had its capital at Pataliputra.
Extent of the Empire Magadha transformed from a small kingdom into a major
power in .North India, covering the districts of Patna and Gaya in Bihar. It had its capital at
Pataliputra.
Factors for the Rise of Magadha
 Nearness and control over rich deposits of copper and iron ores.
 Favourable geographical location helped in taking control over the whole lower Gangetic
plain.
 Fertile alluvial soil provided a strong agricultural base. The peasants could produce
surplus amount of crops which the rulers collected in the form of taxes.
 The thick forests supplied limber for construction of houses and elephant, for the army.
Magadha was the first to use elephants on large scale in wars.

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  The capitals of Magadha, Rajgriha and Pataliputra were situated strategically.
Rajgriha was surrounded by five hills and it was considered impregnable. Pataliputra
was situated at the confluence of Ganges
Features
Trade in Magadha flourished because of its favourable location and fertile soil of the
lower Ganga region. It had several rivers such as the Ganges, Pun-Pun, Son and Gandhak.
These rivers facilitated the expansion of its trade routes as well as provided military
access to many far off regions. Uttrapath, the route alongside the Ganga upto the foothills
of Himalayas was controlled by the Magadha rulers. Farmers in Magadha could make
better agricultural implements using the iron deposits available in the region which enabled
them to produce surplus amount of crops and consequently provide more weapons for the
army. Notable Rulers of Magadha The first noteworthy king of Magadha was Bimbisara (542-
493 BC). He transformed the Magadha Kingdom into an empire. He conquered Anga and
controlled the trade routes in the Ganges Delta. He married thrice and his matrimonial alliances
helped him expand his kingdom. He either conquered other important rulers of his time or
got into desired treaties from them. His wives, Kosala Devi (sister of Prasanajit, ruler of
the Kashi Kingdom), Chellana (daughter of the ruler of the Chetaka Kingdom) and
Madraka (daughter of the King of Punjab) fetched him large dowries. Using his newly obtained
wealth, he established a new capital Rajagriha (near Patna).
Ajatashatru (493-461 BC) was the son of Bimbisara. He assassinated his father and
became the ruler. He extended the boundaries of his kingdom by annexing Vaishali and Kosala.
Nanda Dynasty (344 - 323 BC)
 Mahapadma Nanda is called the first historical emperor of India. He murdered Kalasoka
to become the king.
 He is also called “Sarva Kashtriyantaka” (destroyer of all the kshatriyas).
 He conquered Kalinga.
 Mahapadma was succeeded by his eight sons and they were together known as the
Navanandas or the nine Nandas.
 Dhana Nanda was the last ruler of Nanda dynasty.
 During Dhana Nanda’s reign, Alexander invaded north-west India (327–325 BCE).

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  Finally, Dhana Nanda was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya, which led to the
foundations of the Maurya Empire in Magadha.
Mauryan Empire
In 322 BC, Chandragupta Maurya, the ruler of Magadha, began to assert its authority
over the neighbouring kingdoms. Chandragupta (320-300 BC), was the builder of the first Indian
imperial power, the Mauryan Empire. He had his capital at Pataliputru, near Patna, in Bihar.
Chandragupta Maurya (320-300 Bc)
Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. He founded the dynasty
by overthrowing the Nandas around 320 BC. There is no clear account available about his early
life. He was born in Pataliputra, but was raised in the forest in the company of herdsmen and
hunters. It was Chanakya who spotted him and he was struck by his personality. Chanakya
trained and transformed him into one of the most powerful rulers of that era. Chanakya trained
him in arts, sciences, logic, administration and warfare at the Taxila University. Chanakya had
decided a task for Chandragupta-to free India from Greek dominance. Some smaller kingdoms in
Punjab and Sindh helped Chandragupta. Soon Chandragupta defeated the Greeks and freed
Punjab. Sindh and' otenseher northwest regions of India. He then defeated the Nancla rulers in
Pataliputra and captured the throne of Magadha. Chandragupta Maurya’s army included over 6,
00,000 infantry, 50,000 cavalry, 10,000 elephants and 7,000 chariots.
Coming of Chandragupta Maurya
Macedonian ruler Alexander's invasion of northwestern India, and the increasing
unpopularity of Nando rulers, resulted into their decline. With the help of Chanakya,
Chandragupta overthrew the Nardas and assumed the throne. After invading Seleucus,
Alexander's successor in Persia, he undeiwent a treaty liberating the empire bam GrecoPersian
authority. It also assured him a respectful place in later Greek ond Roman histories. He used the
administrative system established by the Nandas fa his full advantage, and established dose and
friendly relations with Babylon and the lands farther west. He was acknowledged as a brilliant
general having an army of well over half a million soldiers. He was also a brilliant king, who
united India, restricting himself in not going beyond the subcontinent. Pata'ipufra become a
cosmopolitan city of such a large proportion that Chandragupta had to create a special section of
municipal officials to look after its welfare, and special courts were established to meet its
judicial needs

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Importance of Chandragupta's Rule
Chandragupta was the first Indian ruler whom we can call a national ruler in real senses
he established such a system of administration which was autocratic in nature and centrally
based, assisted by a council of ministers. He also created a functional espionage system to keep
his enemies within his watch. It is widely believed that his advisor Chanakya contributed
considerably towards the success of Chandragupta. He established a highly centralised and
hierarchical system of governance with the help ot a large staff, with systematic tax collection;
trade and commerce, industrial arts; mining; vital statisticst welfare of foreigners; maintenance
of public places, including markets and temples and welfare of prostitutes.
Ashoka the Great (269-232 Bc)
Ashoka was the son of Bindusara. He is considered among the greatest rulers of all times.
He was the first ruler who tried to maintain direct contact with his subjects. He ruled for nearly
40 years. Most of the information about the life of Ashoka can be had from the 50 edicts he
placed throughout India. The most important of these edicts is the Rock Edict XIII (257-256
BC). It offers account of the eight years of the Kalinga War. The destruction and the sorrow that
he witnessed in the war transformed Ashoka from a warrior to a peace loving ruler. He started
propagating Buddhism. The impact of Ashoka’s moral conquest can be seen not only within
India but also in the far off Empires like Syria, Egypt and Macedonia and Epirus. Significantly,
Ashoka has been referred to with names of Devanumpriya or Priyadarshini throughout the edicts.
Ashoka as a Ruler
Ashoka was one of India's most illustrious rulers. Ashoka’s inscriptions carved on rocks
and stone pillars consulate the second set of dated historical records. Some of the inscriptions
state that in the aftermath of the destruction resulting from the war against the powerful kingdom
of Kalinga (Orissa), Ashoka renounced bloodshedand started following a policy of nonviolence
or Ahimsa. His sense of toleration for different religious beliefs reflected the realities of India’s
regional pluralism, although he personally followed Buddhism. Early Buddhist texts state that he
convened a Buddhist council at his capital, regularly undertook tours within his realm and sent
Buddhist, missionary ambassadors to Sri Lanka. India’s north-west retained many Persian
cultural elements, which might explain Ashoka’s rock inscriptions—such inscriptions were
commonly associated with the Persian rulers. Ashoka’s Greek and Aramaic inscriptions

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discovered in Kandhar in Afghanistan may also reveal his inclination to maintain contacts with
people outside India.
Ashoka's Policy of Dhamma
The diverse nature of the vast empire under Ashoka was exposed to social tensions and
sectarian conflicts. Ashoka devised the policy of dhamma, which later became famous, as it
promoted a harmonious relationship between the diverse elements of the empire. The supposed
essence of dhamma seems to be the genesis of Ashoka's big idea. The word dhamma is a Prakrit
spelling of the more familiar dharma, a concept difficult to translate but imbued with positives
and idealised connotations in both orthodox Vedic literature and in the heterodox doctrines of
Buddhists. Jain and Ajivikas. Invoking a natural order within which all manners of creation had
its place and its role, it was something to which no one, whether Brahamin or Buddhist, emperor
or slave, could reasonably take exception. Dhamma had tolerance, as its basis as aiming to bring
out a peace loving life within the family and society. Religious and cultural meetings and
festivals were banned led functions were allowed. Dhamma also emphasised non-violence.
Ashoka banned observance of useless rituals and ceremonies to cut down the influence of priests
and religious leaders. He defined the code of duty based on practical ideas like daya (mercy),
Dana (charity), sathya (truthfulness), namrata (gentleness) and souche (purity). These codes
entered into internal politics as well as international relations too. Ashoka attempted no
philosophical justification of dhamma, nor was he given to rationalising it. It was neither a belief
system nor a developed ideology, just a set of behavioural exhortations. But, because behaviour
and conduct was of such defining importance, any attempt to alter it was indeed revolutionary.
Ashoka, therefore, needed good reason for introducing dhamma and it should perhaps be sought
in the need to promote a more united and uniform society. Ashoka's Empire was divided into
provinces, with a viceroy in each province. He established dharamsalas, hospitals andsarais
throughout his kingdom. Dharma Mahapatras were appointed to preach the people. Buddhism
was spread during his reign as a state religion and inscriptions of Buddhist principles were
engraved on rocks. He organised a network of missionaries to preach the doctrine, both in his
kingdom and beyond. Ashoka sent missionaries to Ceylon, Burma and other south-east Asian
regions, notably Thailand to spread the doctrine of Buddhism.
Successors of Ashoka

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 After Ashoka's death in 232 BC, the empire gradually disintegrated, though the exact
causes art not clear. A period of struggle for succession ensued between Ashoka’s heirs; southern
princes seceded, from the empire and foreign powers invaded. The empire contracted to the
Ganges valley in northern India. The last king of the Mauryan Empire was Brihadratha, who was
assasinated by his Senapati, Pushyamitra Sunga, in 184 BC. There were six kings who ruled
between Ashoka and Brihadratha. Only Dasratha, Ashoka’s immediate successor was of some
significance.
Languages and Scripts of Ashoka's Inscriptions
The earliest deciphered inscriptions in the subcontinent are the edicts issued by the
Mauryan Ashoka, inscribed on rock surfaces and pillars, from the third century BC. The earlier
script of third millennium BC—The Harappa script, associated with the Indus Valley
Civilization—is generally believed to be pictographic and is found on seals, amulets and
occasionally, as graffiti on pots. However, as these pictographs to be deciphered Ashoka’s edicts
are historically scripts available for study.
Mauryan Administration
The nature of the Mauryan administration was one of the most elaborate, effective and
proper to preserve this great empire intact. The central government was mainly concerned with
collecting taxes and administering justice. In each of these spheres, the emperor and his cabinet
of ministers headed a hierarchy of officials, which reached down through divisional and district
officers to toll collectors, the market overseer and the clerk who recorded measurements and
assessments of fields. The entire apparatus was subject to regular checks by a staff of Inspectors
who reported directly to the emperor, while a more sinister system of undercover informants
provided a further check. All were appointed, directly or indirectly, by the emperor and had
instant access to him. The Saptanga concept was the basis of the Maurayan administration. As
explained by Kautilya, it is the theory of seven vital elements which constitute a central
administrative body The seven elements are: (i) Swaini (the King), (ii) Amatya (the bureaucrats,
officials of the throne and the cabinet of ministers); (iii) Janapada (the masses; territory and
population), (iv) Durga (the fort or premises holding the seat of power), (v) Kasha (the central
treasury), (vi) Bala (the army or power) and (vii) Mitra (the friends and the allies). All these
organs were equally important and Kautilya said that the king was one of the wheels of a chariot
and the rest of the elements constituted the second wheeh As it is difficult to run a chariot with

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one wheel similarly it is difficult to run a nation without two wheels— the king and the rest of
the organs of the Saptanga The whole empire was divided into provinces we know about five
provinces during the reign of Ashoka with capitals at Taxila, Ujjain, Tosali, Suvarnagiri and
Pataliputr. The provinces were subdivided into vishyas or aharas. The vishyas consisted of a
number of villages. Besides, those territories were under direct rule whereas, other territories
wore vassal states.Towns and villages were well organised. The Gramika was the head of the
village administration. State revenue was collected from land taxes, excise, tools, forest, water
rates, mines, etc., a major share of which was spent on the army, other official charity works and
public works. An important work undertaken during the Matiryan rule was the taking of census,
recording data regarding caste, occupation, slaves, freemen, young and old men, and women.
Thus, the Mauryan administration was highly centralised and contributed greatly to the
development of the empire. The state maintained a huge standing army and brought new lands
under cultivation and developed irrigation facilities.The famous Sudarshana Lake was built.
Under the Mauryans, the entire subcontinent was crisscrossed with roads. A royal highway
connecting Taxila and Pataliputra was built— it mad which survives to this day as the Grand
Trunk Rond.
Village Administration
The administrative and judicial business of the villages was carried on by gramikas
(village elders). The Mauryan administration omitted the gramika from the list of salaried
officials of the government. The king’s servant in the village was gramabhritaka. Above the
gramika, the Arthashastra placed the gopa, who looked after about five villages and the sthanika
who controlled one quarter of a janapada (district). The work of these officials was supervised by
samahartri with the help of the pradeshtris. Rural administration must have been highly efficient.
The tillers in villages devoted much of their time cultivating the land as they used to receive
adequate protection and security.
Village Administration
The administrative and judicial business of the villages was carried on by gramikas
(village elders). The Mauryan administration omitted the gramika from the list of salaried
officials of the government. The king’s servant in the village was gramabhritaka. Above the
gramika, the Arthashastra placed the gopa, who looked after about five villages and the sthanika
who controlled one quarter of a janapada (district). The work of these officials was supervised by

67
samahartri with the help of the pradeshtris. Rural administration must have been highly efficient.
The tillers in villages devoted much of their time cultivating the land as they used to receive
adequate protection and security. must be divided between Chandragupta and his exceptionally
able ministers.
Law and Order, Courts Of Justice
Kautilya’s Arthashastra gives a fair account of the prevailing justice system in the
Mauryan era. The king sat in the court to administer justice. As to the king’s legislative function,
we should note that the Arthashastra called him Dharmapravartaka and included the Rajasasana
among the sources of law. Therefore, at the head of the judiciary stood the king himself. Rulers
imparted impartial decisions, thus safeguarding the sanctity of justice. Ashoka had created a
special post of Dhramamahamatras who carried out the dual role of preachers as well as judges.
They went from place to place to preach the code of conduct and the principles of dharma as well
presided over the litigations and gave their decisions. The judicial system had two organs:
Dharmastya—which presided over civil cases such as disputes of marriages, dowry, divorces,
loans, property, etc. and Kantakoshdhana—which dealt with cases of criminal nature such as
robbery, theft, commercial crimes like counterfeit coins or blackmailing, etc. Besides these
courts, there were special tribunals of justice, both in cities (nagara) and rural, area (janapada),
presided over by Vyavaharika Mahamatras and Rajukas.
Census
The administration made it mandatory that the officials knew everything about everybody
within their jurisdiction. They kept a check over any type of movement of individuals or tribes.
Thus, they- kept a permanent census of people and information in the form of name, caste
(gotra), occupation, age, marital status, family etc. Such records enhanced the central
government's hold over the public for the purpose of taxation and monitoring the efficacy of
welfare activities.
Mauryan Art and Architecture
Royal palaces, stupas (Sanchi and Barhut), monastries and cave dwellings were built
throughout the kingdom Ashoka is said to have built around 84,000 stupas all over his empire.
Stupas were made of burnt bricks and stones. They were circular in shape and sheltered by an
umbrella type canopy at the top. The Sanchi stupas in Madhya Pradesh arc the most famous
stupas along with the stupas of Bahrut. The festoons of these stupas are carved with Buddha

68
tales, teachings and religious matter. Ashoka’s pillars (the seven pillar edicts and Tarai pillar
inscriptions) and pillar capitals were constructed. It is said that Ashoka erected close to 30
pillars. The most significant among these is the pillar of Sarnath. The emblem of the Indian
Republic has been adopted from the four lion capital of this pillar. The royal palaces of the
Mauryan era were made of wood and, therefore, no longer exist. But the accounts of
Meghasthenes (the Greek Ambassador to Patna) describe the grandeur of these palaces and
Fahien (from China) has mentioned a description of the foundations of these royal palaces. Both
travellers have described these palaces to be superior to the onesin their countries. Cave
dwellings and temples were built for meditation by Jains and Buddhists. The mountainous caves
provided the necessary solitude conducive for attaining salvation. Ashoka and Dasaratha Maurya
made some cave temples, which are famous for their outer architecture and carved interiors. The
Gaya cave temples in the Barabar Mountain are fine examples of the Mauryan cave temples.
Kama Champar and Sudhama were renowned chieftains of Ashoka's era.
Self Assessment
1. Discuss the key principles and teachings of Buddhism and Jainism. How did these
religions influence Indian society and culture?

………………………………………………

2. Analyze the impact of Greek and Persian invasions on Indian society, culture, and
political structures.
………………………………………………

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 UNIT III
 Satavahanas – Kushanas – Kanishka-I – Gupta Empire – Chandragupta Vikramaditya -
Samudragupta –Kumara Gupta - Administration – Social, Economic and Cultural
Developments – Vakatakas - Nalanada, Vikramasila and Valabhi Universities
OBJECTIVES
1. List the factors responsible for the decline of Buddhism and Jainism
2.Discuss about the great king Ashoka
3. Define the concept of ‘Dhamma’

Satavahanas
Origin
The word Satavahana represents a kula or family while Andhara is the name of a jati or
tribe. The Satvahana family of Andhra jati established an independent kingdom in the West and
East of South India in the first century AD. It has also been said that originally the Satavahanas
did not belong to the Andhra stock. But when in later times their political authority was confined
to the territory at the mouth of the river Krishna, the name Andhra was applied to them.
However, there is no doubt that the Satavahanas belonged to the Dravadian stock and, later on,
were accepted within the Aryan fold. Dr K. Gopalacharya has regarded Satavahana rulers as
Kshatriyas while Dr Raychaudhuri has stated that they were Brahamins with a little admixture of
Naga blood.
A majority of scholars have accepted them as Brahamins. There is a difference of opinion
amongst scholars regarding the chronology of Satavahanas. The Matsaya-Purana states that the
family ruled for 400 years and had 30 kings though it names only 19 of them. The Vayu-Purana
states that it ruled for 300 years and had only 19 rulers. Therefore, Dr Raychaudhari has
concluded that the main family ruled for 300 years and had 19 rulers while some off shoots of
the family ruled for another hundred years and had 11 more rulers. However, it is generally
accepted that after the downfall of the Mauryas, the Andhras established an independent
kingdom in the South-West. Simuka, in the late first century BC, laid the foundation of this great
family and it ruled up to the middle of the third century AD.
Important Rulers

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 The founder of the dynasty was Simuka. He established his independent kingdom in the
later period of the first century BC and ruled for 23 years. He destroyed the Kanvas of Magadha
and, later, the Sungas of Vidisha and occupied a part of Central India. Simuka was succeeded by
his brother Krishna who ruled for 18 years. He included Nasik in his kingdom. Krishna was
succeeded by his son Satkarni-I. He proved himself an illustrious king and performed one
Rajasuya and two Asvamedh yajans. He conquered western Malwa, Vidbarbha (modern Eerar)
and parts of the South and assumed the title of Dakishna-Pathapati. It is believed that the
Satavahanas ruled over vast territories for about a century which included South India except the
Kalinga and the kingdoms of the far South, a part of the kingdom of Magadha, entire Malwa and
the larger part of Central India. This great empire was established primarily by Satkarni-I.
However, after his death the empire lost its strength. The widow of Satkarni, queen Nayanika,
ruled for some time as a guardian of her sons Saktarsi and Vedsri but could not become much
successful. Besides, the Satavahana rulers had to battle with the Greeks, the Sakas and the
Parthians at that time. The Sakas conquered Malwa and Kathiawar and in the later part of the
first century AD they succeeded in snatching away from Satavahanas the North Western part of
the South including Nasik. Thus, not only the greatness of the Satavahanas was lost but, at that
time, it seemed that the entire South India would be lost to foreigners.
Kushanas empire
The Kushanas played an important role in the history of early Indian culture. According
to Chinese historians, the Kushanas were a part of the Yueh-chi race constituted by nomadic
groups that inhabited the borders of modern China. They were driven out from the lands which
they had conquered from the Sakas and were forced to resume their march. They occupied the
valley of the Oxus and had subjugated its peaceful inhabitants. It is possible that the Yueh-chi
dominion extended over Bactria to the south of the Oxus. By 10 BC the Yueh-chi lost their
nomadic habits and settled down.
Kanishka
Kanishka was undoubtedly the most striking figure from the Kushana Dynasty. A great
conqueror and a patron of Buddhism, he combined in himself the military abilities of
Chandragupta Maurya and the religious zeal of Asoka. However, there is no unanimity among
scholars regarding the date of his accession of the throne even though most of them believe that

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Kanishka was the founder of the Saka era which started in 78AD. He ascended to the throne in
the same year.
Conquests
Kanishka’s empire included Afghanistan, a large part of Sindh, Parthia, Bactria and
Punjab. His predecessor had suffered a defeat at the hands of the Chinese. Kanishka was
confident of his military strength and wanted to reclaim his teritory. Kanishka can be given credit
for having completed in his earlier years the subjugation and annexation of Kashmir. However,
we do not have any details of this war with the ruler of Kashmir. It is believed that Kanishka
built a number of monuments and also founded a town known as Kanishkpura which is now the
village of Kanispor. There is no reliable evidence to show that Kanishka waged any war against
the ruler of Magadha. However, it is stated in the Buddhist literature that after the capture of
Pataliputra, Asvaghosha, the great Buddhist philosopher was captured by Kanishka. There is no
doubt that Asvaghosha was one of the luminaries in Kanishka’s court. Kanishka is said to have
waged war against the western satraps of Ujjain. He defeated Chastitan, the Saka ruler, who
acknowledged Kanishka’s supremacy and surrendered a portion of Malwa to him. Kanishka had
also engaged in a successful war with the Parthians too. It is said that Kanishka completed the
Kushana conquest of upper India and ruled over a wide realm which extended from Kapisa,
Gandhara and Kashmir to Banaras. His empire extended over north-western India probably as
the Vindhyas in the South, as well as over the remote regions beyond the Pamir pass. Kanishka
ruled over this vast empire from his capital at Peshawar or Purushpur
Gupta Empire
The ancestry and early history of the Gupta family are little known, and have naturally
given rise to various speculations. Names ending in Gupta, such as Sivagupta which occurs in a
Satavahana inscription, are sometimes taken to suggest their ancestry. But these suggestions are
rather far-fetched. Different scholars also place the original home of the Guptas differently: some
would place it in north Bengal, some in Magadha in Bihar and some in UP. On the basis of the
following arguments it may, at the moment, be suggested that the original core of the Gupta
territory lay in eastern UP: Allahabad pillar inscription, the earliest inscription recording the
achievements of an early Gupta ruler Samudragupta, comes from this region. The nature of the
coin-hoards of the Guptas, found in this region, suggests this. The description of early Gupta
territories in the Puranas may point to this.

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 It is possible that in the closing decades of the 3rd century CE the Guptas were
subordinates of a branch of the later Kushanas ruling in north-western India. However, literary
and archaeological sources indicate that they became independent in the second decade of the 4th
century CE. Inscriptions tell us that Srigupta was the first king and Ghatotkacha was the next
to follow him. Chandragupta-I was the first independent king with the title Maharajadhiraja.
After declaring his independence in Magadha, he, with the help of a matrimonial alliance with
the Lichchhavis, enlarged his kingdom. We know about this alliance from a special category of
coins. These coins have Chandragupta and his queen Kumaradevi engraved on the obverse and a
seated goddess on the reverse with a legend Lichchhavayah (i.e. the Lichchhavis). These coins
were made of gold, and this fact in addition to the fact that the Guptas followed the weight
system of Kushana gold coins, suggests that the Guptas had been in contact with the Kushana
territories.
There are no concrete evidences to determine the boundaries of Chandragupta’s kingdom.
But it is assumed that it covered parts of Bihar, UP and Bengal. Chandragupta-I is said to have
also started a new era from 319-320 CE. It is not clear from any records that he started this era,
which came to be known as Gupta Samvat (Gupta era) but since Chandragupta-I is mentioned as
a Maharajadhiraja he is credited with the founding of the era. It was during the times of his son
Samudragupta that the kingdom grew into an empire.
Chandragupta Vikramaditya
Chandragupta II, also named Vikramaditya or Chandragupta Vikramaditya, was the son
of Samudragupta and Datta Devi. According to the historical records, Chandragupta II was a
strong, vigorous ruler and well qualified to govern and extend the Gupta Empire. He ruled the
Gupta Empire from 375 to 415 C.E. when the kingdom achieved its zenith, often known as the
Golden Age of India. It is believed that Chandragupta II adopted the title ‘Vikramaditya’ based
on some coins and a supia pillar inscription.
Chandragupta II continued the expansion policy framed by his father, and by defeating
the Western Kshatrapas, he extended the Gupta Empire from the Indus River in the west to
Bengal in the east. In addition to this, the Gupta Empire was extended from the Himalayan
foothills in the north to the Narmada River in the south. It was through conquests and marriage
alliances that the Gupta dynasty reached its peak by expanding territories during the reign
of Vikramaditya. He was married to Kubera Manga, a Naga princess, and they both had a

73
daughter named Prabhavati. His daughter was married to Rudrasena II, a Vakataka prince. It was
after the death of her husband that Prabhavati ruled the territory as regent to her minor sons. This
helped Chandragupta II indirectly control the Vakataka kingdom. Apart from military power, he
also elevated art, philosophy, culture, religion, mathematics, and astronomy during his rule.
Chandragupta II supported and practiced Buddhism.
Samudragupta
An inscription engraved (at a later date) on the Asokan pillar at Allahabad (known as
Prayaga-prashasti) gives us information about Samudragupta’s accession and conquests.
Harishena, an important official of the state, had composed 33 lines which were engraved on the
pillar. The inscription mentions that Maharajadhiraja Chandragupta-I in a highly emotional tone
declared his son Samudragupta as his successor. This caused joy among the courtiers and heart-
burning among those of equal birth. It can be presumed that other princes might have put
forward their contending claims which were put to rest by this declaration. Further, the discovery
of some gold coins bearing the name of Kacha has generated a controversy relating to this. The
controversy has arisen because:
a. i ) In many respects Kacha’s coins are similar to the coins of Samudragupta,
b. ii) The name of Kacha does not appear in the official lists of Gupta rulers, as they are
available in the Gupta inscriptions. Various interpretations have been given in this regard:
According to one interpretation Samudragupta’s brothers revolted against him and placed
Kacha, the eldest brother, on the throne. However, he died in the war of succession. Another
view mentions that these coins were issued by Samudragupta in the memory of his brother. A
third view mentions Kacha as the initial name of Samudragupta and the later name was adopted
only after the conquest of south.
There is no solution to the controversy as each view has arguments in favour or against.
We could only say that since the number of Kacha coins found so far is somewhat limited, his
hold over the throne would have been for a very short duration. Also that Samudragupta, in spite
of Chandragupta’s abdiction, did face problems in relation to accession to the throne but
ultimately he emerged victorious.
Kumaragupta
Chandragupta-II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta. We get information about him
from certain inscriptions and coins. For example: The earliest known inscription of his period is

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from Bilsad (Etah district) which is dated 415 CE (Gupta Era 96). The Karamdanda (Fyzabad)
inscription of Kumaragupta’s minister (436 CE) mentions his fame having spread to the four
oceans. A stone inscription from Mandsor (436 CE) mentions Kumaragupta as reigning over the
whole earth.
The Damodar Copper Plate inscriptioms (433 CE or 447 CE) refer to him as
Maharajadhiraja and show that he himself appointed the governor (Uparika) of Pundravardhana
bhukti (or province) being the biggest administrative division in the empire. The last known date
of Kumaragupta is from a silver coin dated 455 CE. The wide area over which his inscriptions
are distributed indicates that he ruled over Magadha and Bengal in the east and Gujarat in the
west. It has been suggested that towards the last year of his reign the Gupta Empire faced foreign
Invasion which was checked by the efforts of his son Skandagupta. He maintained cordial
relationship with the Vakatakas which had been established through matrimonial alliances.
Administrative
The policy adopted by the Guptas in the conquered areas was to restore the authority of
local chiefs or kings once they had accepted Gupta suzerainty. In fact, no efforts were made to
impose a strict and effective control over these regions. Hence, it was natural that whenever there
was a crisis of succession or a weak monarchy within the Gupta empire these local chiefs would
reestablish their independent authority. This created a problem for almost every Gupta king who
had to reinforce his authority. The constant military campaigns were a strain on the state
treasury. Towards the end of the 5th century CE and beginning of 6th century CE, taking
advantage of the weak Gupta emperors, many regional powers reasserted their authority, and in
due course declared their independence.
Besides these, there were many other reasons which contributed to the decline of Guptas.
For example, it has been argued that the Guptas issued land-grants to the Brahmana donees and
in this process surrendered the revenue and administrative rights in favour of the domes. Further,
it is believed that the samanta system in which the samantas (minor rulers), who ruled as
subordinates to the central authority, started to consolidate itself in the Gupta period. This is also
believed to be the reason why Gupta administrative structure became so loose. There is diversity
of opinion as to how the system originated and regarding the details of the system, but the
presence of many Samantas within the empire does show that they wielded power almost
independently of the Gupta authority. There is no doubt that division within the imperial family,

75
concentration of power in the hands of local chiefs or governors, loose administrative structure
of the empire etc. contributed towards the disintegration of the Gupta empire. These sources of
information are:
1. Inscriptions written on different materials like copper plates, stone, clay seals;
2. Coins issued by rulers of different dynasties;
3. Material from excavations;
4. Contemporary literature; and
5. Accounts left by foreign travellers like Fa-Hien.
King
The king remained the central figure of administration. However, there was a
considerable change in the character of monarchy. We find that the Gupta monarchs adopted
high sounding titles like:
 Paramabhattaraka,
 Parama-daivata,
 Chakravarti,
 Parameshvara etc.
For example, the Allahabad Prashasti of Samudragupta describes him as “equal to the
gods Dhanada (Kubera), Varuna (Sea-God), Indra and Antaka (Vama); who had no antagonist of
equal power in the world….” Like the king who has been given a divine status in the Smriti
scriptures, the Gupta monarchs, too, came to be considered a divinity on earth. However, in the
spirit of Smriti literature and that of Kalidasa we find Skandagupta in his Bhitari Pillar
inscription eulogized as a person who “subdued the earth and became merciful to the conquered
people, but he became neither proud nor arrogant though his glory was increasing day by day”.
His father Kumaragupta “followed the true path of religion”. Such references to the monarchy
indicate that in spite of the supreme powers that vested in the king he was expected to follow a
righteous path, and had certain duties:
 It was the King’s duty to decide the policy of the state during war and peace. For
instance, Samudragupta was prudent enough to reinstate the monarchs of dakshinapatha
in their original kingdoms.
 It was considered a prime duty of the monarch to protect his countrymen from any
invasion.

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  The King was to lead the army in case of war. This is demonstrated through the
campaigns of Samudragupta and Chandragupta-II.
 The King was also expected to support the Brahmanas, Sramanas and all others who
needed his protection.
 He was also supposed to venerate the learned and religious people and give them every
possible help.
 As the supreme judge he looked after administration of justice according to religious
percepts and existing customs.
 It was the duty of the King to appoint his central and provincial officers.
 The Prayaga-prashasti as well as the Apratigha type coins of Kumaragupta-I point to
the appointment of successor to the throne by the reigning King.
An important political development of this period was the continuity of various kings in
their regions once they had accepted the suzerainty of the Gupta King. And the Gupta King
would not interfere with the administration of such regions.
Council of Ministers and Other Officials
The Gupta inscriptions are not very clear about the hierarchy of ministers. However,
there is no doubt that the King used to take counsel of his ministers and issue written instructions
to officials on all important matters. The minister’s office was perhaps hereditary. For example,
the dayagiri
inscription of the time of Chandragupta-II informs us that Virasena Saba, the minister for war
and peace, was holding this office by inheritance. Though the supreme judicial powers were
vested in the King, he was assisted by the Mahadandanayaka (Chief Justice). In the provinces
this work was entrusted to the Uparikas and in districts to the Vishayapatis. In villages, the
headman and the village elders used to decide the petty cases. The Chinese traveller Fa-Hien
states that capital punishment was not given at all. There were some other high officials. For
example, the Mahapratihara was the chief of the palace guards, the Pratihara regulated
ceremonies and granted the necessary permits for admission to the royal presence. There existed
an espionage system as in the earlier period. The land-grant inscriptions often mention Dutakas
who were associated with the task of implementing gifts when gifts of land were made to
brahmanas and others.
Army

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 The Guptas must have had a big army organisation. At the time of war the King led his
army but ordinarily there was a minister called Sandhi-Vigrahika (Minister in charge of peace
and war) who was helped by a group of high officials. The official title Mahabaladhikrita occurs
in many inscriptions. Officials like Pilupati (head of elephants), Ashvapati (head of horses),
Narapati (head of foot soldiers) possibly worked under him. The army was paid in cash and its
needs were well looked after by an officer-in-charge of stores called Ranabhandagarika.
Amongst other duties this officer was to look after the supply of offensive and defensive
weapons such as battle-axes, bows and arrows, spear pikes, swords, lances, javelins etc.
Revenue Administration
Land revenue was the main source of the state’s income besides the fines. In
Samudragupta’s time we hear of an officer Gopasramin working as Akshapataladhikrita. His
duty was to enter numerous matters in the accounts registers, recover royal dues from the sureties
of servants, to check embezzlement and recover fines for loss due to neglect or fraud. Another
prominent high official was Pustapala (record-keeper). It was his duty to make enquiries before
recording any transaction. The Gupta kings maintained a regular department for the proper
survey and measurement of land as well as for the collection of land revenue. Kamandaka in the
Nitisara suggests that a King should take special care of his treasury, for the life of the state
depends solely on it.
Both Kalidasa and the author of the Narada-Smriti state that one-sixth of the produce
should be claimed as the royal revenue. Besides this there was the Uparikara which was levied
on cloth, oil, etc. when taken from one city to another. The organisation of traders had to pay a
certain commercial tax (Shulka), the non-payment of which resulted in cancellation of the right
to trade and a fine amounting to eight times of the original Shulka. The King had a right to
forced labour (Vishthi), Bali and many other types of contributions. The King’s income from
royal lands and forests was considered as his personal income. Besides this, the King’s treasury
had a right to treasure troves (treasures in the forms of coin-hoards, jewels or other valuable
objects, discovered from below the earth accidentally), digging of mines and manufacture of salt.
Provinces, Districts and Villages
The whole empire was divided into Desas, or Rashtras, or Bhuktis. The inscriptions
provide us with the names of certain Bhuktis. In Bengal we hear of Pundravardhara Bhukti
which corresponded to north Bengal. Tira-bhukti corresponded to north Bihar. The Bhuktis were

78
governed by Uparikas directly appointed by the King. In areas like western Malwa we find local
rulers like Bandhuvarman ruling as subordinate to Kumaragupta-I but Parnadana was
appointed a governor in Saurashtra by Skandagupta.
The Province (Bhukti) was again divided into districts (Vishayas) under an official called
Ayuktaka and in other cases a Vishyapati. His appointment was made by the provincial
governor. Gupta inscriptions from Bengal show that the office (Adhikarana) of the district-head
associated with itself representation from major local communities:
 The Nagarasreshthi (head of city merchants),
 Sarthavaha (Caravan-leader),
 Prathama-Kulika (head of the artisan community) and
 Prathama Kayastha (head of the Kayastha community).
Besides them, were the Pustapalas – officials whose work was to manage and keep
records. The lowest unit of administration was the village where there was a headman called
Gramapati or Gramadhayaksha.
However, the Gupta inscriptions from north Bengal show that there were other units
higher than the village. In some cases we find references to Astakuladhikarana. Different
categories of villages mentioned as Gramikas, Kutumbis and Mahattaras sent representatives to
these offices which on various occasions functioned above the level of the village.
Besides agriculturists, there were certain other groups in the villages who followed such
professions as carpentry, spinning and weaving, pot-making, oil extraction, gold smithery, and
husbandry. All these groups must have constituted local institutions or bodies which looked after
the affairs of the village. The village disputes were also settled by these bodies with the help of
Grama-vriddhas (village elders).
Social
You have already read that according to the scheme of society conceived by the
brahmanas, society was divided into four varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra),
with each varna performing the set of functions prescribed for it and enjoying whatever rights
were given to it. This was the ideal social order and the state was expected to preserve it. This
means that when even a small state emerged in some corner of the country, the King of that state
was expected to recognize this as the ideal social order. The Brahmanas came to exert
considerable influence on the kings and this is quite clear from the way they. received land from

79
the kings and others. The kings, officials and others gave land not only to individual brahmanas
but also some times incited big groups of brahmanas to come and settle in remote areas. Thus,
the number of brahmana settlements variously called Brahmadiyas, Agraharas and so on
started
increasing and they started spreading, among other things, the idea of a varnadivided social
order.
However, varna order was an ideal order and there were many groups in society whose
varna identity could never be determined. Secondly, it was assumed that the varnas would
perform their duties; in reality, they may not have done so. These suggest that real society was
different from the ideal society and this was also recognized by the brahmana writers of the
Dharmashastras. They, therefore, tried to determine the status of various castes (jatis) in
society by giving fictitious explanations of their origins. They suggested that various jatis
originated through varna-samkara that is inter-marriages between various varnas. The various
foreign ruling families of the pre-Gupta period - of Greek or Siythian origin – were given the
semi-kshatriya status (vratya-Kshatriya) because they could not be considered to be of pure
Kshatriya origin. Similarly, fictitious origins were thought of for tribal groups who came to he
absorbed into the Brahmanical society.
The Dharmashastras also speak of apadharma: conduct to be followed during periods
of distress. This means that the varnas could take to professions and duties not assigned to them
when they found it necessary to do so. In matters of profession also the Dharmashastras, thus,
recognized that the real society was different from their ideal society. These changes, of course,
originated much before the Gupta period, but with the spread of the Brahmanas to different parts
of India, the social structure came to be very complex. The new society had to absorb many
social groups. Thus, the actual social structure came to vary from region to region, although
certain ideas were common to them:
The Brahmanas came to be recognized as the purest and, therefore, the highest varna.
Since they were associated with Sanskritic learning and performed priestly functions, they came
to be closely connected with royal power. Even when the rulers were supporters of Buddhism,
Jainism or a particular religious sect, they continued to patronize brahmanas, particularly those
of high learning. This remained one of the major reasons for the economic prosperity and
prestige of the brahmanas.

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 Ideally, although there were four varnas, there were various groups who were kept out of
this scheme. They were the antyajas (untouchables). They were considered impure; even their
touch was considered impure and their physical presence in areas where higher varnas lived and
moved was not allowed. The Chandalas, the Charmakaras and similar groups were considered
impure and outcastes. Thus, in the Brahmanical order of society the condition of a number of
social groups remained miserable throughout.
The position of women of higher varnas was low. Although we hear of personalities like
the Vakataka queen Prabhavatigupta who wielded considerable power, not all women were so
privileged. The Brahmana texts set down norms which women were expected to follow and
women were expected, in the family, to function mainly as an ideal wife and ideal mother. In
many Brahmana texts, women were even considered, for various reasons, to be of the same
category as the Shudras. It is significant that although Brahmanas were given land-grants
regularly, we do not come across evidence of land being given to Brahmana women.
Another aspect of social life was that there existed great difference between the ways of
life of the rich city-dwellers and people living in villages. The ideal city-dweller was the
nagaraka i.e. the urbanite who, because of his affluence, lived a life of pleasure and refined
culture. There are interesting descriptions of this way of life not only in Vatsyayana’s
Kamasutra but also in other literary texts of the period. Of course, it would be wrong to
presume that all classes of people who lived in cities could afford this way of life.
Economy
You have read earlier that agricultural crops constituted the main resources which the
society produced and that the major part of the revenue of the state also came from agriculture.
This, of course, does not mean that agriculture was the only occupation of the people or that
people lived only in villages. There were other occupations like commerce and production of
crafts which had become specialized occupations and in which different social groups were
engaged. This also means that, as in earlier periods, people lived in forests, in agrarian tracts, in
towns and in cities, but certain changes had started taking place in the pattern of economic
production and consequently, in relations between different social groups. We shall highlight
some of these changes in the course of this and the next section.
Agriculture

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 Let us begin with the pattern of agricultural production. The concern of the society with
agricultural production is clear from the way various aspects associated with agricultural
operations are mentioned in the sources of the Gupta period. Various types of land are mentioned
in the inscriptions: land under cultivation was usually called Kshetra. Lands not under
cultivation were variously called as Khila, Aprahata etc., and inscriptions give the impression
that uncultivated land was being regularly brought under cultivation.
Classification of land according to soil, fertility and the use to which it was put was not
unknown. Different land measures were known in different regions, although one cannot be
certain what exact measure was denoted by a term. In some areas Nivartana was the term used
for a measure of land whereas in the inscriptions of Bengal terms like Kulyavapa and
Dronavapa are used. It is not possible to classify the regions precisely according to the crops
grown, but all the major categories of crops – cereals like barley, wheat and paddy, different
varieties of pulses, grams and vegetables as well as cash crops like cotton and sugarcane – were
known long before the Gupta period and continued to be cultivated. Of course, you should not
assume that crops like maize or vegetables like potatoes or tomatoes were known to the farmers
of the Gupta period.
A mechanism, possibly known before the Gupta period, was to tie a number of pots to a
chain: the chain with the pots reached down to the water of the hull, and by making the chain and
the pots rotate, it was ensured that the pots would continuously fill with water and empty it. This
mechanism was known as ghati-yantra as ghati was the name used for a pot. This type of
mechanism also came to be known as araghatta. In the Harshacharita of Banabhatta, which
was written in the 7th century CE there is a very charming description of how cultivated fields,
producing crops like sugarcane, were being irrigated with the help of ghati-yantra. In regions
like Bengal, rainwater was collected in ponds and other types of reservoirs; in peninsular India,
tank irrigation became gradually the norm. There were, thus, different systems of irrigation and
the role of the state was only marginal in providing irrigation facilities to farmers. The farmers,
of course, depended mainly on rainfall and the importance of rainfall is underlined not only in
the Arthashastra of Kautilya but also in the texts written in the Gupta period.
The Gupta inscriptions refer to different types of village residents like Gramikas,
Kutumbis and Mahattaras who must have been village landholders, and their participation in
land transactions indicates that they, too, were important members of rural society.

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 Compared with the recipients of land from the rulers and the influential categories of land
owners in villages, the condition of ordinary cultivators may be considered to have been rather
bad. It is believed by some historians that because of the practice of land-grants, the peasant
populations as a whole were reduced to a very low position in society. This is not entirely untrue.
It was the ordinary cultivators, known by various terms such as Krishibala, Karshaka or
Kinass, who had low economic and social status. Among the actual cultivators there were those
who filled the lands of others and received only a share of the produce.
There were also slaves who worked on the fields of their masters. Even domestic female
slaves were cruelly exploited, and a text like the Kamasutra written in the Gupta period tells us
how much hardship they had to go through at the hands of their masters.
Crafts Production and Trade
Crafts production covered a very wide range of items. There were items of ordinary
domestic use like earthen pots, items of furniture, baskets, metal tools for domestic use and so
on; simultaneously a wide variety of luxury items including jewellery made of gold, silver and
precious stones; objects made of ivory; fine clothes of cotton and silk and other costly items had
to be made available to the affluent sections of people. Some of these items were made available
through trade; others were manufactured locally. Descriptions of many luxury objects, of which
no trace is generally found in archaeological excavations, may be found in the literary texts or
inscriptions of the period. These sources also give us interesting hints regarding the status of
different categories of craftsmen. For example, different varieties of silk cloth, called Kshauma
and Pattavastra are mentioned in the texts of this period. An inscription of 5 th century from
Mandasor in western Malwa refers to a guild of silk-weavers who had migrated from south
Gujarat and had settled in the Malwa region. Texts like Amarakosha and Brihat Samhita,
which are dated to this period, list many items, give their Sanskrit names and also mention
different categories of craftsmen who manufactured them.
Many important sites like Taxila, Ahichchhatra, Mathura, Rajghat, Kaushambi and
Pataliputra in the Ganges valley and other sites in other geographical regions have yielded many
craft products like:
 Earthen wares,
 Terracottas,
 Beads made of different stones,

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  Objects of glass,
 Items made of metals etc.
These coins were obviously used for purposes of commercial exchange and in some
regions of the Gupta Empire at least, the merchants held a high position in society. For example,
two types of representatives of merchants – the Nagarasresthi and the Sarthavaha – were
associated with the administration of the district headquarters in north Bengal. The seals of the
Gupta period found at Vaishali in north Bihar suggest that the merchants constituted an
important section of the population of the city of Vaishali.
The term Shreni is often interpreted as guild but there are different interpretations of the
term and in terms of many details, we are still not quite sure what the Shrenis were really like.
There were many types of craftsmen and they were not all identical either in wealth or in
social status. For example, there was vast difference between a goldsmith and his family with a
shop in a city like Ujjayini and a family of basket-makers in a village. This is reflected to some
extent in the Dharmashastras written by the brahmanas in this period. The Dharmashastras
assign different ranks to different groups of craftsmen, although in their scheme the craftsmen
and artisans held a status lower than that of the brahmanas, kshatriyas and vaishyas. The
Dharmashastras also suggest that each group of craftsmen formed a jati (caste). For example,
the Kumbhakaras (potters) formed one caste, the Suvarnakaras goldsmiths) formed another
caste and so on.
Culture
The Gupta period has often been referred to as “Golden Age” due to its cultural heritage.
This applies to great accomplishments in the field of art and architecture, language and literature.
The Gupta age, thus, stands out as a significant and noteworthy departure from previous
historical periods, particularly in the cultural history of India due to impressive standards
achieved by artistic and literary expressions of this time. For the same reason, cultural
development and cultural legacy of the Guptas is dealt with separately in subsequent Unit 15 of
this Course.
The epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are believed to have been compiled and given
their final form around 4th-5th century CE. The great Sanskrit writer poet Kalidasa – one of the
Navaratnas (nine gems) of the court of Gupta king Chandragupta Vikramaditya – wrote dramas
like Abhijnana-Shakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvashiyam and poetic works

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such as Raghuvamsham, Kumarasambhavam and Meghadutam which show the excellent
literary standards achieved during the Gupta period. Besides these, Varahamihira wrote Brihat
Samhitaa that deals with scientific subjects like astronomy and botany. Aryabhatta wrote
Aryabhattiyam: a famous work on geometry, algebra, arithmetic and trigonometry. The notable
creations on medicine include Charaka Samhitaa and Sushruta Samhitaa. An all-round
progress in literature was manifest during this time.
Origin of Vakataka Dynasty
 The Scholars have different views regarding the origin of the Vakataka Dynasty

 They were believed to be the Brahmins belonging to Vishnu Vriddha Gotra.

 The dynasty was founded by the ruler Vindhyashakti around 250 CE.

 The Vakataka Dynasty was established on the ruins of the Satavahana dynasty in the

Deccan region.
Origin: South India
 Also the titles such as Haritiputra and Dharmamaharaja used by Pravarasena I and

Sarvasena I respectively, were also used in the inscriptions of Southern dynasties such as
Chalukyas and Pallavas.
 Some scholars believe that the Vakataka dynasty originated in South India. This is

evident from some of the fragmentary inscriptions found in Andhra Pradesh in which the
name Vakataka is mentioned.
Origin: Vindhyan Region
 As the Puranas state, some scholars state that the Vakataka dynasty was the Northern

dynasty that originated in the Vindhyan region.

 The dynasty is referred to as Vindhyakas in the Puranas.

 The town Kanchanaka which is mentioned in the Puranas in relation to the Vakataka ruler

Pravarasena I, is identified as a place in the Panna district of Madhya Pradesh.

Vakataka Dynasty
Vindhyashakti (250 – 270 CE)
 Vindhyashakti was the founder of the Vakataka Dynasty and he ruled from 250 CE to
270 CE.
 He was described as the ‘Banner of Vakataka family and a Dvija’ (i.e. Twice Born ) in
the XVI cave inscription of Ajanta

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Pravarasena I (270 – 330 CE)
 Vindhyashakti was succeeded by his son Pravarasena I. He was the real founder of the

Vakataka dynasty.
 He was the only Vakata ruler who assumed the imperial title Samrat. He also assumed

title Haritiputra.
 Under his reign, the Vakataka empire was extended further South of Vidarbha and the

adjoining areas of Deccan. He ruled over a good portion of North India and Deccan
 The capital city of the Vakataka dynasty during his reign was Kanchanaka.

 He probably ruled for about 60 years

 During his reign, he performed a number of Vedic sacrifices such as Agnishtoma,

Aptoryama, Vajapeya, Brihaspatisava, Ukthya, Atiratra, and Sadyaskra and he is said to

have performed four Asvamedhas.
 He established a political alliance with the Naga dynasty by marrying his son

Gautamiputra to the daughter of Naga king Bhavanaga.

The Vakataka dynasty was divided into branches following the reign of Pravarasena I.
The two known branches of the dynasty were Pravarapura-Nandivardhana branch and the
Vatsagulma branch.
Nalanda University
 It has been called “One of the earliest Universities in the world.
 It was founded in the 4th Century B C by the Gupta Empire, Known as the ancient seat of
learning.
 Contribution also was given by – The King Harshwardhan, Kumar Gupta, Dharmpal.
 It was a Buddhist enters of learnig from 427 to 1197 CE.
 It becomes the crown jewel of the Development of Buddhism in India and the world.
 First residential inter National University of the world.
 It accommodated over 2000 teachers and 10,000students from all over the world.
Libraries:
 The Library of Nalanda, Known as Dharma gunj (Mountain of Truth) or Dharmagunja
(Treasury of truth), was the most renowned repository of Buddhist Knowledge in the
world at the time.
 The library had three main buildings – Ratnasagar and Ratnaranjaka.

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  Each building was nine stories high and had an enormous collection of books that
covereal various subjects ranging from religion, literature, astrology, astronomy,
medicine and much more.
Great Scholar of Nalanda University
 • Chinese traveler and Scholar, Xuanzang (Hsuan-Tsang), 7th Centary visited Nalanda
and left a vivid account of the curriculum and of the general features of the community.
 Famous Philosphers like Shilabhadra Nagarjuna and Mahayana were among the few
scholars of Nalanda.
Fall of Nalanda University
 According to the records Nalanda University was destroyed three times by invarders, but
rebuilt only twice.
 The Firs destruction was caused by the huns under Mihirakula during the reign of
skandgupta (455-467AD), but Skanda’s successors restored the library and improved it
with an even bigger building.
 The Destruction came in the early 7th century by the Gaudas; The Buddhist king
Harshwardhana (606-648AD) restored the University.
 The third and most destructive attack came when the ancient Nalanda inniversity was
destroyed by the Muslim army led by the Turkish eader Bakhtiyar khilji in 1193.
Vikrama Sila University
India has a rich tradition of learning and education that was handed over generation aft er
generation, fi rst orally and later through writing. Swami Vivekananda says: ‘Every boy and girl
was sent to the university, where they studied until their twentieth or thirtieth year.’1 Much later,
apart from the scriptures, the approach to learning was generally to study logic and
epistemology. Th e study of logic was followed by Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains.2 In ancient
India the main subject was the Vedas. Th e Vedangas, subjects auxiliary to the Vedas, as well as
the performance of elaborate yajnas had also to be mastered. Th e teacher would instruct a
handful of seated students for many hours daily in the gurukula, house of the guru. Th ey fi rst
had to memorize and repeat the Vedic mantras and then were taught their esoteric meanings.
To ensure correctness of memory the hymns were taught in more than one way. Students
would attain mastery of at least one of the four Vedas. In the gurukulas the young students stayed
with the guru for many years, helping him in his daily chores. Th e guru’s wife became their

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surrogate mother. Th ere is mention of many guru kulas in the Upanishads - famous among them
were those of Yajnavalkya and Varuni. A well-known discourse on Brahman found in the
Taittiriya Upanishad is said to have taken place in Varuni’s gurukula. Gurukulas were supported
by royal as well as public donations. Aft er the upanayana, initiation into the study of the Vedas,
children between the ages of fi ve to twelve, became brahmacharis.
These students remained unmarried till they were about twenty-fi ve, or even later. In
pre-Buddhist India students generally belonged to the three upper castes - brahmana, kshatriya,
and vaishya. Around 500 bce Buddhism spread in India and with it a new educational system.
Buddhism was a protest against the orthodox Vedic religion. Swami Vivekananda said: ‘Without
the Buddhist revolution what would have delivered the suff ering millions of the lower classes
from the violent tyrannies of the influential higher castes?’
However, Swamiji did not put aside Vedic thought, as for him ‘the essence of Buddhism
was all borrowed from the same Upanishads; even the ethics, the so-called great and wonderful
ethics of Buddhism, were there word for word, in some one or other of the Upanishads’ (3.230).
In Buddhist India monasteries became the centres of learning and education. During the classical
period of Indian history the Palas, who were Buddhists, ruled from Bengal between 750 to 1174
ce. This dynasty supported art and education and the universities of Nalanda and Vikramshila.
The students in these universities had to follow monastic rules along with their syllabus, and they
were classified according to merit.
The period of education was twelve years. The teachers were the guardians of the
students. They were responsible for the physical, mental, moral, and spiritual development of the
students. Initially, stress was given on the study of various scriptures. In a later period, and
according to the demands of society, professional education - art, sculpture, architecture,
medicine - were also included in the syllabus. The student’s mother tongue was the original
medium of teaching; later Pali and Prakrit were introduced, and much later Sanskrit as well. In
fact, Vedic topics were also added to the syllabus.
The monasteries that served as centres of education later developed into colleges and
universities. Nalanda, Vikramshila, Somapura, Salban, and Takshashila, or Taxila, became
unparalleled universities with highly qualified teachers. The aim of Buddhist education was to
make a human being wise, intelligent, moral, and non-violent. Students became judicious,
humanists, logical, and free from superstitions, as well as free from greed, lust, and ignorance—

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an integral education that can ultimately lead a person to nirvana. Buddhist education was open
and available to people of all walks of life.
Although a small number of students studied under a single teacher, students from China,
Myanmar, Thailand, and Gandhara in Afghanistan came here to study. Later these universities
were preferred by students and scholars from all over the known world. Ancient Indian education
contributed a lot to the growth of education in medieval times. The stress was now on the
elements of innovation and an incentive to improve traditional knowledge. Famous men
connected with Taxila were Panini, the grammarian of the fifth or fourth century bce; Kautilya,
the brahmana minister of Chandragupta Maurya; and Charaka, one of the two leading authorities
on Indian medical sciences. Taxila was famous for the teaching of grammar, medicine,
mathematics, and astronomy. Nalanda and Vikramshila, the two other great universities that
grew up during the Pala dynasty, were called Maha Viharas, ‘Great Monasteries’. Vikramshila
was the premier university of the era and one of the two most important centres of Buddhist
learning in India, along with Nalanda.
Valabhi University
History
The University of Valabhi was situated in Saurashtra in Western Iiidia. The place is
identical with the old Wala State. It. was an important centre of Buddhist learning, and
championed the cause of Hinayana Buddhism. For some time it had be- come a rival of Nalanda
in the academic field, Valabhi was the capital of Maitraka kings during the period 480-775 A. D.
and was born from the benefactions of these kings. Situated on the seashore, it was then an
important port for international trade.
Courses
Although Valabhi championed the cause of Hinayana Buddhism, it was not exclusive and
parochial. Along with instruction in the Buddhist doctrines Brahmanical sciences also used to be
taught at this place. We find references to Brahmana students coming from the Gangetic plains to
learn at this university. Over and above religious subjects, there was also instruction imparted in
subjects like Niti (Political science. Statesmanship), Varta (Business, Agriculture),
Administration. Theology, Law, Economics and Accountancy. In some cases students, after
studying at this university were employed by kings for assisting in the government of their
kingdom.

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 It was a Hinayana Buddhist learning center between 600 CE and 1400 CE, built

by Bhattarka, the Maitraka King.

 The Maitraka kings, who ruled over the country, acted as patrons to the university.

 During the period 480-775 CE, Valabhi was the capital of the Maitraka kingdom.

 The patron kings fell victim to an Arab assault in 775 CE and the university suffered a

brief setback as a result of this.

 Since then Maitraka dynasty's successors continued to support it with generous gifts.

 In the 12th century, the loss of its patron monarchs had inevitably led to the gradual

demise of all of its educational operations.

Check Your Process
1. Discuss the revenue system and administrative policies implemented during the Gupta
rule.
2. Compare and contrast the contributions of Chandragupta Vikramaditya, Samudragupta,
and Kumaragupta to the Gupta Empire's expansion and cultural development.
3. Analyze the military, administrative, and diplomatic achievements of these Gupta rulers.
4. Analyze the societal structure and cultural achievements during the Gupta period. How
did these developments impact Indian society?
5. Discuss the economic policies and advancements that characterized the Gupta era
6. Explain the importance of Nalanda, Vikramashila, and Valabhi universities during
ancient India. What role did they play in education and the spread of knowledge?

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 Unit – IV
 Vardhanas - Harshavardhana – Administration – Religious Contributions –Provincial
Dynasties – Chalukyas – Rashtrakutas - Paramaras – Palas – Senas - Art and Architecture
- Cultural contributions.
Objective
1. List the factors responsible for the rise of Harshavardhana
2. Identify the cultural achievements of Harsha
3. Describe the Harsha’s administrative system

Harshavardhana Dynasty King Harsha, well known as Harshavardhana, was the leader of
a massive empire in the northern region of India from 606 CE to 647 CE. Harshavardhana's reign
appeared to indicate a transition from the old to the mediaeval periods, while decentralised
provinces fought for expansionism all the time. He was the final leader of the Vardhana Empire,
also ancient India's last great empire prior to the Islamic Intrusion. Harshavardhana joined the
majority of northern India and reigned for 40 years from the capital of Kanyakubja post the
collapse of the great Gupta Empire in the midst of the sixth century CE, during which India
witnessed its own golden age. Harshavardhana's empire kept expanding as he acquired Kannauj,
followed by Punjab, Orissa, Bihar and Bengal. He took care of the needy and poor by
constructing rest homes with all the necessary amenities. He decided to not levy high taxes on
the citizens, and even the economic condition was rather self-sufficient.

History of Vardhana Dynasty or Pushyabhuti Dynasty The Pushyabhuti dynasty, well

known by the name Vardhana dynasty, gained prominence post the Gupta Empire fell.
Rajyavardhana, his elder brother, succeeded Harshavardhana. It was one of the largest Indian
imperial powers of the 7th century CE, encompassing all of the Northern and North-western
regions in India. In eastern India, his empire stretched all the way to Kamarupa and down to the
Narmada River. Harshavardhana’s empire is said to have spanned the existing states of Bengal,
Orissa, Punjab, including the entire Indo-Gangetic plain. The Vardhana Empire was divided into
two kinds of territories:
 Those explicitly under Harsha's rule, like the Central Provinces of Gujarat, Kalinga,
Bengal, and Rajputana, and

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  Those that were feudatories under his power, such as Kashmir, Jalandhar, Sind, Nepal,
and Kamarupa (Assam).
Administration of Harshvardhana
Harshavardhana's administration was almost like that of the Gupta Empire as there was
no slave labor in his kingdom, and individuals were allowed to live their lives as they pleased. •
Kannauj , His capital, drew poets, artists, religious leaders, and intellectuals from all over the
world.
He also kept friendly ties with the Chinese rulers. He even dispatched an Indian quest to
China, instituting a strategic relationship between the two countries. Xuanzang, a renowned
Chinese monk, lived for 8 years in his kingdom.
 Harshavardhana amassed a formidable army during his reign. When his empire was at its
peak he was said to have a cavalry of 100,000 men, 50,000 infantry men, including
60,000 elephants.
 Furthermore, the majority of North India was devoid of coins during Harsha's rule. This
indicates that the economic condition was in a feudal state.
 Independent rulers who were collectively called 'Mahasamantas,' paid homage to
Harshavardhana. He also assisted him by providing military reinforcements.
 It was critical to the advancement of Harshavardhana's empire.
Religion
According to historical sources, Harshavardhana’s ancestors were sun worshippers, but
Harshavardhanawas a Shaivite. He was an ardent devotee of Lord Shiva and his subjects
describedhimas‘Parama-maheshvara’ (supreme devotee of Lord Shiva). In fact, ‘Nagananda,’ a
Sanskrit playwhichwaswritten by him, was dedicated to Lord Shiva’s consort Parvati. Though he
was an ardent Shaivite, hewasalso tolerant towards all other religions and extended his support as
well. He did not forcehisreligiousbeliefs on his subjects and they were free to follow and practice
the religion of their choice. Sometimelaterin his life, he became a patron of Buddhism. Records
suggest that his sister Rajyashri hadconvertedtoBuddhism and that encouraged King
Harshavardhana to support and even propagate the religion. Hegotseveral Buddhist stupas
constructed. The stupas built by him on the banks of the Ganges stoodat 100-feethigh. He also
banned animal slaughter and started building monasteries all over North India. He built hospices
and ordered his men to maintain them well. These hospices served as shelterstothepoorand to the

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religious travelers across India. He also organized a religious assembly called
‘Moksha.’Itwasorganized once in every five years. Harshavardhana was also renowned for
organizing a grandBuddhistconvocation in 643 CE. This convocation was held at Kannauj and it
was attended by hundredsofpilgrimsand 20 kings who had come from far and wide. Chinese
traveler Xuanzang penned down his experienceofattending this massive convocation. Xuanzang
also wrote about a 21-day religious festival whichtoo, washeld at Kannauj. This religious festival
was centered on a life-sized statue of Buddha whichwasmadeoutof pure gold. According to
Xuanzang, Harsha, along with his subordinate kings, wouldperformdailyrituals in front of the
life-sized statue of the Buddha. It is still not clear if HarshavardhanaconvertedtoBuddhism. But
Xuanzang has clearly mentioned in one of his writings that King Harshavardhanawasnotonly
favorable to Buddhist monks, but also treated scholars of other religious belief withequal
respect.This suggests that he might not have converted to Buddhism. After ruling over most parts
of North India for more than 40 years, King Harshavardhana left fortheholyabode in the year 647
CE. Since he did not have any heirs his empire collapsed and disintegratedrapidlyinto small
states. The demise of King Harshavardhana marked the end of the mighty Vardhanadynasty.
Provincial Kingdom

At its zenith, the Delhi Sultanate included states like Bihar, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, the
Deccan states of Warangal, the Yadavas of Devagiri, Telangana, the southern state of the
Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra, the Pandyas of Madurai and various states of Rajputana like Jalore,
Ranthambore, Ajmer, Nagore. However, the process of disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate
started around the reign of Firoz Shah Tughlaq (after the 13th century) due to internal
instabilities. Some of the provincial kingdoms declared independence from the rule of the Delhi
Sultanate and the Vijayanagara Kingdom, the Bahmani Kingdom, the Sultanate in Gujarat,
Bengal, Malwa and Jaunpur near Varanasi emerged as powerful provincial kingdoms of
medieval India.
The dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate began to decay at the time of the medieval period.
There created a big opportunity for various kingdoms to establish their provincial kingdoms
throughout the various parts of India. The dynasties of Gujarat, Bengal and Bihar were
established as their provincial kingdom in the western part of India. The dynasty of Kashmir
became a famous dynasty in the northern part of India. Thus so many kingdoms became
independent from the Delhi Sultanate rule.

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 The provincial kingdoms were the kingdoms that emerged in several parts of India during
the medieval period. Different parts of India like Gujarat, Bengal, and Malwa in the eastern part,
Kashmir in the northern part, Jalore, Ajmer and Nagore of Rajputana, Telangana, and Devagiri in
the southern part established their own provinces. This disintegration process of the dynasty of
the Delhi Sultanate started with the dominion of Firoz Shah Tughlaq cause of internal
instabilities.
Chalukyas
The Chalukya dynasty were avid supporters of art and architecture. The old brick temples
at Tel, as well as several shrines at Aihole, Pattakadal, and Badami, are examples of Chalukyan
structural architecture. Aihole is home to a number of temples that reflect the Chalukyan love of
art and architecture. Among these are the well-known Ladkhan temple, the Durga temple, and
the Huchchimaltigudi temple. This article will explain to you the Art and Architecture of
Chalukyas.
Art and Architecture of Chalukyas - Background
 The Badami Chalukya era was a watershed moment in the evolution of South Indian

architecture.
 This dynasty's kings were known as Umapati Varlabdh, and they built numerous

temples for the Hindu god Shiva.

 Their architectural style is known as "Chalukyan architecture" or "Karnata Dravida

architecture."
 They built nearly a hundred monuments, both rock-cut (cave) and structural, in

the Malaprabha river basin in the modern Bagalkot district of northern Karnataka.
 The Western Chalukyas' art is sometimes referred to as "Gadag style," after the number

of ornate temples they built in the Tungabhadra-Krishna River doab region of present-
day Gadag district in Karnataka.
 Aside from temples, the architecture of the dynasty is well known for the ornate stepped

wells (Pushkarni) that served as ritual bathing places, a few of which are well preserved
in Lakkund
Architecture of Chalukyas
 They used a local reddish-golden Sandstone for the construction.

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  These cave temples are essentially excavations that have been excavated from the living

rock sites that they occupy.

 They were not constructed in the same way as their structural counterparts, but rather

through a special technique known as "subtraction" and are essentially sculptural.

 Majority of Chalukyan architecture was concentrated in a relatively small area within the

Chalukyan heartland – Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal, and Mahakuta in modern

Karnataka state.

 The most notable of which are three elementary cave temples at Aihole (one Vedic, one

Jain, and one Buddhist).

 There are four rock cut cave temples at Badami, they are similar as they have a simple

exterior but an exceptionally well-finished interior that includes a pillared verandah, a

columned hall (mantapa), and a cella (shrine cut deep into rock) that houses the deity of
worship.
Famous Temples
 Aihole temples include the Lad Khan temple (Surya Temple), Durga temple,

Huchimalligudi temple, and Ravikirti's Jain temple at Meguti. Aihole is home to 70

temples.
 The Lad Khan Temple with its interesting perforated stone windows and river goddess

sculptures.
 The Meguti Jain Temple (634) shows progress in structural design.

 The Durga Temple (8th century) with its northern Indian style tower and experiments to

adapt a Buddhist Chaitya design to a brahminical one.

 The temples at Pattadakal, which were built in the eighth century, now a UNESCO

World Heritage Site, represent the pinnacle and maturity of Badami Chalukyan
architecture
 Pattadakal has a total of ten temples, of which four temples are built in the Northern

Nagara style and six in Dravidian style.

 Some famous Pattadakal temples are Papanatha temple (northern style), Sangamesvara

temple, Virupaksha (it is like Kailashnath temple of Kanchipuram) (Dravidian style).

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 Chalukyas were famous for their art and architecture. They have built more than
hundreds of temples. The temples built by them are excellent examples of Vesara style
architecture. This is also known as the Deccan style, Karnataka Dravida style, or Chalukyan
style. It is a hybrid of the Dravida and Nagara styles. The majority of these temples are located in
a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland – Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal, and
Mahakuta in modern Karnataka state.

Chalukya Rulers
Jayasimha was the first ruler of the Chalukyas.

Pulakesin I (Reign: 543 AD – 566 AD)

 Founded the empire with his capital at Vatapi.
 Performed Ashwamedha.
Kirtivarman I (Reign: 566 AD – 597 AD)
 Son of Pulakesin I.
 Conquered Konkan and northern Kerala.
Mangalesha (Reign: 597 AD – 609 AD)
 Brother of Kirtivarman I.
 Conquered the Kadambas and the Gangas.
 Was killed by his nephew and son of Kirtivarman, Pulakesin II.
Pulakesin II (609 AD – 642 AD)
 The greatest of the Chalukya kings.
 Extended the Chalukya rule to most parts of the Deccan.
 His birth name was Eraya. Information about him is obtained from the Aihole inscription
dated 634. This poetic inscription was written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit
language using the Kannada script.
 Xuanzang visited his kingdom. He has praised Pulakesin II as a good and authoritative
king.
 Though a Hindu, he was tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism.
 He conquered almost entire south-central India.

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  He is famous for stopping Northern king Harsha in his tracks while he was trying to
conquer southern parts of the country.
 He had defeated the Pallava king Mahendravarman I but was defeated and killed by
Mahendravarman’s son and successor Narasimhavarman I in a series of battles he had
with the Pallavas.
 For the next 13 years, Badami remained under Pallava control.
 Pulakesin II received a Persian mission as depicted in an Ajanta cave painting. He
maintained diplomatic relations with the King of Persia Khusru II.
 His death saw a lapse in Chalukya power.
Vikramaditya I (655 AD – 680 AD)
 Son of Pulakesin II who plundered Kanchi, the capital of the Pallavas.
Kirtivarman II (746 AD – 753 AD)
 Great-great-grandson of Vikramaditya I.
 Last of the Chalukya rulers. Was defeated by the Rashtrakuta king, Dantidurga.[/su_box]
Culture
The Chalukya era may be seen as the beginning in the fusion of cultures of northern and
southern India, making way for the transmission of ideas between the two regions. This is seen
clearly in the field of architecture. The Chalukyas spawned the Vesara style of architecture
which includes elements of the northern nagara and southern dravida styles. During this period,
the expanding Sanskritic culture mingled with local Dravidian vernaculars which were already
popular. Dravidian languages maintain these influences even today. This influence helped to
enrich literature in these languages. The Hindu legal system owes much to the Sanskrit work
Mitakshara by Vijnaneshwara in the court of Western Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI. Perhaps
the greatest work in legal literature, Mitakshara is a commentary on Yajnavalkya and is a treatise
on law based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of India. Englishman
Henry Thomas Colebrooke later translated into English the section on inheritance, giving it
currency in the British Indian court system. It was during the Western Chalukya rule that the
Bhakti movement gained momentum in South India, in the form of Ramanujacharya and
Basavanna, later spreading into northern India.
Historical Backgrounds

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 The word ‘Rashtrakuta’ means chief of the Rashtra (division or kingdom). It is possible
that the line of kings belonged to this class of provincial officers, as the designation appears in
the inscriptions of many dynasties. We may say for sure that the Rashtrakutas were high
officials, either provincial chiefs or another kind of administrators. For example, a Rashtrakuta
Govindaraja, son of Shivaraja acting as vijnapti (petitioner), is mentioned in the Naravana plates
of Chalukya Vikramaditya II of Badami. Romila Thapar also cites that Dantidurga – founder of
the main branch of the Rashtrakutas – was one of the subordinates of Chalukyas and a high
official in the administration. Historians are still not clear about origin of the Rashtrakutas and its
branches. Following the tradition of devising Puranic pedigrees, the Rashtrakutas also claim in
their inscriptions that they belong to the Satyaki branch of Yaduvamsha (e.g. Inscription Nos. IX,
X and XXI) and the line of Tungas (e.g. Inscription Nos. XXIV, XXV and XXVI). Historian
Nilkantha Sastri, based on the study of inscriptions, claims that the Rashtrakutas were of
Kannada origin, and their plates indicate that Kannada was their mother tongue despite the
extensive use of Sanskrit. Also, the standard title Lattaloora-puravareshvara (“the eminent lord of
the city of Lattalura”) assumed by Rashtrakuta princes of both the main line and of the secondary
branches indicates their original home. Lattalura has been identified with Latur in the Bidar
district of Hyderabad. In this way, we can say that Deccan was the original home of the
Rashtrakutas, which generally means the whole region occupied by the Telugu speaking
population as well as Maharashtra with certain parts of northern Karnataka (Kannada speaking).
The Rashtrakuta dynasty is famous for a long line of brave warriors and able administrators,
which helped them in the formation of a vast empire. They fought continuously with the
Pratiharas, eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (in modern Andhra Pradesh), Cholas, Pallavas of Kanchi
and the Pandyas of Madurai. The Pallavas were in decline and their successors – the Cholas –
were emerging. Weaknesses of these kingdoms became helpful in victories and the establishment
of Rashtrakuta empire. There was no power in northern India strong enough to interfere with
affairs of the Deccan that also provided an opportunity for the emergence of Rashtrakutas.
Thapar argues that geographical position of the Rashtrakutas, i.e. in the middle of the Indian
subcontinent led to their involvement in wars and alliances with both the northern and, more
frequently, the southern kings. It resulted in expansion of the empire in all directions. Historian
Karashima argues that one of the crucial factors for the formation of Rashtrakuta power might
have been an environment within their territory favourable to the growth of agriculture. Thapar

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also explores favourable economic factors and mentions that the Rashtrakutas had the advantage
of controlling a large part of the western seaboard and, therefore, trade with West Asia,
particularly with the Arabs, provided the wealth to back their political ambitions.
The Rashtrakuta Empire
There were several branches of the Rashtrakutas ruling in different parts of India in the
early medieval period. Earliest known ruling family of the Rashtrakutas was founded by
Mananka in Malkhed, having the Paalidhvaja banner and the Garuda-laanchhana. Another
Rashtrakuta family was ruling in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. The Antroli-Chharoli
inscription bearing the Garuda seal dated 757 CE mentions four generations: Karka I, his son
Dhruva, his son Govinda, and his son Karka II belonging to a collateral branch of the Malkhed
line holding sway in the Lata country in Gujarat. Dantidurga was the founder of the imperial
Rashtrakuta line. He seems contemporary of Karka II. Exact relation of these kings to the
Malkhed line cannot be decided with certainty, though it is not impossible that Karka I of the
charter of 757 CE was identical with the grandfather of Dantidurga himself. The kingdom was
founded by Dantidurga who fixed his capital at Manyakheta or Malkhed near Modern Sholapur.
Manyakheta branch of the Rashtrakutas soon became dominant and imperial by assimilating
other branches in due time. We can prepare a dynastic chart of the imperial line of Rashtrakutas
with their titles as follows: Danti-varman Indra I Govindaraja Kakka I Indra II Dantidurga
(Prithivivallabha, Maharajadhiraja, Parameshvara, Paramabhattaaraka) Krishnaraja I
(Shubhatunga, Akaalavarsha, Rajadhiraja, Parameshvara) Govinda II (Prabhutavarsha and
Vikramavaloka) Dhruva (Nirupama, Kali-vallabha, Dharavarsha, Shrivallabha) Govinda III
(Jagattunga, Kirti-Narayana, Janavallabha, Tribhuvanadhavala, Prabhutavarsha, Srivallabha)
Amoghavarsha I (Sarva) (Nripatunga, Atishayadhavala, Maharaja-shanda, Vira-Narayana)
Krishna II (Akalavarsha and Shubhatunga) Indra III (Nityavarsha, Rattakandarpa, Kirti-
Narayana, Rajamartanda) Amoghavarsha II Govinda IV (Suvarnavarsha, Prabhutavarsha,
Chaanakyachaturmukha, NripatiTrinetra, VikrantaNarayana) Amoghavarsha III Krishna III
(Akalavarsha) Khottiga Karka II We now come to the main line of Rashtrakutas. Dantidurga, a
strong and able ruler, was the real founder of a lasting empire. The earliest record of his reign –
the Ellora inscription of 742 CE – mentions the titles prithvivallabha and khagavaloka (he whose
glances are as keen as the edge of a sword) for him. Lata and Malava were in a disturbed
condition after the Arab invasion and taking that advantage Dantidurga took control of the

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territories. Dantidurga also attacked Kanchi, the capital of the Pallavas, and struck up an alliance
with Nandivarman Pallavamalla to whom he gave his daughter Reva in marriage. The warlike
monarch Dantidurga captured the outlying territories of the extensive Chalukyan empire and then
assaulted on the heart of empire and easily defeated Kirtivarman. The Samangadh inscription of
754 CE records that Dantidurga overthrew the last Chalukya ruler of Badami called Kirtivarman
II and assumed full imperial rank and described himself as: Prithvivallabha, Maharajadhiraja,
Parameshvara, and Paramabhattaraka Kirtivarman continued to rule with diminished glory until
the reign of Dantidurga. Dantidurga describes his territory as comprising four lakhs of villages,
which probably included his sway only over a little more than one half of the Chalukyan empire
of Badami. Dantidurga died childless, which aroused a dispute between Krishnaraja I – his uncle
– and other family members who succeeded in seizing the throne for a while but whom
Krishnaraja I overthrew easily in 756 CE because of his popularity. He had the titles
Shubhatunga (High in Prosperity) and Akalavarsha (Constant Rainer) mentioned in Bhandak
Inscription of Krishnaraja I of 772 CE. The newly established Rashtrakuta kingdom expanded in
all direction under him. He started with the completion of the overthrow of the Chalukyas of
Badami. The Bhandak plates of 772 CE show that the whole of Madhya Pradesh had come under
his rule. In other inscriptions, he is said to have overcome Rahappa and thereby gained the
Palidhvaja banner and the imperial title Rajadhiraja Parameshvara. Historian Sastri treats
Rahappaas Kakka II of Lata which may be taken to mark the end of the first Lata branch of the
Rashtrakutas. Southern Konkana was also conquered and brought under his sway by Krishnaraja
I. He also expanded his empire in the southern direction by establishing lordship over the Ganga
kingdom. Also, his son and yuvaraja Govinda compelled Vijayaditya I of the Vengi branch of
Chalukya for formal submission. The Rashtrakuta empire under Krishnaraja I may, thus, be
taken to have extended over the whole of the modern Maharashtra state, a good part of the
Mysore.
Religion
Archaeologist Pandit Vishveshwar Nath concludes through the studies of inscriptions that
the kings of the Rashtrakuta dynasty from time to time used to observe the Shaiva, the
Vaishnava, and the Shakta religion. The Rashtrakuta kings presented an excellent example of
religious tolerance and gave patronage to all the faiths such as Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism,
and Islam. They did not kill anyone for his or her religious beliefs. Toleration was also shown

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between the members of the different sects. The hope that religious charity will earn divine
favour became a funding source to religious and socio-religious activities. In this phase of Indian
history, the southern states came more and more under the spell of the Vedic and Agamic
religion. Temples became a centre of Hindu gods and goddesses, culture, religion, education, and
rituals. Buddhism was the least popular religion. The number of monasteries declined
considerably during the rule of the Rashtrakutas, and the inscriptions reflect only three large,
active and vital monasteries: at Kanheri, Kampil, and Dambal. Jainism continued to be a strong
rival of Hinduism due to the generous patronage of the Rashtrakuta kings like Amoghavarsha I,
Krishna II and Indra III and the literary and religious activities of some famous monastic
scholars. A great patron of Jainism, Amoghavarsha I appointed a Jaina monk Gunabhadra as
tutor to his heir-apparent Krishna II, extended patronage to many Jaina scholars and gave grants
to several Jaina monasteries. Even Muslims were welcomed and allowed to preach their faith by
the Rashtrakuta kings. It meant that politics and religion were, in essence, kept apart. Religion
was necessarily a personal duty of the king. Thus, Amoghavarsha I, who was a staunch follower
of Jainism, also worshipped the Hindu goddess Lakshmi equally. In this sense, we can say that
the state was mostly secular.
Art and Architecture of Rashtrakutas - Background
 The Rashtrakutas made significant contributions to the Deccan's architectural heritage.

The magnificent rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta in present-day

Maharashtra reflect Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture.
 The Ellora site was originally part of a complex of 34 Buddhist caves built in the first

half of the sixth century in rocky areas also occupied by Jain monks, the structural details
of which show Pandyan influence. Cave temples inhabited by Hindus were only possible
later.
 The Rashtrakutas rededicated the rock-cut shrines and renovated the Buddhist caves.

Amoghavarsha I practiced Jainism, and five Jain cave temples at Ellora date from his
reign.
 The Rashtrakutas' most extensive and sumptuous work at Ellora is the monolithic

Kailasanatha temple, a magnificent achievement that confirms the "Balhara's" status as

"one of the four principle Kings of the world."

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  The temple's walls are adorned with magnificent sculptures from Hindu mythology, such

as Ravana, Shiva, and Parvathi, and the ceilings are painted.

Kailasanatha Temple
 King Krishna, I commissioned the Kailasanath Temple project after Rashtrakuta rule

spread into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used is Karnata
Dravida.
 It lacks the Shikharas that are typical of the Nagara style and was built along the same

lines as the Virupaksha temple in Pattadakal, Karnataka.

 It is carved from a massive block of rock that is 200 feet long, 100 feet wide, and 100 feet

tall.
 The Kailashnath Temple in Ellora, like the Lokesvara Temple in Pattadakal, is "an entire

temple complex completely hewn out of the live rock in imitation of a distinctive
structural form."
 The temple's four main components are the main shrine, an entrance gateway, the Nandi

pavilion, and a courtyard with cloisters surrounding it. The temple is built on a 25-foot-
high plinth.
 With its beautiful sculptures, the Kailasa temple is an architectural marvel. The sculpture

depicts the Goddess Durga slaying the Buffalo demon.

 In another sculpture, Ravana was attempting to lift Mount Kailasa, Siva's abode. The

Ramayana scenes were also depicted on the walls.

 The general appearance of the Kailasa temple is more Dravidian.

Elephanta Caves
 The Elephanta Caves, which are located on an island near Mumbai, were originally

known as Sripuri. (Locals referred to it as Gharapuri).

 The Portuguese later named it after the large Elephant sculpture it possessed.

 The Ellora temple and Elephanta caves are strikingly similar, illustrating the continuity of

craftsmen.
 The elephanta caves' entrance features massive figures of dwara-palakas.

 Nataraja, Gangadhara, Ardhanarishvara, Somaskanda, and Trimurti are sculptured on the

wall surrounding the prakara around the Sanctum (six-meter in height, representing the
three aspects of Shiva- creator, preserver, destroyer).

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Navalinga Temple
 The Navalinga temple complex was built in the 9th century during the reign of

Rashtrakuta Dynasty King Amoghavarsha I or his son Krishna II.

 The temple is located in the town of Kukkanur (also known as Kuknur), north of Itagi in

the Koppal district and east of Gadag in the Indian state of Karnataka.
 Each of the nine temples in the cluster is built in the South Indian Dravidian style and

features a linga, the universal symbol of Hindu God Shiva, hence the name Navalinga.
Origin of the Paramara Dynasty
The origin of the Paramaras can be traced to the old-age tradition of India. As per old
mythology, Vashistha’s Kama Dhenu was stolen by the wise man Vishwamitra. Vashishtha
sacrificed on Mount Abu to get his cow back, and a hero named Paramaras emerged from the
sacrificial fire and captured the cow.
 One of the four Agnikula clans of Rajputs is the Parmaras. Their lineage is unknown. The

origin of the Parmaras is a subject of debate among scholars. They ruled over the area
known as the “Kingdom of Ujjain,” located north of Narmada.
 Paramaras, whose capital was at Dhar, originally at Ujjain, were the successors of

Rashtrakutas. Upendra, or Krishnaraja, founded the Paramaras dynasty, which ruled

mainly the Malwa Region. Paramaras succeeded Pratiharas during the early 10th century
after the latter's downfall.
 The dynasty reached its pinnacle under Munja’s nephew Bhoja, whose realm stretched

from Vidisha in the east to the Sabarmati River in the west, from Chittor in the north to
Konkan in the south.
 From the end of the 10th century to the end of the 13th century, a branch of the Parmar

dynasty ruled Mount Abu, with Chandravati as its capital. From the middle of the 10th
century to the middle of the 12th century, the second branch of this dynasty ruled in the
princely states of Vagad (present-day Banswara) and Dungarpur in the state of Uthtuk
Banswara, the capital of the present Arthuna. Two more branches of the lineage are
known. From the late 10th century to the end of the 12th century, one ruled in Jalore and
the other in Bhinmal.
Paramara Art and Architecture

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 The Udayeshvara has a 'mulaprasada' with seven bays to each side but the projections,
treated as piers bearing many aedicule, radiate like the points of a star within a circle. Aligned on
the principal axis are a vestibule, a nine-square closed hall expanded to form a cross with three
porches, and a detached pavilion. The decorative details are idiosyncratic. Above the entablature
the seven-storey shikhara has five vertical rows of miniature shikharas on pillars between
delicately carved bands of meshed miniature niches which rise from extremely elegant dormers
over the 'ghana-dwars' and the magnificent vestibule gable. The roof of the hall is a variant on
the 'Samvarana form', which is by now has become familiar in the state of Gujarat. The pillars
are multi-faceted with extremely elaborate niches on the principal facets and fantastic brackets
superimposed over multiple rings; the pillars above the porticos are notably short but there is
space for great elaboration. There are triple-jamb portals to the hall but the sanctuary portal has
five bands including an architectonic one with spiral scrolls and a beam of niches.
Due to dynastic ties, perhaps, Maharashtra preferred the Bhumija style found in
Paramara architecture at the same time as its most prominent manifestation in Malwa. The
Ambaranatha Temple at Ambarnath near Mumbai is the Udayeshvara's superb contemporary
style. However, there are important differences. In the first place, the the temple's closed halls
are commensurate squares aligned orthogonally but as their corners are cut back to form
equilateral projections repeated for each porch, they appear to be disposed diagonally in plan.
Secondly, apart from the absence of quadrant curves in the superimposed tiers of the shikhara's
intermediate zones, the piers are more significant than the highly unorthodox miniature shrines
they support. Further, the hall's Samvarana reflects the influence of Gujarat as does the base with
elephant frieze. On the whole sumptuous faceted columns define the central space of the hall
with its dazzling ceiling, but various square forms are used elsewhere and the portal jambs reveal
some influences of architecture of Chalukya dynasty, though the lintel is of the Gujarati type.
Interestingly, in the entire process of synthesis of elements from north and south the
Ambaranatha temple was visionary of the Deccani style which was to be fostered by
the Yadavas of Devagiri, who succeeded the Rashtrakutas dynasty in the heart of their
domains around Aurangabad, and progressively expanded their holdings in the north Deccan at
the expense of the Chalukyas. Active from the second half of the 11th century in a region that
was virtually a cultural province of Malwa. Their extensive corpus is represented by the
Gondeshvara of their capital, Sinnar. The Sinnar work reflects the influence of both Udaipur and

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Ambarnath. Star-shaped 'mulaprasadas' appear at other Yadava sites. Like for instance Lonar,
where the hall of the Daitya Sudama is an enlarged variation on the theme of the mulaprasada.
The Malwan pattern for closed halls, followed at Sinnar, was perhaps the Yadava norm but the
predominantly extravagant fifty-columned open one at Anwa, with a central space defined by
twelve great faceted columns and covered by a superb concentric ceiling, bears comparison with
the one at Modhera.
In general, as at Sinnar, Gujarati patterns are displaced by an essentially Deccani one,
mainly square in section with recessed octagonal or circular bands and sometimes with a 'purana-
kalasha' interpolated well below the graded rings and padmas which form the capital. The
Gondeshvara has a single wall painting but the most ambitious Yadava temples reflect the style
of Solanki architecture in India. The much-mutilated but once-splendid Naganatha at Aundha
incorporating no fewer than four friezes. After the Gujarati pattern, one register of iconic
sculpture is the norm but the Gondeshvara is unusual in its class in having applied pillars and
other abstract motifs instead of figural relieves in most of its aedicule.
The Paramara architecture in India also reflected Bhumija manner that rapidly spread east
and west, reaching the Kalachuris by the end of the 11th century and being taken up even by
the Chandella dynasty for their last notable work at Khajuraho temples. Here miniature
'Sekhari shikharas' are superimposed over subsidiary equilateral projections aligned on the
diagonals between the cardinal ones. This experiment in Sekhari or Bhumija cross-fertilization
was not a happy one, however without balconies; the orthogonal could not compete with the
diagonals and seem to provide inadequate support for the weighty half-shikharas. The
Chandellas' marked ability to affect a monumental balance between whole and parts had been
lost.
Bhumija style is quite rare in Gujarat but in Rajasthan it was considered as an important
ingredient of the hybrid style which the Rajasthanis forged between the 12th and 15th centuries
from components provided by all the major post-Pratihara schools. The Shiva Temple at
Ramgarh is an early Bhumija hybrid, the Surya Temple at Ranakpur reflects Bhumija pattern.
The former has bands of enmeshed niches over both principal and intermediate projections,
separated by pillars bearing two distinct types of miniature shikharas. The Ranakpur Surya
Temple has a unique 'mulaprasada' with eight major projections separated by triads of minor
ones. Above, miniature shikharas half mask the mesh bands in the Sekhari manner in contrast to

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the tiers of still smaller ones which fill the adjoining zones in the Bhumija approach. Though
such cross-fertilization is a rare thing in itself, it is nonetheless characteristic of the prolix
inventiveness of the Rajasthani imagination.
The Palas
Bengal had been part of the Maurya and Gupta empires. For long stretches of its early
history Bengal is not known to have played an important role in the political history of India
even after the decline of the Guptas. The first significant ruler of Bengal was Sasanka who ruled
roughly between 606-637 A.D. Sasanka is considered the first historically known ruler of the
area that constituted Bengal. He was also the first in this region to have extended his political
sovereignty over areas that lay far beyond the geographical boundary of Bengal. Sasanka had
become the master of the whole of Bengal with his capital at Karnasuvarna (near Murshidabad),
and had perhaps extended his rule as far as Odisha. He even advanced against Kanauj which was
occupied by the rulers of the Maukhari dynasty at that time. Sasanka’s military adventures
proved successful and this ultimately led to the growth of hostilities between him and the rulers
of Thanesar. Harshavardhana, who eventually became king of Thanesar, set out to defeat
Sasanka but was unsuccessful. Ultimately, Harsha succeeded in his conquest of Sasanka’s
empire only after the latter’s death.
The death of Sasanka was followed by a period of political decline in the fortunes of
Bengal. It was attacked by Yasovarman of Kanauj and Laitaditya of Kashmir and later on
perhaps by the king of Kamrupa. It resulted in the weakening of central authority and the rise of
independent chiefs. It seems that the prevailing anarchy led the chiefs to elect someone called
Gopala as the ruler of the whole kingdom. Gopala, who went on to become the founder of the
Pala dynasty in Bengal, consolidated his rule over Bengal and brought the much needed stability
and prosperity to the region. The date of his accession is not known in definite terms but is
generally believed to be in the second half of the 8th century A.D. He died in about 780 A.D. and
was succeeded by his son Dharmpala. R.C. Majumdar describes Dharmpala as one of the
greatest kings that ever ruled in Bengal and one who raised the glory of the kingdom to great
heights. It may be mentioned that in the famous tripartite struggle between the Palas, Pratiharas
and Rashtrakutas, to establish control over northern India, Dharmpala played a very crucial
role. In fact for a while he managed to attain a supreme position in north India.

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 According to R.C. Majumdar, Dharmpala spent his whole life in military campaigns.
After having suffered defeat at the hands of Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas, he went on to establish
an empire that embraced a considerable part of northern India. Details about his reign are known
mostly from copper plate inscriptions found at a place called Khalimpur. Apart from his military
campaigns, Dharmpala is also known for his patronage of Buddhism. He founded many Buddhist
monasteries but, it was the famous Vikramshila University founded by him, that earned him a lot
of fame.
Dharmpala was succeeded by his son Devapala who ruled for about 40 years. According
to R.C. Majumdar his fame had reached as far as the distant isles of the Indian Archipelago.
Devapala also emerged as a powerful king. Devapala was the last among the line of powerful
kings of the Pala dynasty. He was succeeded by Vigrahapala, who ruled for a short period. It is
said that Vigrahapala preferred an ascetic life to an aggressive military career. He was followed
in succession by Narayanapala, whose reign saw the decline of the glorious rule established by
the Palas. Of the Pala kings, both Dharmpala and Devapala, won fame and glory thorugh their
victories in the famous Tripartite struggle. This was a struggle amongst the Pratiharas, Palas and
Rashtrakutas for gaining victory over the imperial capital of Kannauj and for establishing control
over northern India. About the same time that the Palas had established a strong monarchy in
Bengal, the Pratiharas under their king, Vatsaraja, seemed to have ruled over large parts of
Rajputana and central India. While the Palas were expanding in a westward direction, the
Pratiharas were expanding their kingdom towards the East. Conflict between the two powers was
thus inevitable. By the time the first encounter between the two took place, the Palas seemed to
have extended their kingdom at least as far as Prayagraj (earlier Allahabad). It is not clear who
the Pala king was at that time. It may have been either Gopala or Dharmpala.
In the meantime, rulers of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, who had already established their
supremacy in the Deccan were trying to extend their dominance over north India. The
Rashtrakuta king Dhruva having crossed the Vindhyas, first defeated the Pratihara king Vatsaraja
and then advanced upon Dharmpala and defeated him. With this encounter which took place
somewhere in the Ganga Yamuna doab, began the Tripartite struggle for supremacy between the
Palas, Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas.
Though the Rahtrakutas achieved complete triumph in the beginning, the death of Dhruva
was followed by chaos in the Rashtrakuta kingdom. Dhruva’s son Govinda III was engaged in a

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struggle against an alliance of twelve kings of south India. The Palas and Pratiharas made use of
the respite that this development gave them. Of the two, Dharmpala was quick to recover. He
took advantage of this and made his suzerainty to be acknowledged by almost all important
states of north India. He managed to capture Kannauj and place his own nominee on the throne.
He held a great imperial assembly in the presence of a large number of vassal kings at
Kannauj. In this assembly he consecrated himself as the overlord of the whole of northern India.
At this time Dharmpala’s suzerainty was accepted in areas covering central Punjab, and probably
extended upto the Sindhu, Kangra valley, East Punjab, Jaipur, Malwa and probably also Berar.
This is inferred from the list of vassal chiefs who attended his imperial assembly. With this
event, Bengal emerged from oblivion and rose to the position of a supreme power in north India.
The king of Bengal became the supreme head of an empire that stretched from the
western part of north India to the east up to central India. However, this situation did not last for
long, given the ever-changing nature of political control during this period. The Pratiharas
managed to recover under the leadership of Nagabhatta, the son and successor of Vatsaraja.
Nagabhatta attacked and defeated the nominee whom Dharmpala had placed on the throne of
Kannauj, which resulted in a conflict with Dharmpala himself. In a battle fought against
Dharmpala, Nagabhatta emerged victorious. After this success, Nagabhatta conquered several
territories, including a large portion of the territories under the control of Dharmpala.
In this situation, Dharmpala probably sought the aid of Govinda III, the Rashtrakuta king,
to check the advances of Nagabhatta. Govinda III, either in response to this or on his own
initiative, undertook a military expedition to north India. Nagabhatta who was unable to resist
such an onslaught was forced to flee. His territory was overrun by the Rashtrakutas who then
proceeded northwards. However, even after establishing an empire that stretched from south to
north Govinda III was unable to sustain his conquests, due to internal dissensions within the
empire. In this scenario, Dharmpala managed to gain the upper hand. He seems to have
recovered his empire to a large extent. At the time of his death around 815 C.E., his son
Devapala became the undisputed ruler of a large part of north India. He is said to have defeated
the Dravidas, Gurjaras and Hunas and conquered Utkala and Kamarupa. The court poet
described his empire as extending from the Himalayas in the north to the Vindhyas in the south
and from the Bay of Bengal in the east to the Arabian sea in the west.

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 We have already discussed how the power of the Palas gradually declined after the reign
of Devapala. The Palas henceforth ruled as a local power in eastern India. They continually faced
invasions and occasional raids by the Kalachuris, Candellas and Rashtrakutas who sometimes
conquered portions of their territory. North and west Bengal were occupied by the Kambojas in
the latter half of the 10th century. Taking advantage of this the Kalachuris advanced against the
Palas as far as Mithila. Around the same time, the Chola king Rajendra Chola and a Chalukya
king also invaded the Pala territories. It goes to the credit of Mahipala I, the reigning Pala king of
the time, to have defended his kingdom successfully against the Kalachuris, Cholas and
Chalukyas and also to have recovered territories from the Kambojas. But south and west Bengal
were ruled by several independent chiefs and was not under the control of the Palas.
However, Mahipala’s successor, Nayapala and his successor Vigrahapala III continued to
be engaged in a constant struggle against the Kalachuris of Tripuri. Vigrahapala III was
succeeded by his son Mahipala II whose reign witnessed a lot of upheavals. Some of the vassal
chiefs rose against him. Mahipala II tried to resist these vassals, but was defeated and killed.
Divya, an official who belonged to the Kaivarta caste established control over north Bengal.
Mahipala II’s brothers Surapala II and Ramapala took shelter in Magadha. Surapala II died soon
after and Ramapala took over, but by this time practically the whole of Bengal had passed out of
Pala control. A dynasty of kings with names ending in Varman, ruled over east Bengal, while
Divya the rebel Kaivarta chief ruled over north Bengal. The remaining territories of Bengal were
under the control of different independent chiefs who perhaps still nominally acknowledged the
over lordship of the Palas.
Ramapala was able to mobilise the support of a large number of chiefs who helped him to
defeat and kill the son of Divya and wrest back north Bengal. Ramapala also forced the Varman
ruler of east Bengal to submit to his authority. He also conquered Kamarupa and sent an
expedition against the Gahadavalas. He also interfered in the politics of Odisha. In short,
Ramapala was successful in restoring the strength and prestige of the Pala kingdom to a large
extent. However, the Pala kingdom disintegrated during the reign of his two sons Kumarapala
and Madanapala.
After going through this brief sketch of political events of the early medieval period in
north India you may be wondering how to make sense of all these details of dynastic accounts,
battles, victories and defeats. After all, the study of history goes far beyond mere listing of

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political events, and deal mainly with the analysis of political processes and social and economic
formations. Of what use, then are these sketches of dynastic histories of the different regions, to
a modern day historian. Well, as B.D. Chattopadhyay points out, “Even the seemingly
bewildering variety of details of the political history of early medieval India – the absurdly long
genealogies, the inflated records of achievements of microscopic kingdoms, the rapidity of the
rise and fall of centres of power – are ultimately manifestations of the way in which the polity
evolved in the period and hence is worthy, not so much of cataloguing, but of serious analysis.”
Religion of Palas
 Buddhism and Hinduism were the dominant religions throughout the Pala Dynasty.

 They were largely Buddhists and practiced Mahayana Buddhism.

 After King Harsha Vardhana's reign, Buddhism was on the verge of extinction. However,

the arrival of the Palas reignited interest in Buddhism across the Indian subcontinent.
 Shaivism and Vaishnavism were also patronized by them. The King made land

concessions to brahmanas and priests.

 Palas built great monasteries throughout their reign.

 One of the major viharas built by the Pala emperors is Somapura Mahavihara (now in

Bangladesh).
 The spread of Mahayana Buddhism occurred during the Palas in nations such as Tibet,

Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, and Indonesia.

 During the Pala dynasty in Bengal, Bihar, and Assam, a number of temples were built.

For example, in Assam, they built the Hayagriva avatar temple.

 Many coins discovered during their period represented Shiva worship, Vishnu worship,

and Saraswati worship.

 Therefore, the long Pala period and the chosen religion during the Pala Dynasty resulted

in a combination of Hindu and Buddhist culture.

Palas Architecture
 Several mahaviharas, stupas, chaityas, temples, and forts were built by Palas.

 The majority of the architecture was religious, with Buddhist art dominating the first two

hundred years and Hindu art dominating the following two hundred.
 Nalanda, Vikramashila, Somapura, Traikutaka, Devikota, Pandita, and Jagaddala vihara

are famous among the mahaviharas.

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  At these centres, which also featured workshops for the casting of bronze figures, a large

number of manuscripts on palm-leaf relating to Buddhist subjects were produced.

 Dharmapala's construction of the Somapura Mahavihara in Paharpur (Bangladesh), is one

of the largest Buddhist viharas in India, and its architectural layout has impacted the
architecture of countries such as Myanmar and Indonesia.
 Palas constructed temples also which are noted for displaying the Vanga style.

 At Kashi, Mahipala constructed hundreds of temples and buildings.

 At Gaya, there is a Vishnupada temple with a hemispherical mandap that looks like an

umbrella.
Sena Dynasty
The Sena Dynasty ruled Bengal from approximately 1097 to 1225 CE. The Sena dynasty
ruled the majority of the Indian subcontinent's northeast. Previously, the Pala dynasty ruled over
both Bihar and Bengal. The Sena rulers were devout Hindus, as opposed to the Palas, who were
Buddhists. They originated in the south Indian region of Karnataka, according to the Deopara
inscription. The inscription mentions Samantha Sen, one of the southern founders, whose
successor was Hemanta Sena, the first of the family to be given royal epithets in the family
records, and who seized power from the Palas and styled himself king in around 1095 CE. His
successor, Vijaya Sena, was instrumental in laying the groundwork for the dynasty.
During the early medieval period on the Indian subcontinent, the Sena dynasty ruled from
Bengal through the 11th and 12th centuries. The Sena dynasty is well-known for erecting Hindu
temples and monasteries, such as the renowned Dhakeshwari Temple which is now in Dhaka,
Bangladesh. In Kashmir, the dynasty is also thought to have built the Sankara Gaureshwara
temple. In this article, we will discuss the Art and Architecture of Senas which will be helpful for
UPSC exam preparation.
Art and Architecture
 Pala and Sena School of Architecture was the name given to the architectural style in the

Bengal region.
 Under the patronage of the Pala and Sena dynasties, it developed between the 8th and

12th centuries A.D.

 The Palas were largely Buddhist kings who followed the Mahayana tradition, although

they were extremely tolerant of other religions and patronised them both.

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  Viharas, Chaityas, and Stupas abound in the Pala Kingdom.

 The Senas were Hindus who built Hindu god temples while simultaneously preserving

Buddhist structures.
 As a result, both religions' influences were reflected in the design.

Religion of Senas
 The Senas rule in Bengal is commonly associated with the emergence of orthodox

Hinduism in a Hindu-Buddhist society that had long enjoyed peaceful coexistence of the
two religions, resulting in an atmosphere of amalgamation of the two.
 The onslaught on Buddhists in Bengal is thought to have begun during this time period,

resulting in large-scale Buddhist migration to neighbouring countries.

 After Sena's reign, Buddhism declined in India.

 Bhaktiyar Khalji pillaged many Buddhist universities. (Nalanda, Odantapuri, and

Vikramshila).
Administration of Senas
 The Pala system of administration was maintained by the Senas. Even under the Senas,

Bhuktis, Vishayas, Mandals, and so on remained administrative divisions.

 Patakas and Chaturakas are the names of the smallest administrative divisions that appear

frequently in Sena inscriptions and literature.

 Among the royal officers, the names Bhuktipati, Mandalpati, and Vishayapati appear

frequently.
 The Palas Prime Minister was now referred to as Mahamantri. The Sena kings used to

call themselves Aswapati, Narapati, Rajaprayadhapati, and so on.

 Under the Senas, the Sandhivigrahika of the Palas was renamed Mahasandhivigrahika.

 Apart from these, the Sena kings appointed Mahamudradhkrita and Mahasarbadhkrita as

new officers.
 Similarly, the highest judge was known as Mahadharmadhyakshya. Military officers were

also given new names under the Senas.

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 Self assessment Questions
1. Discuss the political achievements of the Vardhana dynasty and the reign of
Harshavardhana. How did their rule impact the Indian subcontinent?
…………………………………………………………………………..
2. Evaluate the cultural and religious patronage under the Vardhanas, specifically
Harshavardhana.?
…………………………………………………………………………..

3. Discuss the architectural and artistic advancements under these dynasties.

…………………………………………………………………………..

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UNIT V
Rajputs – Cultural Contributions - Arab Conquest of Sind - Mahmud of Ghazni –
Invasions – Mohammed of Ghor – Battles of Tarain

Objective

1. Describe the political, social, religious and economic condition of India at the
time of the Arab invasion ?
2. Identify the causes of the downfall of the Ghaznavid Empire
3. Explain the social condition of India at the time of Ghori’s attack

Rajputs

Rajput (from Sanskrit rājaputra meaning "son of a king"), also called Thakur is a large
multi-component cluster of castes, kin bodies, and local groups, sharing social status and
ideology of genealogical descent originating from the Indian subcontinent. The term Rajput
covers various patrilineal clans historically associated with warriorhood: several clans claim
Rajput status, although not all claims are universally accepted. According to modern scholars,
almost all Rajput clans originated from peasant or pastoral communities.

Over time, the Rajputs emerged as a social class comprising people from a variety of ethnic and
geographical backgrounds. From 12th to 16th centuries, the membership of this class became
largely hereditary, although new claims to Rajput status continued to be made in the later
centuries. Several Rajput-ruled kingdoms played a significant role in many regions of central
and northern India from seventh century onwards.

The Rajput population and the former Rajput states are found in northern, western, central and
eastern India as well as southern and eastern Pakistan. These areas
include Rajasthan, Delhi, Haryana, Gujarat, Eastern Punjab, Western Punjab, Uttar
Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Sindh.

The Rajput kingdoms were disparate: loyalty to a clan was more important than allegiance to the
wider Rajput social grouping, meaning that one clan would fight another. This and the

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internecine jostling for position that took place when a clan leader (raja) died meant that Rajput
politics were fluid and prevented the formation of a coherent Rajput empire

The term "Rajput" has been used as an anachronistic designation for leading martial lineages of
11th and 12th centuries that confronted the Ghaznavid and Ghurid invaders, although the Rajput
identity for a lineage did not exist at this time, these lineages were classified as aristocratic
Rajput clans in the later times.

However, other scholarly opinion staged emergence of Rajput clans as early as seventh century
AD. when they start to make themselves lords of various localities and dominate region in
current day Northern India. These dynasties were Pratiharas of Kannauj, the Chahamanas
(of Shakambhari, Nadol and Jalor), the Tomaras of Delhi, the Chaulukyas, the Paramaras,
the Gahadavalas, Chandela, Sisodias, Guhilas etc.

The Rajput ruled kingdoms repelled early invasions of Arab commanders after Muhammad ibn
Qasim conquered Sindh and executed last Hindu king of the kingdom, Raja Dahir. Rajput family
of Mewar under Bappa Rawal and later under Khoman fought off invasions by Arab generals
and restricted them only until the border of Rajasthan but failed to recapture Sindh. By the first
quarter of 11th century, Turkic conqueror Mahmud Ghaznavi launched several successful
military expeditions in the territories of Rajputs, defeating them everytime and by 1025 A.D, he
demolished and looted the famous Somnath Temple and its Rajput ruler Bhimdev Solanki fled
his capital. [84] Rajput rulers at Gwalior and Kalinjar were able to hold off assaults by Maḥmūd,
although the two cities did pay him heavy tribute. By last quarter of 12th century, Mohd
Ghori defeated and executed the last of Ghaznavid rulers and captured their region along with
plundering Ghazna, the capital of Ghaznavids. After capturing the northwest frontier, he invaded
Rajput domain. In 1191, Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer led a coalition of Rajput kings
and defeated Ghori near Taraori. However, he returned a year later with an army of mounted
archers and crushed Rajput forces on the same battlefield of Taraori, Prithviraj fled the
battlefield but was caught near Sirsa and was executed by Ghurids. Following the battle, the
Delhi Sultanate became prominent in the Delhi region. [88]

The Rajputs fought against Sultans of Delhi from Rajasthan and other adjoining areas. By first
quarter of 14th century, Alauddin Khalji sacked key Rajput fortresses of Chittor

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(1303), Ranthambor (1301) and other Rajput ruled kingdoms like Siwana and Jalore. However,
Rajputs resurgence took place under Rana Hammir who defeated Tughlaq army of Muhammad
bin Tughluq in Singoli in 1336 CE and recaptured Rajasthan from Delhi sultanate. [89] In the 15th
century, the Muslim sultans of Malwa and Gujarat put a joint effort to overcome the Mewar
ruler Rana Kumbha but both the sultans were defeated.[90] Kumbha's grandson renowned Rana
Sanga inherited a troubling kingdom after death of his brothers but through his capable rule
turned traditional kingdom of Mewar into one of the greatest power in northern India during the
early 16th century. Sanga defeated Sultans of Gujarat, Malwa and Delhi several times in various
battles and expanded his kingdom. Sanga led a grand alliance of Rajput rulers and defeated the
Mughal forces of Babur in early combat but was defeated at Khanwa through Mughal's use of
Gunpowder which was unknown in Northern India at the time. His fierce rival Babur in his
autobiography acknowledged him as the greatest Hindu king of that time along
with Krishnadevaraya. After a few years Maldev Rathore of Marwar rose in power controlling
almost whole portion of western and eastern Rajasthan.

From 1200 CE, many Rajput groups moved eastwards towards the Eastern Gangetic
plains forming their own chieftaincies. These minor Rajput kingdoms were dotted all over the
Gangetic plains in modern-day Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. During this process, petty clashes
occurred with the local population and in some cases, alliances were formed. Among these
Rajput chieftaincies were the Bhojpur zamindars and the taluks of Awadh.

The immigration of Rajput clan chiefs into these parts of the Gangetic plains also contributed the
agricultural appropriation of previously forested areas, especially in South Bihar. Some have
linked this eastwards expansion with the onset of Ghurid invasion in the West.

From as early as the 16th century, Purbiya Rajput soldiers from the eastern regions
of Bihar and Awadh, were recruited as mercenaries for Rajputs in the west, particularly in
the Malwa regin

Arab Conquest Of Sindh

The political, social, religious and economic condition in India during the Arab invasion
can be described as follows: (i) Political Conditions: The political condition of India was very

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miserable at the time of the Arab invasion. There was no strong central government in the
country. After the death of Harshvardhan, the country had become divided into many small
kingdoms. These states carried out constant warfare for supremacy, a policy that was followed
by the major kingdoms of the time.

 Kannauj: This kingdom was ruled by Yasovarman who constantly quarrelled with
his neighbouring states for the expansion of his empire. He was eventually
defeated and killed by Lalitaditya of Kashmir. He was a contemporary of king
Dahir of Sind.
 Kashmir: At the time of the Arab invasion (AD 712), Kashmir was ruled by the
Karkot dynasty. The ruler was Chandrapida. His successor was Lalitaditya who
defeated Yasovarman. But in the later ninth century, around AD 855,
Avantivarman of the Ulpala dynasty seized power from the Karkotas.
 Sind:It was ruled by a Brahmin named Dahirat during the time of the Arab
invasion. It is said that a majority of the population was the follower of Buddhist
religion. It was this ruler who had to face the Arab invasion under the leadership
of Muhammad-bin-Qasim.
 Afghanistan:It was called Gandhar at the time. At the time of HiuenTsang’s visit,
the kingdom was being ruled by a Kshatriya dynasty which ruled over it till the
end of the ninth century. It is said that the last ruler of this dynasty,
Trilochanapala was dethroned by a Brahmin minister of his who seized power.
 Nepal: Just before the Arab invasion of Sind, Nepal became independent of the
ruler of Kannauj through the cooperation of Tibet. It was then under the control of
Tibet. Though Nepal had close cultural and religious contacts with India it took
no interest in the Indian politics at the time of the Arab invasion.

 Assam:Bhaskarvarman proclaimed Assam as an independent kingdom during the

reign of Harshavardhan. But soon after, he was dethroned by a tribal leader
Sitstambh. Since Assam was situated very far it had no influence on the general
policy of India.

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  Bengal: After the death of Shashank it was first conquered by Bhaskarvarman and
later on by Yasovarman of Kannauj. After his death, disorder was unleashed and
taking advantage of the situation their feudal lords proclaimed one of them,
Gopal, as the king. He is supposed to be the founder of the Pala dynasty. It ruled
in Bengal till the 12th century. It is clear that the condition of this kingdom was
not stable when the Arabs invaded India.
 Malwa: The Pratihara dynasty was ruling over this kingdom at this time. Its
capital was Kannauj. The Rastrakuta ruler Dantidurga is said to have defeated the
ruling Pratihara prince. Pratihara rulers came into conflict with the Arabs many
times between AD 725 to 740 but the Pratihara ruler Nagabhata defeated them.
 Vakataka dynasty: The Vakatakas had been ruling over the Deccan from the
fourth century AD onwards. Their power had declined at the time of the Arab
invasion.
 Pallavas:The Pallavas ruled over southern and lower Deccan. Their capital was
Kanchi. At the time of the Arab invasion of Sind, the Pallava ruler was
Narsimhavarman II (AD 695-722). He was probably more interested in literature
and art and did not evince any interest in the politics of Northern India.
 Pandayas: The Pandaya kingdom included modern Trichinopoly, Tinnevelly and
Madurai. They were in constant conflict with the other kingdoms of south India.
 Chola Kingdom: They ruled over the eastern part of Madras and most of Mysore.
They were continuously fighting against the Pandayas and the Cheras.
 Chera kingdom:They ruled over most of modern Kerala. They kept on fighting
against the Pandayas. In brief, India was divided into many kingdoms. The
country lacked political unity and a powerful central government. As a result,
Muhammad bin Qasim was able to invade and conquer sindh in 711. This marked
the arrival of Islam in the subcontinent.

Mahmud of Ghazni

Towards the end of the ninth century, feudal lords of Persian origin ruled over
Transoxiana, Khorasan and some parts of Iran. They had to engage constantly in a fight against

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the Turkish tribes on their northern and eastern frontiers. This conflict led to the emergence of a
new type of soldier known as Gazi.

The Turks were mostly worshippers of natural forces and so were Kafirs in the eyes of
the Muslims. Therefore, the Gazi soldiers fought against them for political and religious causes.
With the passage of time, many Turks became Muslims and started propagating and protecting
Islam. They came into conflict with the non- Muslim Turkish tribes. A Turkish slave of the
Samanid dynasty named Alaptigin who was the governor of Khurasan supported the opposing
faction in the struggle for succession in Bokhara. Fearing punishment, he proceeded towards
Ghazni and subsequently consolidated his position there. He occupied certain parts in Central
Asia and laid the foundation of an independent dynasty at Ghazni and started ruling from Ghazni
as his capital. On the other side, the Samanid dynasty fell and the Gaznavids undertook the task
of protecting the Islamic regions against the non-Islamic tribes of central Asia. After Alaptigin,
his son Abu Izhak and then slaves such as Baltagin, Pirai and Subuktugin became his successors.
Subuktugin was the only one who was successful. Subuktigin (977–999) turned his attention
towards India. Around AD 980, he dispatched a Turkish army against Jaipal in which Jaipal’s
army had to suffer a heavy loss and he was forced to surrender for peace. He is said to have
occupied the whole of Balkh Khurasan, Afghanistan and in addition, the northwestern frontier of
India before his death. He was succeeded by his son Mahmud (999–1030) to the throne of
Ghazni. With his accession, a new chapter started in the history of Islam. He defeated the ruler of
Seitain, Khalif-bin- Ahmad and obtained the title of Sultan. Though his empire and his title
enjoyed the sanction of the Khalifa, but the basis of his power was conquest. Medieval Indian
historians consider Mahmud of Ghazni as a soldier of Islam because of his struggle against the
tribal invaders of Central Asia. Many scholars consider him as the first Sultan-i-Azam. This title
is not found inscribed on his coins where he is simply referred to as Amir Mahmud and also, this
title was not given to him by the Khalifa. Historians do not agree on the motives inspiring
Mahmud of Ghazni for his Indian invasions. Some historians describe him as a soldier in the
cause of Islam and say that he exhibited his religious fanaticism by breaking the idols of Hindu
Gods and forcibly converting the people to Islam. But now-a-days this opinion is not accepted.
Actually, his main ambition was to acquire wealth even though he was a breaker of idols. He had
no wish to squander away this wealth in India itself. He wanted to utilize it for establishing a vast
central Asian empire. This is accepted without any controversy that he had no wish to establish a

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permanent empire in India because he always returned to Ghazni. He made no arrangements
regarding his conquered areas nor did he annex the conquered areas to his empire. Only Punjab
and Multan were made an integral part of his Gaznavid Empire.

Mahmud’s Invasion

Mahmud Ghazni carried out 17 invasions in India between AD 1000 and 1028. A brief
description of which is as follows:

Invasion of the frontier regions

Mahmud Ghazni established his control over some cities of the north-western frontier and
a few forts in the vicinity of Peshawar for the first time in AD 1000. After making administrative
arrangement for them, he went back to Ghazni.

Attack on Peshawar

In AD1001 Mahmud invaded Peshawar, an important part of Jaipal’s dominions. Jaipal

sent a big army of 12000 horses, 30000 infantry and 300 elephants to face 15000 horses of
Mahmud, but Jaipal was defeated and imprisoned along with a few of his soldiers. He concluded
a treaty with Mahmud by which he promised 25 elephants and 25000 Dinars to Mahmud. Due to
a feeling of severe humiliation, Jaipal could not survive for long and he committed suicide after
giving over the kingdom to his son, Anandpal.

Attack on Mera and Bhatinda

In AD1004 Mahmud attacked Mera and Bhatinda. The ruler Biji Raj defended the fort
bravely for 3 days, but had to surrender the fourth day. He had to hand over to Mahmud 280
elephants and enormous wealth. Like Jaipal, he also ended his own life. Attack on Multan In
AD1005-6, Mahmud attacked the ruler of Multan – Abul Fath Daud (who was a follower of the
Ismaili sect which Mahmud considered a rival sect). Abu Fath was defeated and gave 20000 gold
Dirhams to Mahmud. Mahmud handed over the administration of Multan to the grandson of
Jaipal called Sevakpala or Sukhpala who embraced Islam and got the name of Naushashah.
Attack on Naushashah of Multan Naushashah gave up Islam after Mahmud went back and
declared himself as an independent ruler with the name of Sukhpala. So Mahmud had to invade

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Multan again. Sukhapla paid him 40000 Dirhams but Mahmud kept him as a prisoner throughout
his (Sukhapala’s) life.

Attack on Anandpala

In AD1008, Mahmud attacked the ruler of Lahore, Anandpala. At the latter’s behest the
rulers of Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kanauj, Ujjain, Delhi and Ajmer formed a military confederacy.
About 30,000 Khokhars of Multan also joined them. According to historian Farishta, a severe
battle took place and within a short time the Khokhars murdered about 5,000 Muslims. However,
an arrow hit the eye of Anandpal’s elephants and he ran away from the battlefield carrying
Anandpala with him. With the defeat in this battle, the joint efforts of the Hindushahis failed,
Indian people and the rulers were now terrified by Mahmud

Attack on Nagarkot In AD 1009, Mahmud launched an attack on Nagarkot (Kangra). He

plundered enormous wealth from its temples.

Attack on Daud, the ruler of Multan

In AD 1011, Mahmud Ghazniagain attacked Daud because he had declared himself

independent. He was defeated and imprisoned by Mahmud. Attack on Thaneswar In AD 1014,
Mahmud attacked Thaneswar, plundered its temples and broke its idols. He brought the fort
under his control.

Attack on Trilochanpala

In AD 1013, Mahmud attacked Nandan, the Capital of Anandpala and his successor,
Trilochanpala (near the salt mines of Khakda on Jhelums). He was defeated and his kingdom was
annexed to Mahmud’s empire.

Attack on Kashmir

In AD1015, Mahmud proceeded against Bhimpala, the son of Anandpala, in Kashmir.

Kashmir was plundered and thousands of persons were taken away as slaves.

Attack on Mathura and Kanauj

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 In AD 1018, Mahmud attacked Mathura. At that time it was the most thickly populated
and prosperous city of northern India. Mahmud ransacked the city and after deserting the temples
and idols proceeded to Kanauj. The King of Kannuaj, Rajpala fled from the city upon hearing
about the arrival of Mahmud here also. Mahmud exhibited his barbarism. He took away from
this city 2 crore Dirhams, 53000 prisoners and 350 elephants.

Attack on Kalinjar and Gwalior

In protest against the cowardice exhibited by the ruler of Kanauj, king of Kalinjar and his
son Vidyadhar entered into a treaty with the king of Gwalior and attacked Kanauj. When
Mahmud heard of this development, he attacked Kalinjar and Gwalior and established his control
over them.

Attack on the Punjab and its incorporation into the Gaznavid empire

In AD1021, he attacked those areas of the Punjab which were free till that time. Many
people were robbed, murdered or forced to embrace Islam. After this, Punjab was fully annexed
to the Gaznavid empire. Attack on Kalinjar In AD1022, Mahmud again attacked Kalinjar with
the object of acquiring wealth. Laden with enormous wealth he again went back to Ghazni.

Attack on Somnath

Among the invasions of Mahmud Gaznavi, his invasion of Somnath (Kathiawad) is the
most famous. He proceeded from Ghazni at the lead of a big army on 17 October, 1024. In
January 1025, he reached Anilwara, the capital of Gujarat, from where he proceeded towards the
famous Shiva temple of Somnath. Famous historians have described the glory of Somnath on the
basis of contemporary accounts saying that more than 1 lakh pilgrims used to assemble every
day, one thousand priests used to perform the worship ceremony, thousands of devdasis
performed dances and songs. Various kings of India had granted about 1000 villages to the
temple. The temple had about fourteen beautiful golden minarets. It is said that Bhimdev, the
king of Gujarat ran away without resisting Mahmud. The common people gave resistance for
three days. After fierce bloodshed, Mahmud entered the temple. The priests repeatedly sent
requests to Mahmud to take away as much wealth as he liked but to spare the Sivalinga but
Mahmud paid no heed to this and broke the idol of Siva into pieces. The loot of the temple

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yielded wealth worth more than 20 lac Dinars. But on the way back he faced resistance by the
Jats. He reached his Capital Ghazni in 1026. His last attack against the Jats In AD1027, Mahmud
attacked the Jats inhabiting the area between the Indus River and Multan with the help of a navy.
Jats fought bravely, but were defeated. After loot and plunders, Mahmud reached Ghazni. He
died there in AD 1030. At that time, he was 59 years of age. Motive behind Mahmud’s invasions
(i) Acquisition of wealth: Most historians are of the opinion that the major aim of Mahmud’s
Indian invasions was the acquisition of wealth with which to establish an empire in Central Asia.
That was the reason behind his making the temples and idols the target of his attack. The temples
were the repositories of gold, silver, diamonds and cash money. Famous historians Habib and
Zafar are the propagators and supporters of this view. According to Prof. Habib it was not
strange that like the Catholic Church of Europe, the Hindu temples also attracted powerful and
cruel invaders to do some unholy act. To call Mahmud’s invasions ‘Jihad’ would be a big
mistake. It would be more appropriate to say that he carried out terrible raids on the temples in
order to seek their wealth. This fact can be corroborated by the fact that during peacetime no
raids on temples were carried out. It was only at the time of the war that the temples were
deserted in order to win the sympathy and support of the Muslims and Mahmud took away
enormous wealth. Similarly, historian Zafar writes that Mahmud was more a conqueror than a
religious propagator. To say that he carried out repeated attacks on India in order to spread
Islamic religion would be wrong both historically and psychologically.

Lanepoole also expressed similar views and wrote that if Mahmud could hope to acquire
wealth by looting Baghdad, he would have attacked and plundered that famous seat of Caliphate
in the same cruel manner as he attacked and looted the Hindu temple (ii) Religious motive:
According to contemporary Muslim historians, the object of Mahmud’s Indian invasions was the
propagation of Islam. According to them, Mahmud had vowed at the beginning of his reign that
he would carry out an annual invasion on India to propagate his religion. The court historian of
Mahmud, Utbi, has written that Mahmud at first wanted to attack Seistan, but later on thought it
proper to carry on a Jihad against India. Many historians agree with this and hold that because of
this motive, Mahmud carried out seventeen invasions of India, attacked the temples and broke
the idols. He forced many non-Muslim people to embrace Islam. It is said that the contemporary

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Muslim world praised these efforts of Mahmud. The Caliph held a special Durbar to felicitate
him. But modern historians Muhammad Habib, Khalik Ahmad Nizami and Zafar have disproved
this theory by citing many examples. Prof. Habib writes that the barbaric acts of Mahmud did not
help in the propagation of Islam but downgraded it in the eyes of the world. Habib and Nizami,
at other places, said that there is no principle in Islamic law which supports or encourages temple
destruction. Mahmud attacked India thinking that it would prove his faith towards Islam and he
would acquire prestige in the Muslim world. Still, the basic motives behind his invasions were
the acquisition of wealth and political motives. (iii) To gain elephants: Some historians consider
that the acquisition of elephants from India was an additional cause behind his Indian invasions.
They say that in all his invasions of India after AD 1000. Mahmud made use of elephants.
Therefore, it can be surmised that Mahmud attacked India to in order acquire elephants for his
army. From India he got both the elephants and the ‘Mohave’s’. (iv) Ambition for prestige:
Another point of view is that Mahmud carried out repeated attacks on India inspired by his desire
to acquire prestige. He had come to know of the weakness of Indian rulers during the lifetime of
his father. He had full hope of success in India. Many Muslim travellers had been to India before
the Indian invasions of Mahmud. From them he had acquired the necessary geographical
information which was helpful to him in carrying out his Indian invasions. Like many other
conquerors, Mahmud also was desirous of extending his empire and acquiring prestige. He had
annexed many parts of western Punjab to his empire with this explicit purpose only. of Somnath.
Now the most important object of Mahmud’s attacks is considered to be his ambition to acquire
wealth.

(v) Acquisition of artisans: Some scholars held that one object of Mahmud’s invasions
was the acquisition of skilled artisans. He was very fond of constructing beautiful buildings.
With this aim he had carried with him many skilled artisans. (vi) Political motives: Many
historians hold that the basic and real motive of Mahmud’s invasions was political. Their
contention is that his Indian invasions were a mere instrument for the acquisition of wealth. The
ultimate objective was the establishment of a Turk-Persian empire in Central Asia. This has been
proved undoubtedly that Mahmud’s aim was definitely not the establishment of a permanent
empire in India. He used to return to Ghazni after every successful invasion. In fact, Mahmud
considered it impossible to rule over two empires – that of Ghazni and India. Even a fertile land
like the Punjab was annexed by him to his Gaznavid Empire as late as AD 1021–1022. In

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essence, it can be said that the nature of Mahmud Gaznavi’s Indian invasion was not religious.
His purpose was to amass wealth from India to gain assistance for the establishment of a vast and
permanent Gaznavid empire in Ghazni. He did not try to establish an empire in India. He made
no permanent administrative arrangement for his conquered territory. In his reign of 27 years, he
carried out 17 invasions of India. Thus, he could not literally fulfil his ambition of an annual
invasion of India because many a times he got entangled in the wars in Central Asia. From every
Indian invasion he got enormous wealth. He invaded areas from Kashmir in the north to Kalinjar
in the south and Kanauj in the east to Somnath in the west. He was most vigorously opposed by
the Shahi ruler Jaipal. His invasions of Nagarkot, Mathura, Kanauj and Somnath yielded him
enormous wealth.

Historical importance or the effects of Mahmud’s invasions

It would not be correct to label Mahmud as a mere plunderer and ignore his role. His
invasions had many effects chief amongst which are the following: (i) Political effects: Though
the Muslim empire in India was not founded in the wake of Mahmud’s Indian invasions yet it
would not be improper to say that his invasions opened the way for it. The political condition of
India underwent a change with the conquest of the Punjab and Multan by Mahmud Gaznavi.
These areas came to be under direct control of the Turks and they could invade the Ganges plain
any time after crossing the hills protecting the north western frontier of India. Though for the
next 150 years the Turks could not bring this area under their control, it would have to be
accepted that Mahmud Gaznavi’s invasions made the task of Muhammad Ghori easier. (ii)
Acquisition of wealth: The effect of Mahmud’s invasions on Indian cities and temples was not
favourable. Almost every time he left laden with gold, silver, diamonds, etc., and that helped him
to maintain a powerful and large standing army. It protected his empire from the Central Arabic
powers and helped him to expand it. From Punjab and Multan he got a vast sum of money every
year as tax. (iii) Effect on Islam: Mahmud’s invasions definitely led to the spread of Islam in the
Punjab, Multan and a few other areas of India. Equally, his atrocities also inspired hatred towards
Islam. But, later on, this religion was spread gradually by the saints and missionaries who had
come with Mahmud. In fact, because of these invasions the Turks came to be the propagators of
Islam. Later on, this religion affected Indian policies and society. Zafar writes that the Muslim
invaders were accompanied by the Muslim saints as well those who worked for spreading Islam

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in India. (iv) Destruction of art pieces in India: Because of the 17 invasions of Mahmud, many
beautiful temples, idols and artistic pieces were destroyed. He destroyed prosperous cities like
that of Nagarkot, Mathura, Kanauj and Somnath. Many skilled artisans were either done to death
or were carried away by him as slaves. This adversely affected the progress of these artistic
pieces. (v) Adverse psychological effect on the Rajputs: Some historians are of the opinion that
the morale of the Rajput rulers was weakened because of their continuous defeat at the hand of
Mahmud Ghazni and they made no effort to gain back the Punjab and Multan. But this view does
not seem to be very correct because for the next 150 years the Turks could not establish their
empire in India and in the first battle of Tarain in 1191, Muhammad Ghori was defeated by
Prithviraj Chauhan. However, there is no doubt that the Rajputs of the period did not give up
their traditional rivalries and jealousies and did not try to save the Punjab from the clutches of
the invaders. (vi) Spread of Indian art in central Asia: Mahmud took with him many artisans.
Through their creations, they not only gave prestige to Mahmud but also enriched Central Asia
by contributing Indian culture. (vii) Description of Alberuni: With Mahmud of Ghazni also came
Muhammad bin-Ahmad who is generally known as Alberuni. His work Kitab-ul-Hind (Tehkikat-
e-Hind) is a valuable source of information about India. In it, Alberuni had given a critique of
Indian social, religious and political condition, Indian philosophy, mathematics, geography and
astronomy. (viii) Spread of Persian culture: After Mahmud’s invasion, Lahore gradually became
the centre of Persian culture. From the Punjab many Persian scholars, missionaries, traders, etc.,
began to travel to other parts of India. In course of time, Indo-Persian administrative institutions
developed in India. (ix) Appointment of Indians to military posts: Some historians hold that
Mahmud and his successor Mansur gave livelihood to many Hindus in the army. It is said that
Mansud’s army comprised 50 per cent Indians. Some of them like Tilak and Sewand Ram were
appointed even at the higher posts.

Causes of the Downfall of the Ghaznavid Empire

There are many causes of the downfall of the Ghaznavid Empire as follows: (i) Lack of
Foresightedness on the part of Mahmud Gaznavi One significant cause of the downfall of the

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Gaznavid Empire was that Mahmud had paid no attention towards the consolidation of
administration alongside conquest. British orientalist and archaeologist Stanley Lane-Poole has
written rightly that Mahmud did not have a creative mind. One does not hear of any institution
which Mahmud initiated. He only tried to maintain external security in his empire and never
made any plans for organizing and consolidating his empire. That is why he left behind him only
an uncoordinated and disorderly empire. As soon as he breathed his last, the empire started
disintegrating. (ii) Absence of any law of succession There was no definite law of succession in
the Gaznavid Empire. Therefore, after his death, there was constant warfare and intrigues in the
reign of his successors. This dealt a blow to the prestige and stability of the empire. (iii)
Incompetent successors Mahmud Ghazni had established a rigid military dictatorship. This sort
of regime can go on only till one capable and powerful ruler succeeds another. Mahmud’s
successors were all incapable sovereigns. All of them were lazy and addicted to luxury.
Therefore, they could not stop the advance of the Seljuk Turks and their increasing influence.
(iv) Increasing power of the Seljuk Turks Mahmud’s death was followed by the rise of another
powerful empire, that of the Seljuks. This empire namely included Syria, Iran and Trans-Oxiana.
This empire came into conflict with the Gaznavids for control over Khurasan. In a famous battle
Gaznavid Maudud was badly defeated and fled for refuge to Lahore. Next GhazniSultan Bahram
became a puppet in the hands of the Seljuks. Actually, it was because of the Seljuks that the
Gaznavid influence became confined only to Ghazni and Punjab. (v) Rise of the kingdom of
Ghor Ghor was situated between Ghazni and Herat. This small kingdom presented a big danger
to the declining empire of Gaznavi. In 1155, its ruler Alauddin Hussain invaded Ghazni,
plundered it and burnt it to ashes. After the shrinking of the Gaznavid Empire to Ghazni and
Punjab only, Ghor became all the more powerful.

MUHAMMAD GHORI

Muhammad Ghori (who is also known as Muizuddin Muhammad bin Sam) was the
younger brother of the ruler of Ghor, Ghiyas-ud-din. He was raised to the throne of Ghazni in
AD 1173. Still, he remained loyal to his brother and kept good terms with him. Though he ruled
over Ghazni virtually as an independent ruler till AD 1206, he got his brother’s name inscribed
on his coins and behaved towards him as a feudatory does towards his lord. He carried on many

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invasions of India only as his brother’s associate and opened the way for the establishment of the
Delhi Sultanate.

India on the Eve of Invasion of Muhammad Ghori

Shihabuddin Muhammad Ghori was appointed as ruler of Ghazni by his brother Ghiyas-
ud-din in AD 1173. Between AD 1175 and 1205, Muhammad Ghori carried out a number of
invasions to deal with the enemies of the Ghor kingdom viz., Ghaznavids of Lahore and the
rulers of Khwarizam. The political condition of India was as unstable at that time as it had been
at the time of the last invasion by Mahmud Ghazni in AD 1027 (about 148 years before). The
dominance of Gurjar Pratiharas had come to an end and there was no defector or demure
monarch in India. The whole country was divided into many small kingdoms which were
engaged in mutual jealousy and conflict. For the sake of convenience of study, we can divide the
states of the time into three parts viz. (a) Muslim kingdoms (b) Rajput kingdoms and other states
(c) States of southern India

(a) Muslim states of the north

(i) Gaznavid kingdom of Ghazni: In the north the Gaznavids were ruling over the Punjab
and their capital was at Lahore. Their hold extended from Peshawar in the northwest to Jammu
in the northeast. The Southern boundary of the kingdom was unstable. They had snatched the
regions of Hansi and Bhatinda from the Chauhans of Delhi. At the time of Ghori’s invasion the
rein of this kingdom was in the hands of an incapable and luxury loving ruler Khusru Malik. (ii)
Multan: The chief city of the southern part of the Indus Valley was Multan ruled at that time by
Ismailia Shias. At the time of the invasion of Ghori, Carmethian dynasty ruled over his part. (iii)
Sind: The kingdom of Sind was under a local dynasty, the Sumras. They were also Shia
Muslims. Any Muslim invader was not likely to experience much trouble in invading and
conquering the above mentioned kingdoms because not only were their resources limited but
also they lacked popular cooperation. The rulers of these kingdoms were all incapable and luxury
loving and for the other people of these areas the success of any Muslim conqueror merely meant
the replacement of one Muslim state by the other.

Rajput and the other kingdoms of the north

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 Apart from the three Muslim kingdoms, there were many small Rajput kingdoms in the
east and north of India. The following four were more prosperous of the states of North India and
there were some others as well.

(i) Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer: At the time of Muhammad Ghori’s Indian
invasions, Delhi and Ajmer were being ruled by the Chauhan ruler Prithviraj
III. He was also famous as Rai Pithora. The account of Prithviraj’s conquest
available in Chand Bardai’s Prithviraj Raso is not to be wholly believed; still it
appears that he had impressed upon his neighbouring kingdoms his bravery
and courage. He defeated and humiliated the Chalukya kings of southern India,
seized Mahoba from its Chandel ruler Paramdev. The frontier forts of this
kingdom were Hansi, Pakpottan and Bhatinda. Prithviraj III had forcibly
carried away from the swayamvar, Sanyogita, the daughter of his neighbour
king, Jaichand of Kanauj and so Jaichand harboured intense hostility towards
him.
(ii) Chalukyas of Gujarat and Kathiawad: The most important kingdom was those
of the Chalukyas in western India. Anhilwara (Paatan) was their capital. The
most famous king of this dynasty was Jai Singh Siddharaj (AD 1102–1143).
He defeated the Paramaras of Malwa and Guhilots of Chittor. After that, the
kingdom disintegrated and only Gujarat and Kathiawad were left to it. At the
time of Muhammad Ghori’s Indian invasions, the ruler was Kanauj II.
(iii) Gahadwalas or Rathors of Kanauj: The kingdom of Kanauj comprised Kashi,
Benaras, Allahabad, Kanauj, Oudh etc. Jaichand was its ruler when
Muhammad Ghori invaded India. He had intense enmity with the ruler of
Delhi and Ajmer, Prithviraj Chauhan. Chandelas of Bundelkhand: In the
Chandela kingdom were included Mahoba, Kalinjar, Khajuraho, Jhansi,
Ajaygarh, etc. In the last quarter of the 12th century, its ruler was Parmardidev.
Prithviraj Chauhan of Ajmer Turkish army this time was much more
organized. Muhammad Ghori divided his army into 5 parts, four flanks to
attack the Rajputs and one kept in reserve. Minhajus-Siraj wrote, ‘Sultan
stationed his army according to a well laid out plan. This strategy led to the
defeat of the Kafirs. Allah made us victorious and enemy forces ran away.’

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 Many Indian soldiers were killed in this battle. The Turkish army occupied the
forts of Hansi, Sursuti and Samana and also conquered Ajmer. Prithviraj
Chauhan was captured near Sursuti or Sirsa and was murdered either
immediately or sometime after.

Unsuccessful attempt to reduce Gujarat In AD 1178, he invaded India a second time through the
Rajputana desert in Gujarat. But the ruler of Gujarat (Mulraj II or Bhimdeva I) defeated him
badly near mount Abu and he fled for his life. After this, the defeated Ghori came to the
conclusion that it was essential to have Punjab as the base for the conquest of India. Conquest of
Peshawar, Lahore, Deval and Sialkot In AD 1179, Muhammad Ghori began his efforts to end the
dominance of the Gaznavids in Punjab. At that time, the Gaznavid ruler of the Punjab was Malik
Khusru. Muhammad defeated the luxury loving and incapable ruler very easily and in AD 1179–
1180 established his control over Peshawar. Now, his target was Lahore. After a number of
military campaigns, he finally occupied Lahore and Sialkot as well. By AD 1190, the whole of
Punjab had been made a part of the Ghor Empire and Ghori began to make preparations for
attacking Delhi and the Doab.

First battle of Tarain (AD 1191)

After his conquest of Punjab the frontiers of Ghori’s empire had reached up to Delhi and
Ajmer ruled by Prithviraj Chauhan or Prithviraj III. Like Muhammad Ghori, Prithviraj was also
an expansionist. He had brought under his control not only the smaller states of the Rajputana,
but also the Chandela king of Mahoba. The first battles between the two adversaries was fought
for the ownership of Tabarhind or Bhatinda. Prithviraj was supported by many Rajputs, but
Jaichand kept aloof. Muhammad Ghori’s army suffered a defeat in the battle of Tarain near
Thaneswar. Muhammad Ghori’s life was saved by a Khilji horseman. Prithviraj next advanced
towards Bhatinda and after a siege of about 13 months brought it under his control. Prithviraj
became rather contented with this conquest and did not make any further efforts to drive out the
Gaznavids from the Punjab completely. Shahabuddin ascribes this defeat of his to the
carelessness of his Afghan, Khilji and Khurasani leaders. He humiliated many of them and
imprisoned them. It is said that for one whole year Muhammad Ghori made preparations to wipe
out the blot caused by his defeat in the first battle of Tarain.

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Second battle of Tarain

Muhammad Ghori launched another attack on Prithviraj Chauhan in AD 1192 to avenge

his defeat in the first battle of Tarain. This time he is said to have with him about 120,000
soldiers most of were armed cavalrymen and 10,000 were horsemen carrying bows and arrows
with them. Prithviraj Chauhan sent an appeal for help to all Rajput kings. This time all the other
Rajput kings also joined Prithviraj with the exception of Jaichand. Prithviraj’s army is said to
have comprised about 30,000 soldiers and 300 elephants, soldiers comprising horse-men as well.
TheTurkish army this time was much more organized. Muhammad Ghori divided his army into 5
parts, four flanks to attack the Rajputs and one kept in reserve. Minhajus-Siraj wrote, ‘Sultan
stationed his army according to a well laid out plan. This strategy led to the defeat of the Kafirs.
Allah made us victorious and enemy forces ran away.’ Many Indian soldiers were killed in this
battle. The Turkish army occupied the forts of Hansi, Sursuti and Samana and also conquered
Ajmer. Prithviraj Chauhan was captured near Sursuti or Sirsa and was murdered either
immediately or sometime after

Effects or consequences of the wars

The Second Battle of Tarain is very significant historically because it gave a new turn to
Indian history. Delhi and Rajasthan came under the occupation of the Turks after this battle. This
conquest made the determination of Ghori to establish his empire in India almost definite. The
power of the Chauhans having been broken, the predominance of the Turks increased rapidly.
Because of this victory, the military phase of the Turkish conquest ended and the way was now
opened for the administrative organization of the Delhi Sultanate. Muhammad Ghori went back
after this victory leaving the Indian possession in charge of his faithful slave Qutubuddin Aibak.
Subsequently, a central organization was established which went on till a long time. Between AD
1192 to 1206, the Gangetic – Jumna Doab was occupied by the Turks and, soon after, they
conquered Bengal and Bihar as well. After establishing their hold in the Doab, the Turks had first
to deal with the king of Kannuaj, Jaichand. Within the next two years Qutubuddin Aibak
conquered Meerut, Baran and Koil (Aligarh) as well. Subsequently, the Turks consolidated their
southern frontiers by conquering Bayana and Gwalior. Then Aibak took away from the
Chandelas their territories of Kalinjar, Mahoba and Khajuraho. He also defeated Bhim-II-the
ruler of Gujarat and Anhilwara and plundered many cities. At the time when Aibak was busy

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effecting the conquest of Central India, another general of Ghori Khliyasruddin Bakhtiyar Khilji
(AD 1197) conquered Chunar and attacked Uddandpur, the Capital of Bihar. The ruler
Indravarman surrendered and accepted his sovereignty without giving any fight. Aibak ordered
Khilji to carry on the administration of the area. Then Khilji conquered Bengal from Lakshman
Sen. Muhammad Ghori inherited the empire. Ghori, after the death of his brother (AD 1202),
attacked the Shah of Khwarizam, but he had to face defeat (AD 1203). Hearing the news of
Ghori’s defeat, the Khokhars of Punjab revolted against him but the rebellion was suppressed by
him with the help of Qutubuddin Aibak. From here, Ghori proceeded to Lahore and after
establishing the administrative arrangement in Punjab sent Aibak for Delhi region and himself
proceeded towards Ghazni. On his way to Ghazni, when he was offering his evening prayer on
the bank of Indus at a place called Damyak, Ghori was suddenly attacked by a few persons and
killed. These people included the Khokhars and the Shias among them. Thus, on 10 March 1206,
Muhammad Ghori’s life ended. After his death, his Central Asian Empire was usurped by the
Shah of Khwarizam. His military chiefs established the Muslim empire in India. After him, for
about 50 years the Mamluk Sultans.

Self Assessment Questions

1. Discuss the cultural exchanges between the invading forces and local Indian
cultures.
………………………………………………………….
2. How did these exchanges shape India's cultural mosaic?
…………………………………………………………..

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Recommended Books
G. Venkatesan, Cultural History of India, VarthamananPathipagam, 2018 (inTamil)
K.L. Khurana, History of India: Earliest times to 1526 A.D., Lakshmi NarainAgarwal, Agra,
L.P. Sharma, History of Ancient India, Konark Pub. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2008
R.C. Majumdar, et. al., An Advanced History of India, MacMillan, Delhi, 1974
R.S. Sharma, India’s Ancient Past, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2017
RanabirChakravarti, Exploring Early India up to c. AD 1300, Primus Books, New Delhi, 2016
RomilaThapar, The Penguin History of Early India: From the origin to A.D. 1300, Penguin
Books, New Delhi, 2002
Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and early Medieval India, Pearson and Longman, Delhi,
2008
References
A.L. Basham, The Wonder that was India, London, Macmillan, 2004
B.N. Luniya, Evolution of Indian Culture, Agra, Lakshmi Narain Publication, 2005
K.K. Pillay, A Social History of the Tamils, University of Madras, Madras, 1967
K.K. Pillay, Historical Heritage of Tamils, MJP Publishers, Chennai, 2021
K.K. Pillay, Studies in Indian History: With Special Reference to Tamil Nadu, K.K. Pillay,
Madras, 1979
R. Sathianathaier, Political and Cultural History of India, Vol. I, Viswanathan& Co., Chennai, 1980.

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