1015211

research-article2021
SPHXXX10.1177/19417381211015211Vieira et alSPORTS HEALTH

vol. 14 • no. 2 SPORTS HEALTH

Effects of High-Speed Versus Traditional

Resistance Training in Older Adults
Itamar P. Vieira, MSc,*† Patrícia C. B. Lobo, MSc,† James Fisher, PhD,‡
Rodrigo Ramirez-Campilo, PhD,§ Gustavo D. Pimentel, PhD,† and Paulo Gentil, PhD||

Background: The losses of strength, agility, balance, and functionality caused by aging are harmful to the elderly
population. Resistance training (RT) may be an efficient tool to mitigate such neuromuscular decline and different RT
methods can be used. Therefore, it is important to investigate the different responses to different training methods.
Hypothesis: Eight weeks of traditional resistance training (TRT) are expected to promote similar results to high-speed
training (HST) in physical functional performance (PFP) and quality of life in the elderly.
Study Design: A clinical trial.
Level of Evidence: Level 3.
Methods: Participants (n = 24) with a mean age of 67.8 ± 6.3 years completed 8 weeks of RT. They were allocated into
HST (n = 12) and TRT (n = 12). TRT involved training with 10 to 12 repetitions at controlled velocity until momentary
muscle failure, while HST involved performing 6 to 8 repetitions at 40% to 60% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM) at maximum
velocity. Pre- and posttraining, the participants were tested for (1) maximum strength in the 45° leg press and chest press;
(2) PFP in the 30-second chair stand, timed-up-and-go (TUG), and medicine ball throw test; and (3) quality of life.
Results: Both groups improved muscle strength in the 45° leg press, with greater increases for TRT (HST: +21% vs TRT:
+49%, P = 0.019). There was no change in chest press strength for HST (−0.6%) (P = 0.61), but there was a significant
increase for the TRT group (+21%, P = 0.001). There was a similar improvement (P < 0.05) for both groups in TUG (HST:
7%; TRT: 10%), chair stand (HST: 18%; TRT: 21%), and medicine ball throwing performance (HST: 9%; TRT: 9%), with no
difference between groups (P = 0.08-0.94). Emotional aspect significantly increased by 20% (P = 0.04) in HST and 50%
(P = 0.04) in TRT.
Conclusion: Both TRT and HST are able to promote improvements in functional performance in the elderly with greater in
strength gains for TRT. Therefore, exercise professionals could choose based on individual characteristics and preferences.
Clinical Relevance: The findings provide important insights into how health care professionals can prescribe HST and
TRT, considering efficiency, safety, and individual aspects.
Keywords: muscle strength; plyometric exercise; muscle fatigue; activities of daily living; physical conditioning

F
rom 30 to 50 years of life, adults lose 5% to 10% of capacity occur with advancing age, high-intensity (high relative
skeletal muscle mass, and the losses rise to 40% more at loads, low volume, momentary muscle failure, and speed-
80 years.20 Functional measures such as strength, controlled repetitions) resistance training (RT) may slow or
endurance, and walking ability appear to follow a similar loss as reverse these adverse effects.21 Therefore, the decreases in
muscle mass.7 In addition, as fast-twitch muscle fibers decrease functional performance, muscle strength, and mass may be
with age, the ability to perform tasks that require speed and related to disuse and not an inevitable effect of aging.19
power may become challenging for the elderly.2 Exercise may be an important strategy to prevent or reverse
Although reduction in strength-producing capacity, protein the functional declines that accompany aging.19 Regarding
synthesis (especially in type 2 fibers), functionality and aerobic training models, important benefits may be obtained through
From †Faculdade de Nutrição, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, GO, Brazil, ‡School for Sport, Health and Social Sciences, Southampton Solent University, Southampton,
UK, §Department of Physical and Sports Sciences, Universidad de Los Lagos, Osorno, Chile, and ||Faculdade de Educação Física e Dança, Universidade Federal de Goiás,
Goiânia, GO, Brazil
*Address correspondence to Itamar P. Vieira, MSc, FEFD, Faculdade de Educação Física e Dança, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Avenida Esperança s/n, Campus,
Samambaia, CEP: 74.690-900, Goiânia, GO, Brazil (email: [email protected]).
The following author declared potential conflicts of interest: P.G. received a research grant from CNPq (304435/2018-0).
DOI: 10.1177/19417381211015211
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low-volume, high relative loads, and speed-controlled myocardial infarction, or any other medical contraindication for
repetitions, total training times of less than 60 minutes per RT.
week.16,19 After recruitment, 62 individuals were selected according to
However, the use of maximal intensity training (until near the the inclusion criteria, of which 17 did not attend the initial
momentary muscle failure) for the elderly population has been meeting. The remaining 45 were assigned to the 2 training
questioned,8,9,14,41 as it may not promote additional groups, 23 to the HST group and 22 to the TRT group. After loss
neuromuscular gains and expose the elderly to unnecessary of follow-up, 12 volunteers from the HST group and 12 from
risks and discomfort. the TRT group were reevaluated. The characteristics of the
An alternative strategy may be the use of high-speed training participants are shown in Table 1.
(HST), which has been widely used and recommended for
providing various benefits to the elderly population.10,17,24 HST Experimental Procedures
has been advocated as an important strategy for this The first 2 weeks of the study consisted of questionnaires, tests
population,9 because of its safety, possibility of improving and retests, and familiarization with the RT exercises.1,22 All tests
functional capacities, reducing the incidence of falls, and were performed between 14:00 and 16:00 hours. At the initial
increasing the independence of this age-group.8,9,14 meeting, the researchers explained the research details and, if
Considering the benefits of physical exercise for older people, the participant agreed to participate, they signed the free and
RT, whether traditional or high-speed, may be an important tool informed consent form and the International Physical Activity
to enhance independent and quality living conditions for this questionnaire (www.ipaq.ki.se) was applied.13
population. However, few previous studies have actually The participants then initiated 2 weeks of RT familiarization.
compared the results between traditional resistance training During the familiarization, 2 submaximal sets of 10 to 12
(TRT) and HST in the promotion of physical functional repetitions were performed for each exercise (leg press 45°,
performance (PFP), making it difficult to decide which RT deadlift, chest press, and pulldown) at a self-selected load.
strategy to choose. Moreover, the previous literature that Strength assessments, PFP tests, and quality of life
compared TRT and HST did not control for training effort (ie, questionnaires were applied after the familiarization period and
volitional failure) during TRT,4,27 which seems to be a key factor after the training period.
for these groups.19 The tests involved (1) 10 repetitions maximum (10RM) in the
Thus, research is needed to examine the 2 training models leg press 45° and chest press; (2) PFP assessment through the
and provide information about their outcomes and benefits in 30-second chair stand test, timed-up-and-go (TUG) test,34 and
gains in muscle strength and functional capacity. Therefore, the medicine ball throwing25; and (3) quality of life assessment
aim of this study was to investigate the effects of TRT and HST using the Short Form–36 (SF-36) health questionnaire.11
on PFP, muscle strength, and quality of life in the elderly. Additionally, 24-hour dietary recalls (2 weekdays and 1
weekend) were applied. After initial testing, the participants
performed 8 weeks of either TRT or HST and were retested 5 to
Methods
7 days after the last training session.
Participants
Twenty-four volunteers of both genders (17 women and 7 men) Strength Tests
with no prior RT experience (≥60 years old) participated in the At the beginning of the intervention, the 10RM tests were
study. The participants were invited through social media, direct performed on the leg press 45°, deadlift, chest press, and
invitation, and by referrals from third parties. All volunteers pulldown (Technogym, Biomedical Line) for subsequent load
were informed about the objectives, procedures, and potential determination. Participants were instructed in the correct
risks of the study. The project was approved by the research techniques for all exercises. The procedures were based on the
ethics committee of the Federal University of Goiás (CAAE: recommendations described by Kraemer and Fry.23 Participants
56907716.5.0000.5083) and also registered in the Brazilian warmed up with 2 sets of 10 repetitions with a self-selected
Registry of Clinical Trials (RBR-44g6qp). comfortable load. After 3 minutes of rest, the estimated 10RM load
A priori sample size calculation was obtained by the G*Power was adjusted. If the volunteer could not perform 10 repetitions or
3.1.9.2 software with the analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) test perform more than 10 repetitions, the load was adjusted for the
for fixed effects, main effects, and interactions, using 2 groups, next attempt. Up to 4 attempts were allowed, with a 4-minute
with effect size 0.6, 5% alpha error and test power 1 − β to 80, break between each attempt. The tests were ceased when
which resulted in a total sample of 24 volunteers. The study participants could not perform the movement properly (ie, full
included participants who had no history of RT in the past 6 range of motion without relevant changes in technique).
months. The participants had no health problems and received
clearance to participate from a physician. Exclusion criteria Physical Functional Capacity Tests
included acute or terminal musculoskeletal disease, skeletal The 30-second chair stand involves the ability to sit and lift from
muscle limitation that prevented the execution of the training a chair as many times as possible in 30 seconds without using
protocol, severe cardiovascular disease, recent history of acute the arms in a single attempt.34 The TUG test consisted of

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Table 1. Training protocol

HST TRT
Training period 8k 8 wk
Frequency 2× 2×
Session duration ≅20 min ≅20 min
Training load 40% to 60% 1RM 10-12RM
Execution speed Concentric: As fast as possible Concentric:2 s
Eccentric: 2 s Eccentric: 2 s
Recovery interval 90 s 90 s
Exercises Leg press 45°, deadlift, chest press, and latissimus pulldown
Supervision 1:1

HST, high-speed training; RM, repetition maximum; TRT, traditional resistance training.

moving from a seated position to a distance of 2.44 m and defined by Steele et al,37 taking 2 seconds for the concentric and
returning as quickly and comfortable as possible. Each 2 seconds for the eccentric phase. During TRT, the load was
participant had 2 attempts.34 The medicine ball throw (chest adjusted whenever necessary to maintain the repetitions inside
pass) test consisted of 3 attempts of throwing a 1.5-kg medicine the proposed range (total repetitions per exercise: ≅24; total
ball as far as possible while sitting in a chair with the trunk seconds under tension per exercise: ≅48 seconds). The
supported.25 For TUG and medicine ball throw, the best score supervision ratio was 1:1 for both groups (Table 1).
was used in the analysis.
Food Intake Assessment
Quality of Life Questionnaire The participants were advised to maintain their normal eating
Quality of life was assessed using the SF-36 questionnaire.11 The habits and food intake over the period of the study. Dietary
domains evaluated were the following: functional capacity, assessment was performed using six 24-hour food recalls, 3 in
physical aspects, vitality, emotional aspects, social aspects, pain, the first week and 3 in the last week of the study, composed of
general health status, and health perception. The questionnaire a weekend and 2 weekdays. The data collection method was
was applied by the same evaluator pre- and postintervention. standardized, as well as the conversion into home
measurements and insertion in the food intake assessment
Training Protocol software.
Exercise protocols were designed according to the minimum Dietary data obtained from home measurements were
dose approach using multiarticular exercises16,19 as described converted to grams and milliliters using a home measurement
below. The 8 weeks of training included a total of 16 training table28 for further analysis of dietary intake in the Diet Pro
sessions divided into 2 training days per week. Each session Clinical software, version 6.0, which results in total energy
lasted approximately 20 minutes. The program incorporated the (kcal), macro and micronutrients (in grams). The National
following exercises: leg press 45°, deadlift, chest press, and Nutrient Database of the United States Department of
latissimus pulldown (Technogym, Biomedical Line), with Agriculture42 and nonprotein regional foods from the Brazilian
90-second recovery intervals between sets and exercises. Food Composition Table40 and of the Nutritional Composition
The HST group performed 2 sets of 6 to 8 repetitions at 40% to Tables of the Foods Consumed in Brazil3 were used to estimate
60% of 1RM (estimated by the Brzycki’s equation5) during the protein consumption in grams.
8-week intervention. The concentric phase was performed as fast
as possible, and the eccentric phase was performed in 2 seconds Statistical Analysis
(total repetitions per exercise: ≅16; total seconds under tension Data normality was confirmed by the Shapiro-Wilk test. Data are
per exercise: ≅24 seconds). At all times, the participants were presented as mean ± standard deviation. An independent t test
monitored by a trainer and strong encouragement was provided was performed to compare preintervention data between
to ensure maximal concentric velocity. The TRT group performed groups. A paired t test was performed to compare the pre- and
2 sets of 10 to 12 repetitions to momentary muscle failure, as postintragroup differences. An ANCOVA compared the

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Table 2. Initial characteristics of volunteers (n = 24)

HST (n = 12), Mean ± SD TRT (n = 12), Mean ± SD Pa

Age, y 69.4 ± 6.0 63.3 ± 7.1 0.27
MET/min/wk 894.8 ± 995.7 861.6 ± 759.6 0.93
Body mass, kg 70.5 ± 10.7 68.8 ± 7.5 0.28

HST, high-speed training; MET, metabolic equivalent; TRT, traditional resistance training.
a
Obtained by t test.

postintervention values of both groups using the initial values the emotional aspect domain of 20% (P = 0.04) in the HST and
as covariates. An alpha level of P < 0.05 was accepted as of 50% (P = 0.04) in the TRT group after the intervention. The only
significance. Statistical analyzes were performed using Statistical significant difference between the groups after the intervention
Package for Social Sciences 17.0 software (SPSS). Interpretation was on pain, with a greater improvement in the HST group
of effect size between groups took place according to Cohen12 compared with the TRT group (P = 0.006).
(confidence interval: 95%) and were classified as: d < 0.2 as
trivial; d > 0.2 to <0.5 as small; d > 0.5 to <0.8 as medium Discussion
and d > 0.8 as large.
The present study aimed to compare and contrast the effects of
TRT and HST programs on PFP, muscle strength and quality of
Results
life in older adults. The main findings of the study suggest that,
All 24 elderly participants completed all assessments and were apart from greater maximal strength increases after TRT
included in the final analysis (HST: n = 12; TRT: n = 12) (Table compared with HST, both groups achieved similar improvement
2). No difference in food intake was observed during the study, in physical functional capacity and quality of life.
except for protein intake that increased in the TRT group The benefits of RT for the elderly and its importance for
(P = 0.05) (Table 3). maintaining their independence in daily life activities are
Performance of the maximal and functional muscle strength already well established.36 The present results reaffirm the
tests are presented in Figures 1 to 3. Both groups showed benefits of RT for this population. Both groups significantly
significant improvements in the 10RM test in the leg press (HST improved in all functionality tests performed, which is in
21% and TRT 49%) and effect size 0.74 (Figure 1a), with a agreement with previous findings.8,14,32,33 Current data showed
significant difference between groups (P = 0.019) in favor of the that 8 weeks of RT, regardless of the HST or TRT methodology,
TRT group. The HST group did not significantly improve in the was effective in improving most strength and functionality tests
chest press 10RM test (−0.6%, P = 0.913), while the TRT group in older men and women.36 The effects sizes obtained in the
significantly increased the performance by 21% and effect size current study were generally moderate to high, which could be
0.85, with a significant difference between groups (P = 0.001) explained by the low initial values of the participants.
(Figure 1b), in favor of the TRT group. Before the study, participants exhibited functional values
There was a significant increase in TUG performance over lower than fitness reference values.34 However, after the
time for both HST and TRT groups (Figure 2a). The HST group period of RT, there were significant improvements in TUG of
decreased the time by 7%, and the TRT decreased the time by 7.2% for HST and 10.1% in TRT, and chair stand of 18.1% for
10% and effect size 1.29, with no significant difference HST and 20.8% in TRT, placing them on average reference
(P = 0.300) between groups. Both groups exhibited significant values for tests. By the end of the study, the mean for TUG
improvements in the chair stand performance test (Figure 2b). and chair stand were above the reference values both for TRT
The HST group increased the number of repetitions performed and HST.
by 18% and the TRT by 21% and effect size 6.85, with no Previous studies have shown a superiority of HST over TRT in
significant difference (P = 0.08) between groups. Significant improving muscle function and power.4,38 Different outcomes
improvements were also observed in both groups for medicine may be explained by the different method of determining and
ball throwing performances (Figure 3). The HST group controlling loads and/or RT intensity. The high-intensity RT
increased the throwing capacity by 9% and the TRT by 9% and efforts may be necessary to activate fast-twitch fibers, which are
effect size 0.35, with no difference between the groups the most affected with advancing age.18,26 Thus, the fact that RT
(P = 0.52). is performed to failure may explain similar results between HST
Table 4 presents the values of the 9 domains of the SF-36 and TRT and also why the present results were different from
quality of life questionnaire. There was a significant change in those obtained in previous studies.4,27 The superior strength

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Table 3. Pre and post food intake values of both groups

HST TRT
Effect Effect Effect
Pre Post Pa Size Pre Post Pa Size ΔP Sizeb ANCOVA
Total calories, kcal 1274.3 ± 364.9 1332.6 ± 521.5 0.53 0.1 1444.7±536.5 1476.7 ± 411.6 0.84 0.0 0.8 0.3 0.781
Carbohydrates, g 164.3 ± 69.9 205.4 ± 103.5 0.16 0.5 432.1±885.3 197.3 ± 113.6 0.53 –0.2 0.2 0.0 0.717
Protein, g 53.9 ± 19.3 49.9 ± 12.7 0.44 –0.2 58.7 ± 17.6 68.2 ± 196.5 0.43 3.3 0.2 0.4 0.072
Protein, g/kg 0.7 ± 0.3 0.7 ± 0.1c 0.33 –0.2 0.8 ± 0.2 0.9 ± 0.3c 0.40 0.4 0.2 0.9 0.046*
BCAA, g 3.3 ± 1.6 2.5 ± 1.4 0.22 –0.4 2.8 ± 1.2 3.7 ± 2.2 0.14 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.082
Lipids, g 44.9 ± 14.5 52.1 ± 23.0 0.24 0.4 49.0 ± 16.0 55.0 ± 13.7 0.24 0.3 0.8 0.1 0.926
Calcium, mg 415.0 ± 159.2 383.2 ± 166.6 0.21 –0.2 519.0 ± 190.0 509.9 ± 219.2 0.75 –0.0 0.7 0.6 0.409
Dietary fiber, g 9.8 ± 3.6 11.9 ± 4.3 0.05 0.5 10.1 ± 3.4 10.1 ± 5.3 0.99 0.0 0.1 0.3 0.218

ANCOVA, analysis of covariance; BCAA, branched-chain amino acids; HST, high-speed training; TRT, traditional resistance training.
a
Paired Student t test.
b
Effect size according to Cohen12 were classified as follows: d < 0.2 as trivial; d > 0.2 to <0.5 as small; d > 0.5 to <0.8 as medium; and d > 0.8 as large.
c
Difference between postmoment groups.
*P < 0.05.
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Figure 1. (a) Difference in kilograms (kg) in leg press. (b) Difference in kilograms (kg) in chest press. EF, effect size; RM, repetition
maximum.

Figure 2. (a) Difference in seconds (s) in timed-up-and-go (TUG). (b) Difference in repetitions (rep) in chair stand. EF, effect size.

gains observed in the TRT in all exercises compared with the

HST may be due to specificity, as the training performed by the
TRT was closer to the test protocol6.
Prior research29-31 has shown a relationship between improved
neuromuscular performance and quality of life. Nevertheless,
the present data did not show a relationship between improved
muscle performance and improved quality of life.
However, there was improvement in both groups in the
emotional aspect. When performed at low intensity and high
execution speed, RT has been shown to result in reduced pain
perceptions, which might explain the more favorable result in
this domain in the HST group.29 The TRT group presented an
increase in the pain domain in the SF-36 questionnaire, which
might be due to the high intensity of effort associated with TRT.
Figure 3. Difference in centimeters (cm) in medicine ball The greater effort may have promoted greater inflammation and
throw. P using covariance analysis. EF, effect size; HST, consequently increased pain, as commonly reported with
high-speed training; TRT, traditional resistance training. TRT.15,35,39 It was not possible to measure the extent to which
pain interfered with the daily activities of participants, as the

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Table 4. Quality of life measured through the Medical Outcomes Study 36-item Short Form health survey (SF-36)

HST TRT
Effect Effect Effect
Domains Pre Post Pa Size Pre Post Pa Size ΔP Sizeb ANCOVA
Functional capacity 75.4 ± 20.7 78.3 ± 19.9 0.35 0.1 82.0 ± 13.5 89.5 ± 10.3 0.11 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.162
Physical aspects 68.7 ± 41.4 83.3 ± 30.7 0.17 0.3 75.0 ± 36.9 77.0 ± 39.1 0.87 0.0 0.5 0.1 0.606
Emotional aspect 69.4 ± 36.1 83.3 ± 33.3 0.04* 0.3 61.1 ± 42.2 91.6 ± 28.8 0.04* 0.7 0.9 0.2 0.343
Vitality 64.5 ± 15.2 68.3 ± 12.4 0.32 0.2 66.6 ± 24.2 73.7 ± 14.0 0.40 0.2 0.6 0.6 0.350
Emotional aspects 70.3 ± 12.5 73.0 ± 12.4 0.56 0.2 67.4 ± 21.9 73.3 ± 15.1 0.41 0.2 0.6 0.0 0.807
Social aspects 82.2 ± 18.0 84.3 ± 24.4 0.63 0.1 84.4 ± 14.2 92.7 ± 14.5 0.15 0.5 0.9 0.4 0.352
Pain 76.4 ± 29.8 85.8 ± 21.4 0.34 0.3 72.2 ± 26.7c 59.3 ± 20.6c 0.16 –0.4 0.8 –1.2 0.006*
General health 69.1 ± 19.9 72.5 ± 22.7 0.21 0.0 72.5 ± 18.7 72.1 ± 13.8 0.92 –0.0 0.5 0.0 0.616
Health perceptions 62.5 ± 19.9 70.8 ± 25.7 0.23 0.4 60.4 ± 16.7 62.5 ± 19.9 0.66 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.409

ANCOVA, analysis of covariance; HST, high-speed training; TRT, traditional resistance training.
a
Paired student t test.
b
Effect size according to Cohen12 were classified as follows: d < 0.2 as trivial; d > 0.2 to <0.5 as small; d > 0.5 to <0.8 as medium; and d > 0.8 as large.
ANCOVA: Covariance analysis
c
Difference between postmoment groups
*P < 0.05.
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