MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD All do Some do not/Not all do

GEED 004 Some do None do/All do not

Some do not All do
Course Outline None do Some do
1 Propositions
1.2 Compound Propositions Universal positive Existential negative
2 Arguments Existential positive Universal negative
3 Problem Solving Universal negative Existential positive
Existential negative Universal negative

PROPOSITIONS COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS

Proposition – a declarative sentence that can be Simple Proposition – a proposition with only one subject
objectively identified as either true or false, but not both. If and only one predicate and cannot be deduced to simpler
a proposition is true, the truth value is true, represented as propositions. It conveys a single idea.
T or 1; conversely, if it is not true, the truth value is false, Example: Every cat that barks has PhD.
denoted as F or 0.
Compound proposition – a proposition formed by joining
Truth Table – a diagram in table form that is used to two or more simple propositions with a connective. It
show all the possible truth values of the given proposition. conveys two or more ideas.

p q r s The four basic connectives used in logic are:

1 1 1 1 - and (conjunction)
1 1 1 0 - or (disjunction)
1 1 0 1 - if… then (conditional)
1 1 0 0 - if and only if (biconditional)
1 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 Remark:
1 0 0 1 1. In standard usage, the word “then” is often omitted
1 0 0 0 from a conditional statement.
0 1 1 1
2. Technically we have given the names conjunction,
0 1 1 0
disjunction, conditional, and biconditional to the
0 1 0 1
connectives, but from now on, we’ll refer to the whole
0 1 0 0
proposition using connectives by these names.
0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1 Connective Symbol Name
0 0 0 0 And ˄ Conjunction
Note: In general, a truth table involving n distinct Or ˅ Disjunction
If… then → Conditional
propositions has 2n rows.
If and only if ↔ Biconditional
Quantified Statements – involve terms such as all, each,
every, no, none, some, there exists, and at least one.
Let p and q be propositions.
Universal quantifiers Existential quantifiers
All Some
 The conjunction p˄q is true only when both p and q
Each There exists
are true, and is false otherwise. In other words, if one
Every At least one
of p or q is false, then p˄q is false. The propositions p
No
and q are called conjuncts.
None
p q p˄q
1 1 1
The negation of a proposition p is the proposition which is
1 0 0
false when p is true; and true when p is false. The
0 1 0
negation of p is denoted by ¬p. The truth table for ¬p is
0 0 0
p ¬p
1 0
 The disjunction p˅q is false only when both p and q
0 1
are false, and is true otherwise. In other words, if one
of p or q is true (or both), then p˅q is true. The
Example:
propositions p and q are called disjuncts.
Given the statements
p q p˅q
p: Everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano.
1 1 1
q: Today is Wednesday.
1 0 1
0 1 1
The corresponding negations are
0 0 0
¬p: Not everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano.
¬q: Today is not Wednesday. Example: p˅(q˄(¬r))
p q r ¬r (q˄(¬r p˅(q˄(¬r))
Proposition contains Negation )
 1 1 1 0 0 1 And the contrapositive is
1 1 0 1 1 1 ¬q→¬p: If 3 is not less than 2, then π is not irrational.
1 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1  The biconditional statement p↔q is the proposition
0 1 1 0 0 0 “p if and only if q” (or simple “p iff q”)/\. The
0 1 0 1 1 1 biconditional statement p↔q is true only if p and q
0 0 1 0 0 0 have the same truth values, and is false otherwise.
0 0 0 1 0 0 Biconditional statements are also called bi-
implications.
Let p and q be propositions. p q p↔q

The exclusive or of p and q, denoted by “p⊻q” or

1 1 1

“p⊕q”, is the proposition that is true when exactly

 1 0 0
0 1 0
one of p and q is true, and is false if otherwise. 0 0 1
p q p⊻q
1 1 0 Remark:
1 0 1 1. If a compound statement is written in English sentence
0 1 1 then a comma is used to indicate which simple
0 0 0 statements are grouped together. Statements on the
same side of a comma are grouped together.
Example: 2. If a compound statement is written in symbols and
1. An integer is either odd or even. there are parentheses, we find the truth value of the
2. A positive integer greater than 1 is either prime or statement or statements in the parentheses first.
composite. 3. If a compound statement is written in symbols and
there is no parenthesis, the hierarchy of connectives
 The conditional statement p→q is the proposition “if would be ¬, ˄ or ˅, →, ↔. However, when a
p then q” or “p implies q”. The conditional statement compound statement has both a conjunction and a
p→q is false when p is true and q is false, and true disjunction, we need to use parenthesis in order to
otherwise. In the conditional statement p→q, p is determine which to consider first.
called the hypothesis (or antecedent or premise) and
q is called the conclusion (or consequence). Tautology – a compound proposition that is always true,
p q p→q no matter what the truth values of the propositional
1 1 1 variables that occur in it.
1 0 0
0 1 1 Contradiction – a compound proposition that is always
0 0 1 false.

Example: p ¬p p˅(¬p) p˄(¬p)

“If you don’t wash the dishes, then you don’t get 1 0 1 0
money for a buffet.” 0 1 1 0

Other ways to express the conditional statement p→q Let p and q be propositions (possibly compound). We say
1. p imples q 8. q is a necessary that p logically implies q, expressed as p ⟹ q, if the
2. p only if q condition for p conditional statement p → q is a tautology. If p ⟹ q and
3. p is sufficient for q 9. q if p
4. p is a sufficient 10. q whenever p
q ⟹ p, we say that p and q are logically equivalent and
condition for q 11. q when p we write p ⇔ q.
5. All p are q 12. q follows from p
6. ¬p˅q 13. q unless ¬p Contingency – a compound proposition that is neither a
7. q is necessary for p 14. q provided that p tautology nor a contradiction.

Remark: We say that two (compound) propositions are logically

 The converse of p→q is q→p equivalent if and only if they have the same truth values
 The inverse of p→q is ¬p→¬q for all possible combinations of truth values for the simple
 The contrapositive of p→q is ¬q→¬p propositions that compose them. The symbol ⇔ is often
used interchangeably with ≡.
Example:
p: “ π is irrational.” p q p˅q p˄q p→(p˅q) (p˄q)→p
q: “3 is less than 2.” 1 1 1 1 1 1
then 1 0 1 0 1 1
p→q: If π is irrational, then 3 is less than 2. 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 1 1
The converse of this conditional is In logic, p ⟹( p ˅q) is called as law of addition and the
q→p: If 3 is less than 2, then π is irrational. implication ( p ˄q ) ⟹ p is the law of simplification.
The inverse is
¬p→¬q: If π is not irrational, then 3 is not less than 2. The following are some of the most common equivalences
in logic.
 p→q
Theorem ¬q
∴¬ p
Let p, q, and r be propositions. 3. Law of Disjunctive Syllogism
p ˅q
p ⇔ q if and only if p → qis a tautology. ¬p
p ⇔ p. ∴q
p ˅q ⇔ q ˅ p and p ˄q ⇔ q ˄ p (commutative properties) 4. Law of Hypothetical Syllogism
p ˅ ( q ˅ r ) ⇔ ( p ˅q ) ˅r and p ˄ ( q ˄ r ) ⇔ ( p ˄q ) ˄r . (Law of Transitivity)
(associative properties) p→q
p ˅ ( q ˄ r ) ⇔ ( p ˅q ) ˄( p ˅ r) and p ˄ ( q ˅ r ) ⇔ ( p ˄q ) ˅( p ˄ r). q→r
(distributive properties) ∴ p→r
De Morgan’s Laws
6.1¬ ( p ˅ q ) ⇔ ( ¬ p ) ˄(¬ q).
6.2 ¬ ( p ˄ q ) ⇔ ( ¬ p ) ˅(¬ q). Common Forms of Invalid Arguments
7. p → q ⇔ ( ¬ p ) ˅ q. 1. Fallacy of the Converse
p→q
8. ¬ ( p → q ) ⇔ p ˄ ( ¬q ).
q
9. p → q ⇔ ( ¬ q ) →(¬ p).
∴p
10. p ↔ q ⟺ ( p ⟶ q ) ˄(q → p) 2. Fallacy of the Inverse
p→q
LOGICAL ARGUMENTS ¬p
∴¬ q
Argument – a compound proposition of the form
3. Fallacy of the Inclusive Or
( p1 ˄ p2 ˄ p3 ˄ … ˄ pn ) → q . The propositions p ˅q
p1 , p2 , p 3 ,… , pn are the premises of the argument and q p
is the conclusion. Arguments can be written in column or ∴¬ q
standard form.
p1 PROBLEM SOLVING
p2
p3 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
⋮
pn Reasoning – the process of drawing conclusion or
inferences through the use of proper justification.
∴q
Remark: Inductive Reasoning – the process of reasoning that
 An argument is valid if all its premises are true implies arrives at a general conclusion based on the observation
that the conclusion is true. Otherwise, we say that the of specific examples.
argument is invalid. An error in reasoning that leads to  Specimen – an object defined by a premise.
an invalid argument is known as fallacy.  Conjecture – the generalization.
 An argument is valid if the conclusion necessarily  Counterexample – a specimen that negates the
follows from the premises, and invalid if it is not valid. conjecture.
 If a statement is a tautology, then the argument is
valid, otherwise, the argument is invalid. Example:
A parrot can fly and it is a bird.
Evaluating Arguments with Truth Table An eagle can fly and it is a bird.
Procedure in determining the validity of an argument: An owl can fly and it is a bird.
1. Write the arguments in symbols.
2. Write the argument as a conditional statement; use a One might say
conjunction (˄) between/among the premises and the Any animal that can fly is a bird.
implication (→) for the conclusion.
3. Set up and construct a truth table for the symbolic Counterexample: A bat can fly but it is not a bird.
form.
4. If all truth values under → are Ts or 1s (that is, the last Strong and Weak Induction
column is a tautology), then the argument is valid, An inductive argument is said to be strong if it
otherwise, it is invalid. makes a compelling case for its conclusion. It is weak if its
conclusion is not well supported by the premises.
Common Forms of Valid Arguments
1. Law of Detachment Deductive Reasoning – the process of reasoning that
(Modulus Ponens) arrives at a conclusion based on previously accepted
p→q general statements.
p
Conclusion is based on general statements whose truth
∴q
value is known or assumed. The process in deductive
2. Law of Contraposition
reasoning is it first lay down definition of terms, and
(Modulus Tollens)
assume basic true statements called axioms and derive given information to give you an easier
true statements from these axioms called as theorems. problem.
 Choose a suitable operation, procedure, or
Validity and Soundness formula.
A deductive argument is said to be valid if its 3. Carry out the Plan
conclusion follows from its premises, regardless of the  Check the steps as you go.
truth of the premises or conclusion.  Observe the accuracy of every step.
 Beware of possible errors that may arise.
A deductive argument is said to be sound if it is  Obtain a feasible solution.
valid and its premises are all true. 4. Look Back
 Examine the solution obtained.
To summarize, inductive reasoning cannot in  Check the sense of the solution if it is
general prove general statements as this relies reasonable.
on examples only. However, only one  Check against the conditions.
counterexample can prove that our conjecture
is false. In contrast, we can use deductive Along with his guidelines, the following are some of his
reasoning to prove a certain conjecture. recommended strategies:
1. Draw a diagram.
2. Solve a simpler problem.
Example: 3. Make a table.
Choose any number. Multiply by 3. Add 6 to the result. 4. Work backwards.
Divide the result by 3. Finally, subtract the original number 5. Guess and check.
from the result of the previous step. Use inductive 6. Find a pattern.
reasoning to make a conjecture about the final result and 7. Use a formula or an equation.
use deductive reasoning to prove the conjecture. 8. Use logical reasoning.

Inductive Reasoning:
Test number 3 7 11
Multiply by 3 9 21 33
Add 6 15 27 39
Divide by 3 5 9 13
Subtract the original number 2 2 2

Deductive Reasoning (prove):

X
3x
3x + 6
3 x +6
=x+2
3

George Pólya’s Guidelines for Problem Solving

In 1945, Hungarian mathematician George Pólya’s

devised a model for problem solving and published it in
his book How to Solve It. The book contains a collection
of mathematical and non-mathematical problems with
selected strategies on dealing these.

His problem-solving model, which he called

heuristic (or serving to discover), is as follows.

1. Understand the Problem

 Ask questions, experiment, or otherwise
rephrase the question in your own words.
 Determine what is asked.
 Determine the given facts.
 Determine the given condition.
 Have initial illustrations to visualize the setting.
 Separate various parts of the condition.
2. Devise a Plan
 Find the connection between the data and the
unknown.
 Look for patterns, relate to a previously solved
problem or a known formula, or simplify the
 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD Universal Sets – written as U , is the set of all objects that
GEED 004 are reasonable to consider in that situation.

Course Outline Complement of a Set A– written as A’, is the set of all

4 Sets elements in the universal set that are not in A. That is,
5 Linear Programming A = { x| x ϵ U ∧x ϵ A }.
'
6 Graph Theory
Subset – if every element of a set A is also an element of
SETS
A ⊆ B.
a set B, then A is called a subset of B, written as
Set – a well-defined collection of objects called elements.
o Upper case letters – usually used to name sets.
Proper Subset – if a set A is a subset of a set B and is

write A ⊂ B. That is, A ⊆ B and A ≠ B.

not equal to B, then we call A as a proper subset of B, and
A set A can be commonly described in three ways:
 Descriptive Method – uses a short verbal statement
to describe a set.
Power Set of S – the set containing all the subsets of a
 Listing (order) method – describes the set by listing
all the elements between braces and separated by set S, denoted by P(S).
commas (note: in enumerating the elements of a
certain set, each element is listed only once, and the Remarks:

A, A ⊆ A.
arrangement of elements in the list is immaterial). - Every set is a subset of itself. That is, for any set
 Set-builder Notation – uses a variable (a symbol,

any set A, ∅ ⊆ A.
usually a letter, that can represent different elements - An empty set is a subset of every set. That is, for

- The symbol ⊂ is used to indicate that a set is not a

of a set), braces, and a vertical bar | that is read as

proper subset and ⊆ is used to indicate that a set

“such that”. This is usually used when the elements
are too many to list down.
is not a subset.

 ℕ – the set of natural or counting numbers (positive

Notations: - If a finite set has n elements, then the cardinality of
its power set is 2n.

 ℤ – the set of integers: {…,-4,-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4…}

integers): {1,2,3,4…} - The formula for the number of proper subsets of a
finite set is 2n−1 .
ℚ – the set of rational numbers: { | a, b ϵ ℤ b≠0}
a

ℝ – the set of real numbers
b Intersection of two sets A and B – written as A ∩ B, is
 the set of all elements that are in both sets. That is,
A ∩ B= { x| x ϵ A∧x ϵ B }. .

symbol used to represent the empty set are {} or ∅.

Empty Set – (null set), a set with no elements. The
Union of two sets A and B – written as A ∪ B, is the set
of all elements that are in either set A or set B (or both).
Uni Set – (singleton), a set with only one element. That is, A ∪ B= { x| x ϵ A∨ x ϵ B }.

A set A is said to be: Difference of two sets A and B – written as A\B or

 Finite – if it is possible to list down all the elements of (A – B), is the set of all elements in A that are not in B.
A in a list. That is, A ¿={ x| x ϵ A∧x ϵ B }.
o Cardinality – the number of elements of A, denoted
A ¿=A ∩B '
by n(A)
 Infinite – if it’s not possible to list down all the
Remarks:
elements of A in a list.
- If the intersection of two sets is the empty set, the
sets are said to be disjoint.
A set A and B is said to be:
- n ( A ∪ B )=n ( A )+ n ( B ) −n( A ∩ B)
 Equal – (A = B) if they have exactly the same
- A' =U ¿
 Equivalent – (A ≅ B) if and only if they have the same
members of elements.
- A¿≠B¿
number of elements.
Let A , B ⊆ U
Remark: Equal sets are necessarily equivalent but Cartesian Product – (cross product) of A and B, is the
equivalent sets need not to be equal. set defined by A × B= { ( x , y )| x ∈ A∧ y ∈ B }.

One-to-one correspondence – two sets have a one-on- Intervals on R :

one correspondence of elements if each element in the 1. ( a , b )={ x ∈ R|a< x <b }
first set can be paired with exactly one element of the 2. [a , b]={ x ∈ R| a ≤ x ≤ b }
second set and each element of the second set can be
3. ¿={ x ∈ R|a< x ≤b }
paired with exactly one element of the first set.
4. ¿={ x ∈ R|a ≤ x <b }
Remark: Two sets are equivalent if you can put their 5. ( a , ∞ )= { x ∈ R| x > a}
elements in one-to-one correspondence. 6. ¿={ x ∈ R| x ≥ a }
7. (−∞ , b ) ={ x ∈ R| x <b }
 8. ¿={ x ∈ R| x ≤ b } materials per availability (in
piece of (in units)
Remark: units)
- ¿ small large
size size
A relation R on A ≠ ∅ is a subset of A × A. In symbols,
- ¿
Raw Material R1 80 70 5,000
R ⊆ A × A . If (a ,b)∈ A , then we say “a is related to b”, Raw Material R2 100 150 9,000
denoted by a R b, if and only if (a ,b)∈ R . Raw Material R3 175 250 13,000
Profit Per Unit PhP PhP
Properties of Relations: 5.00 7.00
1. A relation R is said to be reflexive if for every
Based on their past sales, the total demand for small size
a ∈ A ,(a , a)∈ R .
abaniko fan should not exceed by 50 units. RAVLAM
2. A relation R is said to be symmetric if ( a , b ) ∈ R Company wants to determine the best combination of their
implies (b , a)∈ R. product that will maximize their daily profit.
3. A relation R is said to be anti-symmetric if
( a , b )∧( b , a ) ∈ R implies a=b. Solution:
4. A relation R is said to be transitive if Decision Variables:
( a , b )∧( b , c ) ∈ R implies ( a , c ) ∈ R . Let
5. A relation R is said to be an equivalence relation x 1=¿ daily production of small abaniko fan
if and only if R is reflexive, symmetric, and x 2=¿ daily production of large abaniko fan
transitive.
6. A relation R is said to be a partial order if and Objective Function:
only if R is reflexive, anti-symmetric, and transitive. Maximize: P=5 x 1 +7 x 2
Constraint:
EXAMPLES
Subject to: 80 x 1+ 70 x 2 ≤5,000 daily usage of
Consider the following relations on A = {1,2,3,4,5}. List
raw material R1
down all the elements of each relation.
100 x 1+150 x 2 ≤ 9,000 daily usage of
raw material R2
1. R1= { ( a , b )|a ≤ b }
175 x 1+250 x 2 ≤13,000 daily usage of
2. R2= { ( a , b )|a∣b } raw material R3
a−b x 1 ≤ 50
3. R3= { ( a , b )| ∈Z }
2 x1 , x2 ≥ 0

R S AS T ER PO Remark:
R1 - The last constraints where x 1 , x 2 ≥ 0 is called the
R2 nonnegativity restrictions of the decision
R3 variable.
- All values of the decision variables that satisfy
LINEAR PROGRAMMING each linear constraint is called feasible solution.
- From this feasible solution, the objective is to find
Linear Programming – a mathematical method in the best feasible solution that will satisfy the
maximizing or minimizing linear functions subject to set of objective function called the optimal solution.
linear constraints. In business production, the objective
function is a linear function that either maximizes profit or 2. Jackie is a basketball player who regularly monitors
minimizes cost that is subject to a set of linear inequalities his diet so that regular intake of calories, sugar,
called linear constraints. These set of linear constraints carbohydrates, and protein will satisfy his daily
can be viewed as set of production requirements that is minimum nutritional requirements. Every day he
usually limited in quantity. prepares three foods—egg, rice, and chicken. Each
day he must consume at least 600 calories, 100 grams
Three Components of a Linear Programming Model: of sugar, 283 grams of carbohydrates, and 300 grams
 Decision Variables that we want to determine; of protein. The nutritional content per unit of each food
 Objective Function that we want to maximize or is shown in the following table.
minimize;
 Set of Linear Constraints that the solution must calories sugar carbs protein unit
satisfy. price
Egg (1 72 1.1 0.4 7 PhP
EXAMPLES piece) 7.00
1. RAVLAM Company produces two types of abaniko Rice (1 204 0.08 44.08 4.2 PhP
fan, small and large, from three raw materials R1 , R 2 , cup) 10.00
Chicke 195 0 0 29.55 PhP
and R3 . The table below shows the materials used in
n (100 25.00
their production and the profit they earned for product: grams)

amt. of raw max. daily

Develop a linear programming model that satisfies the
daily nutritional requirements of Jackie at the minimum Let
cost. V = { 0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 5 },
E1= { ( x , y )| x∧ y are
Solution:
either both odd∨both even }
Decision Variables:
Let
Let
x 1=¿ amount of egg to be consumed. G1=( V , E1 ) ={( 0 , 0 ) , ( 0 , 2 ) , ( 0 , 4 ) , (1 , 1 ) , (1 , 3 ) , ( 1, 5 ) ,
x 2=¿ amount of rice to be consumed. ( 2 , 0 ) , (2 , 2 ) , ( 2, 4 ) , ( 3 ,1 ) , ( 3 ,3 ) , ( 3 , 5 ) , ( 4 , 0 ) , ( 4 ,2 ) ,
x 3=¿ amount of chicken to be consumed. ( 4 , 4 ) , ( 5 , 1 ) , ( 5 , 3 ) ,(5 , 5)}

Objective Function:
Maximize: C=7 x 1+ 10 x 2 +25 x 3
Constraint:
Subject to: 72 x1 +204 x 2 +195 x 3 ≥ 600(calorie In this graph, a vertex is
constraint) adjacent to itself. Such
1.1 x1 +0.08 x 2 ≥ 100 (sugar edges are called loops.
constraint)
0.4 x 1 +44.08 x 2 ≥ 283 (carbohydrate
constraint) Let
7 x 1+ 4.2 x2 +29.55 x 3 ≥ 300(protein V = { 0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 5 },
constraint)
x1 , x2 , x3 ≥ 0 (nonnegativity) E2= { ( x , y )| x ≠ y }
Let
G3=( V , E2 ) ={( 0 , 1 ) , ( 0 ,2 ) , ( 0 , 3 ) , ( 0 , 4 ) , ( 0 , 5 ) , ( 1 , 0 ) ,
Solution Set of Systems of Linear Inequalities ( 1 , 2 ) , ( 1 , 3 ) , ( 1 , 4 ) , ( 1 , 5 ) , ( 2 , 0 ) , ( 2 ,1 ) , ( 2 ,3 ) , ( 2 , 4 ) , ( 2 ,5 ) , ( 3 , 0 ) ,
( 3 , 1 ) , ( 3 , 2 ) , (3 , 4 ) , ( 3 ,5 ) , ( 4 , 0 ) , ( 4 , 1 ) , ( 4 , 2 ) , ( 4 , 3 ) , ( 4 ,5 ) , ( 5 , 0 ) ,
A system of linear inequalities in two variables x 1 and x 2 is

{
( 5 , 1) ,( 5 , 2) ,( 5 , 3) , ( 5 , 4 ) }
a set of two linear inequalities of the form

a 1 x 1+ b1 x 2 ≥(¿ ≤)c 1
a 2 x 1+ b2 x2 ≥(¿ ≤)c 2,

where a i , bi , c i ∈ R, for i = 1, 2. The set S of all ordered

pairs ( x 1 , x 2) satisfying both the inequalities is called the Let
solution space or feasible region of the system. V = { 0 ,1 , 2 ,3 , 4 , 5 },
E3 ={ ( x , y )|0<¿ x− y∨≤ 2}
To solve the system, we usually proceed using the Let
graphing method: G3=( V , E3 ) ={( 0 , 1 ) , ( 0 ,2 ) , ( 1 , 0 ) , ( 1 , 2 ) , ( 1 , 3 ) , (2 , 0 ) ,
1. Replace ≥ and/or ≤ symbols in the system by = ( 2 , 1 ) , ( 2 , 3 ) , ( 2 , 4 ) , ( 3 , 1 ) , (3 ,2 ) , ( 3 , 4 ) , ( 3 , 5 ) , ( 4 , 2 ) , ( 4 , 3 ) , ( 4 , 5 ) ,
and graph the lines that corresponds to each
( 5 , 3 ) ,(5 , 4)}
inequality.
2. Determine the solution space of each linear
inequality using feasibility test. Choose a point that
is not on the linear equation and substitute it to the
linear inequality. If it satisfies the linear inequality
then the region where the point belongs is the
solution space of that particular linear inequality.
3. Determine the intersection of the solution space of Vertices are said to be adjacent if there is an edge that
the two linear inequalities. All the points within this joins them. Edges are said to be adjacent if they share
a common vertex. The degree of a vertex is the
region are the solution space or feasible region of
number of edges at that vertex.
the system of linear inequalities.
Special Case: For graphs with loops, you have to add 1 to
the degree of the vertex with loops.
GRAPH THEORY
EXAMPLES
Graph Concepts
Determine the degree of
Let V be a non- empty set, and E be any set of ordered
each vertices of G 1.
pairs over V. The pair (V, E) is called a graph. We
denote a graph by G=(V , E). V is called the vertex set
Vertex G1
of G and its elements as vertices, while E is called the
edge set of G and its elements as edges. 0
1
EXAMPLES 2
 3
G 1= ( V , E 1 ) 4 Connected Graph Disconnected Graph
5
Euler’s Theorem and Fleury’s Algorithm
Determine the degree of
each vertices of G 1. Euler Path, Euler Circuit
Given a connected graph G. An edge in G is said to be a
Vertex G2 bridge if G becomes disconnected when it is deleted.
0  Euler Path – a path that travels through every edge of
1 G.
2  Euler Circuit – a circuit that travels through every
3 edge of G.
4
G 2= ( V , E 2 )
5

Determine the degree of Euler’s Theorem 1

each vertices of G 1. 1. If a graph has any vertices of odd degree, then it
cannot have an Euler circuit.
Vertex G3 2. If a graph is connected and every vertex has an
0 even degree, then it has at least one Euler circuit.
1
2 Euler’s Theorem 2
3 1. If a graph has more than two vertices of odd
4 degree, then it cannot have an Euler path.
G 3= ( V , E 3 )
5 2. If a graph is connected and has just two vertices of
odd degree, then it has at least one Euler path.
Given a graph G= (V . E ) . A path in G is a sequence of Any such path must start at one of the odd-degree
vertices with no repeated edges. A circuit in G is a path vertices and end at the other one.
that starts and ends at the same vertex.
Euler’s Theorem 3
Consider the graph illustrated below. 1. The sum of the edges of all the vertices of a graph
The following are some equals twice the number of edges.
paths: 2. The number of vertices of odd degree must be
 A-B-E-D even.
 A-B-C-A-D-E
 A-B-C-B-E Fleury’s Algorithm for Finding Eulerian Circuit (Don’t
 A-C-B-E-E-D cross the bridge until you have to)
1. Make sure that the graph is connected and all
vertices have even degree.
2. Start at any vertex.
The following are not 3. Travel through an edge if:
paths: 3.1 It is not a bridge for the untraveled part, or
 A-C-A-D-E 3.2 There is no other alternative.
 A-B-C-B-A-D 4. Label the edges in the order in which you travel
 A-D-E-E-D them.
 A-B-C-B-E-E-D-A- 5. When you can’t travel any more, stop.
C-B
Hamilton Circuits, Hamilton Path, Traveling
Salesman Problem

The following are some Hamilton Path, Hamilton Circuit

circuits: Given a connected graph G.
 A-B-C-A  Hamilton Path – a path that passes through each
 A-D-E-B-A vertex exactly once.
 A-C-B-E-D-A
 Hamilton Circuit – a circuit that passes through each
vertex exactly once, starts and ends with the same
vertex.

Weighted Graph – a graph whose edges have assigned

A graph G is said to be connected if there is a path numbers. Such numbers are called weights. Common
joining any two of its vertices. Otherwise, it is said to be weights are time, distance, and cost. Complete graphs
disconnected. that are weighted are simply called complete weighted
graphs.

The Traveling Salesman Problem

Suppose that a salesman has to visit each of a number of o Minimum Spanning Tree for a Weighted Graph –
cities exactly once before returning to his starting point. the spanning tree for that graph that has the smallest
What is the shortest available route through the cities? possible sum of the weights.
- To find the underlying minimum spanning tree in a
Remarks: connected graph, one may apply the so-called
1. Given a complete weighted graph, TSP asks for Kruskal’s algorithm.
the circuit of minimum total weight in a graph that
visits each vertex exactly once and returns to its Kruskal’s Algorithm
starting point. To construct a minimum spanning tree for a weighted
2. The optimal solution for TSP is a Hamilton circuit graph:
for a complete weighted graph for which the sum 1. Choose the edge with the lowest weight (and
of the weights of the edges traversed is the highlight it in color). If there is more than one, pick
smallest possible number. one at random.
2. Choose the unmarked edge with the next lowest
weight that does not form a circuit with the edges
Three methods to determine a solution for a Traveling already highlighted, and highlight it.
Salesman Problem: 3. Repeat until all vertices have been connected.
 Brute Force Method
1. Draw a complete weighted graph for the problem. Graph Coloring
2. List all possible Hamilton circuits.
3. Find the sum of the weights of the edges for each Graph Coloring – a function that assigns either the
circuit. vertices or edges of a graph by a unique color (or label).
The circuit with the smallest sum is the optimal Graph coloring is specified as either vertex coloring or
solution. edge coloring depending whether the vertices or the
edges are labelled.
 Nearest Neighborhood Method
1. Draw a complete weighted graph for the problem. Planar Graph – a graph is said to be a planar graph if it
2. Starting at a designated vertex, pick the edge with can be drawn in a plane without edges crossing.
the smallest weight and move to the second
vertex. Chromatic Number – the smallest number of colors
3. At the next vertex, pick the edge with smallest needed to color a graph.
weight that doesn’t go to a vertex already used.
4. Continue until the circuit is completed. The Four Color Theorem – every possible geographical
The sum of the weights is an approximation to the map can be colored with at most four colors in such a way
optimal solution. that no two adjacent regions have the same color.

 Cheapest Link Algorithm Two regions are called adjacent if they share a border
1. Draw a complete weighted graph for the problem. segment, not just a point. To determine the chromatic
2. Pick the edge with smallest overall weight. In case number for a given geographical map, it should be
of a tie, pick at random. represented as a graph where a vertex represents a
3. Pick the edge with the next smallest overall weight region, and vertices are adjacent if the region they
that doesn’t: represent are adjacent in the map.
3.1 enclose a smaller circuit that doesn’t reach
every vertex. Vertex Coloring Algorithm
3.2 result in three chosen edges coming from the 1. Determine the vertex with the highest degree.
same vertex. Assign to it the first color.
4. Repeat Step 2 until the Hamilton circuit is 2. Also, assign the first color to all vertices that are
complete. not adjacent to the chosen vertex.
3. Among the remaining vertices, determine the
Spanning Trees and Kruskal’s Algorithm vertex with the highest degree. Assign to it the
second color.
Tree – a graph in which any two vertices are connected 4. Also, assign the second color to all vertices that
by exactly one path. are neither adjacent to the second chosen vertex
nor to vertices that already received the second
Some properties of trees: color.
1. A tree has no circuits. 5. Continue doing Step 3 and 4 to until all vertices
2. Trees are connected graphs. are colored.
3. Every edge in a tree is a bridge. The number of colors used is the chromatic number.
4. A tree with n vertices has exactly (n-1) edges.

Spanning Tree – for a connected graph G of n vertices is

a connected subgraph that is a tree of n vertices.
- a tree that results from the removal of as many
edges as possible from the original graph without
making it disconnected.