Descriptive Statistics (S1013)

University of Khartoum

Faculty of Mathematical Sciences and Informatics

Azza Osman Mohamed, Ph.D

June 21, 2022

1 / 28
Descriptive Statistics

Basic Statistical Concepts

Lecture 2

2 / 28
Lecture Objectives

Identify methods of data collections.

Identify the four basic sampling techniques.
Identify types of data.
Distinguish between nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio levels of
measurement.

3 / 28
Descriptive Statistics
1 Basic Concepts
Descriptive statistic
Inferential Statistics
Population and Sample
2 Data and Variable
3 Variable Types
Qualitative and Quantitative
Measurement Scales
4 Data collections
5 Types of Sampling
Simple Random Samples
Systematic Samples
Stratified Samples
Cluster Samples

4 / 28
Definitions

Statistics
statistics is the science of collecting, organizing, presenting,
analyzing, and interpreting data to assist in making more effective
decisions.
Methodological steps for statistical analysis in scientific research

DataCollection → DataDescription → DataAnalysis →

DrawConclusion

5 / 28
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

Statistics is divided into two main branches:

Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistic is the methods of organizing, summarizing, and
presenting data in an informative way.

6 / 28
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistic is consist of generalizing from samples to
populations, performing estimations and hypothesis tests, determining
relationships among variables, and making predictions.

7 / 28
Population and Sample

Population
Consists of all subjects (human or otherwise) that being studied.

Sample
Sample is a group of subjects selected from a population.

Population

Sample

8 / 28
Statistic and Parameter

Statistic
A statistic is a characteristic or measure obtained by using the data
values from a sample. (not to be confused with Statistics)

Parameter
A parameter is a characteristic or measure obtained by using all the
data values from a specific population.

9 / 28
Population vs Sample

The population includes all objects of interest where the sample is

only a portion of the population.
Parameters are associated with populations and statistics with
samples.
Parameters are usually denoted using Greek letters (µ, σ) while
statistics are usually denoted using Roman letters (x̄, s).

10 / 28
Data and Variable

Data
The values (measurements or observations) that the variable can
assume.
A collection of data values forms a data set.

Variable
Is a characteristic or attribute that can assume different values.
If the values are determined by chance it called random variable.

Elements
An individual or something gathering information around it.

11 / 28
Qualitative and Quantitative

Variables can be classified as:

Qualitative
Variables which assume non-numerical values.
gender, type of automobile owned, job title, and eye color.

Quantitative
Variables which assume numerical values.
Age, weight, Balance in your checking account, temperature, and
the life of an automobile battery (such as 42 months).

12 / 28
Qualitative and Quantitative

Quantitative variables can be classified into two groups:

Discrete variables
Variables which assume a finite or countable number of possible
values.
Usually obtained by counting,
For example number of children in a family, the number of
bedrooms in a house (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) and the grade of student.

Continuous variables
Variables which assume an infinite number of possible values.
Usually obtained by measurement.
They often include fractions and decimals,
For example temperature, Grade Point Average (GPA) and weight.

13 / 28
Qualitative and Quantitative

14 / 28
Measurement Scales

In addition to being classified as qualitative or quantitative, variables

can be classified by how they measured. There are four levels of
measurement: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio.

15 / 28
Measurement Scales

The nominal level of measurement

Classifies data into mutually exclusive (non overlapping) categories in
which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data, for example
gender.

The ordinal level of measurement

Classifies data into categories that can be ranked.
however, precise differences between the ranks do not exist, for
example student grade (A, B, C,D and F) and any variable with labels
(high, medium, low).

16 / 28
Measurement Scales

The interval level of measurement

Ranks data, and precise differences between units of measure do
exist; however, there is no meaningful zero, for example temperature
and scale IQ.

The ratio level of measurement

Possesses all the characteristics of interval measurement, and there
exists a true zero. In addition, true ratios exist when the same variable
is measured on two different members of the population, for example
height, weight.

17 / 28
18 / 28
Data collections

Data collection is a methodical process of gathering and analyzing

specific information to proffer solution relevant questions and
evaluate the results.
Data collection categorize into Primary Methods and Secondary
Methods
Data can be collected in a variety of ways with some
considerations:
Think critically about what data you need to collect.
Budget.
Time.

19 / 28
Data collections

20 / 28
Telephone Survey

One of the most common methods is through the use of surveys.

Three of the most common methods:
The Telephone Survey has an advantage over personal interview
surveys in that they are less costly. Also, people may be more
candid in their opinions since there is no face to-face contact.
A major drawback to the telephone survey is that some people in
the population will not have phones.

21 / 28
Mailed Questionnaire

The Mailed Questionnaire is less expensive to conduct. Also,

respondents can remain unknown if they desire.
The disadvantages of mailed questionnaire surveys include
A low number of responses.
Inappropriate answers to questions.
Some people may have difficulty reading or understanding the
questions.

22 / 28
Personal Interview

The advantage of Personal Interview is obtaining in-depth

responses to questions from the person being interviewed.
Disadvantage is that interviewers must be trained in asking
questions, which makes it more costly than the other two survey
methods and the interviewer may be biased in his or her selection
of respondents.
Other ways, such as surveying records or direct observation of
situations.

23 / 28
Types of Sampling

Statisticians use four basic methods of random sampling to obtain

samples that are unbiased:
Simple Random Sample.
Systematic Sample.
Stratified Sample.
Cluster Sample.

24 / 28
Simple Random Sample
Every individual or item from the target frame (list of population)
has an equal chance of being selected.
Random samples are selected by using chance methods or
random numbers.
One such method if population has small number of unit is to
number each subject in the population. Then place numbered
cards in a bowl, mix them thoroughly, and select as many cards as
needed (the number of sample).
Or generate random numbers with a computer or calculator to
specify which member be select.

25 / 28
Systematic Sample
Researchers obtain systematic samples by numbering each
subject of the population and then selecting every k th subject.
For example, suppose there were 2000 subjects in the population
and a sample of 50 subjects were needed.
Since 2000/50 = 40, then k = 40, and every 40th subject would be
selected.
The first subject (numbered between 1 and 40) would be selected
at random.
Suppose subject 12 were the first subject selected; then the sample
would consist of the subjects whose numbers were 12, 52, 92, etc.,
until 50 subjects were obtained.

26 / 28
Stratified Sample
Are obtained by dividing the population into groups strata
according to some characteristic that important to the study, then
sampling from each group.
Samples within the strata should be randomly selected.
For example, suppose the president of a two-year college wants to
learn how students feel about a certain issue.
The president wishes to see if the opinions of the first-year students
differ from those of the second-year students. The president will
randomly select students from each group to use in the sample.

27 / 28
Cluster Sample

Here the population is divided into groups called clusters by some

means such as geographic area or schools in a large school
district, etc.
Then the researcher randomly selects some of these clusters and
uses all members of the selected clusters as the subjects of the
samples.

28 / 28